La Exploración Del Cosmos Y Los Telescopios Espaciales1

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La Exploración Del Cosmos Y Los Telescopios Espaciales1 La exploraci´ondel cosmos y los telescopios espaciales1 Gloria Koenigsberger Instituto de Ciencias F´ısicas, Universidad Nacional Aut´onomade M´exico, Ave. Universidad S/N, Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62210, M´exico ABSTRACT Se presenta una introducci´ongeneral al tema de la Ciencia y la Tecnolog´ıay Espaciales, enfocada a las cuatro razones principales por las cuales la exploraci´on espacial es importante: 1) la b´usqueda del conocimiento, por el conocimiento mismo; 2) la seguridad nacional; 3) los beneficios comerciales; y 4) la sobreviven- cia de la humanidad a largo plazo. Se incluye una recopilaci´onde datos hist´oricos sobre las sondas espaciales lanzadas por diversos pa´ıses,as´ıcomo datos sobre al- gunos de los riesgos involucrados en los vuelos tripulados. Subject headings: Industria aeroespacial; estudios espaciales; telescopios espa- ciales 1. Introducci´on El espacio interplanetario ha sido hasta hace poco tiempo una frontera inpenetrable para los seres humanos. A pesar de los muchos veh´ıculosespaciales que han sido construidos por hombres y mujeres en la Tierra, ninguno ha transportado a un ser humano mas all´a de la Luna, y las ´ultimaspisadas del Homo Sapiens en este sat´elitenatural van a cumplir medio siglo. En cuanto a veh´ıculosno tripulados, el artefacto terr´ıcolaque mayor distancia ha recorrido es el Voyager-1, lanzado a finales de los a~nos1970's y que apenas recientemente ha entrado al espacio interestelar2 Sin embargo, los avances tecnol´ogicosy los intereses com- erciales actuales comienzan a ofrecer la posibilidad de que, en un futuro cercano, finalmente viajemos nuevamente los humanos a alguno de los cuerpos celestes vecinos. 1Este texto fue redactado y formado en LaTeX por G. Koenigsberger utilizando la clase aastex.cls de la AAS y el paquete graphicx. Cualquier error es responsabilidad de la autora. 2V´ease http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/where/ en donde se monitor´ead´ıacon d´ıael avance de este artefacto y su \gemelo", el Voyager-2. { 2 { Por otro lado, ante la imposibilidad de explorar el cosmos fisicamente, hemos construido observatorios astron´omicosque nos han permitido estudiar, no solo nuestro sistema solar, sino tambi´enestrellas y galaxias situadas a distancias inimaginables. Podemos caracterizar las ´ultimascuatro d´ecadascomo la Era de los Descubrimientos Astron´omicos,por los fen´omenos nuevos que se han observado, aunados al modelaje con simulaciones num´ericasque permite explicar los procesos f´ısicosobservados. Muchos de los nuevos descubrimientos astron´omicosse deben a los telescopios espaciales. Estos son sistemas rob´oticossemi-aut´onomos,colocados en ´orbitaalrededor de la Tierra a distancias suficientemente grandes como para eliminar los efectos limitantes de la atm´osfera. Estos efectos son: 1) la turbulencia atmosf´erica,la cual degrada enormemente la resoluci´on espacial, impidi´endoas´ı ver muchos de los detalles en las im´agenes;y 2) la opacidad a radiaci´onen longitudes de onda del ultravioleta lejano, rayos-X y rayos-γ que hace imposible observar el cosmos desde la sueperficie terrestre en estas longitudes de onda. Entre los ejemplos de los descubrimientos mas impactantes se destacan los discos proto- planetarios en la Nebulosa de Ori´on,en donde se pudo comprobar la teor´ıaque predice la forma en que nacen las estrellas de baja masa acompa~nadosde sus sistemas planetarios. Tambi´en,se detectaron por primera vez una multitud de objetos que emiten enormes canti- dades de rayos-X y rayos-γ, delatando la presencia de fen´omenosde aceleraci´onde material a velocidades imposibles de alcanzar en la Tierra, salvo quiz´asen los aceleradores mas po- tentes. Estos fen´omenos se asocian a la presencia de estrellas de neutrones y hoyos negros, objetos predichos te´oricamente pero que tuvieron que esperar a los observatorios espaciales a ser detectados. Cabe tambi´endestacar que el Sol tambi´enes una fuente de rayos-X y de luz ultravioleta, radiaci´onque se origina en las zonas externas (llamadas crom´osfera y corona). El poder observar la actividad solar en estas longitudes de onda ha permitido conocer mejor los efectos de la interacci´ondel viento solar con el campo magn´eticode la Tierra. Los telescopios espaciales se han apuntado tambi´enhacia nuestro propio planeta, La Tierra. Por ejemplo, una de las ´ultimasgeneraciones de observatorios en ´orbita(llamado GOES-16) puede obtener una im´agende alta resoluci´onespacial de todo el hemisferio ter- restre cada 15 minutos en 16 bandas de energ´ıa. Esto permite trazar con gran detalle los movimientos y temperaturas de nubes y predecir los estados del clima a corto plazo. En este cap´ıtulo presentamos una introducci´onal tema de la exploraci´ondel espa- cio. Esta incluye datos fr´ıosy descripciones de la tecnolog´ıa. Sin embargo, tambi´enmen- cionamos algunos de los principios b´asicosque deben regir todos los aspectos de esta empresa bas´andonosen algunos ejemplos hist´oricos. { 3 { Fig. 1.| Concepci´onart´ısticade la captura de un asteroide para poderle extraer metales y otros elementos y compuesto, o bien desviarlo de una ´orbita que lo podr´ıallevar a colisionar con la Tierra. { 4 { Fig. 2.| Im´agenesdel Sol captadas en tres longitudes de onda: 304 A,˚ 171 A,˚ y en rayos-X. Los flujos en las diferentes energ´ıasson producidos por distintos procesos f´ısicos.Por ejemplo, los rayos-X se deben a la aceleraci´onde part´ıculasen la regi´onde la Corona solar, raz´on por la cual esta emisi´onaparece tan lejos de la superficie del astro. Cr´editos: NASA. Ver https://stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/classroom/EUVsun.shtml para una explicaci´onde los procesos visibles en este tipo de im´agenes. 2. Porqu´eexplorar el cosmos? Hay al menos cuatro razones que han motivado la exploraci´onespacial y que la siguen motivando, hoy mas que nunca. 2.1. El conocimiento por el conocimiento mismo La primera y mas fundamental de todas es la necesidad que ha impulsado al ser humano a siempre ampliar las fronteras de su conocimiento y explorar lo desconocido. Aunque en gran medida esta necesidad encuentra su or´ıgenen la lucha por la sobrevivencia, una parte de ella nace simplemente de la curiosidad por saber qu´ees lo que yace mas all´adel territorio conocido. Esta es la b´usquedadel conocimiento por el conocimiento mismo, y generalmente se refiere a la investigaci´onque se efect´uaen temas que no parecieran tener una aplicaci´on \´util"para la sociedad contempor´anea.Es importante remarcar, sin embargo, que un gran n´umerode los avances tecnol´ogicosque definen al inicio del Siglo 21 son resultado de la investigaci´onefectuada en temas a los que no se les ve´ıa en su tiempo ninguna utilidad pr´actica. { 5 { 2.2. Seguridad Nacional Un segundo objetivo de la exploraci´onespacial es la seguridad nacional. Observar a la Tierra desde arriba de su atm´osferaproporciona una vista panor´amicade los estados meteorol´ogicos,movimientos de veh´ıculos,incendios, entre otros. Adem´as,existen redes de sat´elitesque permiten el uso eficiento de los GPS (Global Posicioning Sensors) y sat´elites con detectores para la radiaci´oninfrarroja que permiten identificar la ubicaci´onde seres humanos, manadas de animales, fallas geol´ogicas,rupturas en gasoductos y oleoductos. No es coincidencia que los programas espaciales mas avanzados pertenecen a los pa´ıses que poseen las potencias militares mas poderosas del mundo. Fig. 3.| Distribuci´onespectral de la radiaci´ondel Sol que llega a la distancia de la ´orbita de la Tierra (en amarillo) y la que logra propagarse por la atm´osferade la Tierra y llegar a la superficie (en rojo). N´oteseque la cantidad de energ´ıaque llega a la superficie terrestre en la regi´onultravioleta del espectro es casi nula, as´ıcomo en las bandas moleculares de H2O y CO2. Es de notarse tambi´enque estas bandas moleculares son responsables, en gran medida, del efecto \invernadero" que mantiene a la superficie terrestre mas caliente de lo que ser´ıasi no tuviera una atm´osferacon esta composici´onmolecular. 2.3. Intereses comerciales Un tercer objetivo es ´unode inter´escomercial. La industria de las telecomunicaciones, fue de las primeras en ver los grandes beneficios de poseer sat´elitesen ´orbitaalrededor de la Tierra. Con los grandes avances tecnol´ogicos,se prevee la explotaci´onde cuerpos rocosos de nuestro sistema solar (asteroides, lunas, planetas) de los cuales se podr´anextraer diversos { 6 { minerales y metales. Se destacan entre ´estoslos elementos llamados \tierras raras", varios de los cuales son requisitos indispensables para el funcionamiento de los tel´efonoscelulares, las memorias de las computadoras, las bater´ıasrecargables y los aparatos de diagn´ostico m´edico,entre otros. En la Tierra, estos elementos se encuentran en lugares muy limitados (principalmente en Rusia, China y EUA) y cada vez son mas escasos. Por ello, la posibilidad de extraerlos en cantidades mas abundantes de los cuerpos rocosos de nuestro sistema solar le ha dado un gran impulso a lo que ahora se llama miner´ıaespacial. N´oteseque el costo de los artefactos que son enviados al espacio es una fracci´on´ınfimade la inversi´onque se hace en su fabricaci´on.Es decir, la mayor´ıade los millones de d´olaresque cuesta una misi´onespacial se queda en la Tierra y le da un gran impulso al sector aeroespacial as´ı como al desarrollo de nuevos materiales, computadoras, componentes electr´onicas, y mucho mas. 2.4. Sobrevivencia de la humanidad La cuarta raz´onpara invertir en el desarrollo de la tecnolog´ıaespacial es la sobrevivencia de la humanidad. Hay varios niveles de importancia de este rubro, pero destaquemos ahora el riesgo que implicar´ıala ca´ıdade otro objeto celeste a la Tierra, como el que la impact´o hace aproximadamente 69 millones de a~nos,noindent evento que ocasion´ola extinci´onde los dinosaurios, entre muchas otras especies.
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