Cancer-Related Stress and Complementary and Alternative Medicine: a Review
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Hindawi Publishing Corporation Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Volume 2012, Article ID 979213, 15 pages doi:10.1155/2012/979213 Review Article Cancer-Related Stress and Complementary and Alternative Medicine: A Review Kavita D. Chandwani, Julie L. Ryan, Luke J. Peppone, Michelle M. Janelsins, Lisa K. Sprod, Katie Devine, Lara Trevino, Jennifer Gewandter, Gary R. Morrow, and Karen M. Mustian James P. Wilmot Cancer Center, Department of Radiation Oncology, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Saunders Research Building, 265 Crittenden Boulevard, Office 2.224, Box CU 420658, Rochester, NY 14642, USA Correspondence should be addressed to Kavita D. Chandwani, kavita [email protected] Received 2 January 2012; Accepted 1 June 2012 Academic Editor: Alyson Huntley Copyright © 2012 Kavita D. Chandwani et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. A cancer diagnosis elicits strong psychophysiological reactions that characterize stress. Stress is experienced by all patients but is usually not discussed during patient-healthcare professional interaction; thus underdiagnosed, very few are referred to support services. The prevalence of CAM use in patients with history of cancer is growing. The purpose of the paper is to review the aspects of cancer-related stress and interventions of commonly used complementary and alternative techniques/products for amelioration of cancer-related stress. Feasibility of intervention of several CAM techniques and products commonly used by cancer patients and survivors has been established in some cancer populations. Efficacy of some CAM techniques and products in reducing stress has been documented as well as stress-related symptoms in patients with cancer such as mindfulness-based stress reduction, yoga, Tai Chi Chuan, acupuncture, energy-based techniques, and physical activity. Much of the research limitations include small study samples and variety of intervention length and content. Efficacy and safety of many CAM techniques and some herbs and vitamin B and D supplements need to be confirmed in further studies using scientific methodology. Several complementary and alternative medicine therapies could be integrated into standard cancer care to ameliorate cancer-related stress. 1. Introduction and indicate distress [11]. Regardless of treatment regi- men, distressing symptoms such as fatigue, insomnia, pain, Cancer-related distress is defined as an “unpleasant emo- depression, hot flashes, sexual dysfunction, and cognitive tional experience of a psychological, social, and/or spiritual ff deficits frequently occur and often persist following treat- nature that may interfere with the ability to cope e ectively ment [12, 13]. Overall, a cancer diagnosis creates a vicious with cancer, its physical symptoms, and its treatment” [1]. and compounding cycle of stress. Several factors can cause stress during the cancer experience; Although all patients with a history of cancer experience a cancer diagnosis itself is a strong stressor associated with variable level of stress across the continuum of disease [1], “disbelief, anxiety, depression,” and disturbances of sleep, appetite, and routine daily activities [2]. In addition to often information sharing on this topic does not happen dur- uncertainty about the disease and its treatment, there is ing interaction of patients with their healthcare professionals also fear of death, disease progression, reduction in quality [1]. The reported prevalence of cancer-related distress is of life (QOL) and relationships, a loss of sense of control 24–59% depending on the type of cancer [10], stage of dis- [3–10], and impacts on decision-making ability and treat- ease, patient population studied, and study setting [14, 15]. ment compliance [1]. Cancer patients experience a broad A recent study of newly diagnosed cases reported distress in spectrum of individual and cooccurring symptoms such about 67% of lung cancer patients and 50% of breast cancer as pain, anxiety, depression, fatigue, nausea, diarrhea, patients [16]. Another study found self-reported distress in wasting, and cognitive impairments, which both promote 25% of cancer outpatients, 59% of patients with advanced 2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine cancer undergoing palliative care, and 16% of cancer patients controls [32, 33], which is associated with shorter survival in the general community [14]. Psychosocial interventions times [33]. including experiential-existential group psychotherapy and Stressful events like cancer have been shown to lead cognitive-behavioral stress management [17–22] have shown to increased risk of disease progression and decreased positive results in coping with daily stressors. Additionally, survival [34–37], and they can contribute to dysregulation of pharmacologic treatments for some of the cancer-related the immune system, chronic inflammation, and numerous psychiatric symptoms are available. Some resources are adverse effects [38]. Psychological stress and altered HPA available in the form of information on its identification axis function can influence the activity of a variety of and possible counseling services recommended by various immune cells, including natural killer (NK) cells, T cells, national societies and institutions [1]. However, only a and macrophages [39]. Disrupting the balance of immune small percentage of patients with distress are detected and cells leads to a chronic proinflammatory cytokine-mediated referred for treatment [1]. The use of complementary and cascade of events resulting in enhanced psychological stress, alternative medicine (CAM) has increased among cancer depression, anxiety, fatigue, sleep disturbance, cognitive patients at the time of diagnosis, during treatment, and impairments, and ultimately reduced quality of life [40–44]. even after treatment is complete [23]. The primary reasons Stress hormones can impair the immune response and may for CAM use by cancer patients are pain relief, immune- affect tumor progression and cancer prognosis. Chronically system boost, symptom management [24], and better quality elevated stress hormones shift the balance between the Th1 of life [25]. However, there are concerns about the use (cellular) and Th2 (humoral) immune responses toward the of CAM techniques related to cancer experience since the Th2 response. Expression of Th1 cytokines IFN-γ and IL- efficacy of several of these techniques/products has not 12 decreases during stress, while Th2 cytokines IL-4, IL- been documented or due to possibility of interaction with 5, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-13 increase (reviewed in [45, 46]). treatment. This paper reviews aspects of cancer-related stress These changes are associated with decreased cytotoxic T- and CAM interventions for the amelioration of stress during lymphocyte and natural killer (NK) cell activity [47, 48]. and after the cancer experience. Researchers over time have Evidence from animal models suggests that these types used the words “stress” and “distress” interchangeably, and in of immune deficiencies can lead to tumor progression. this paper, the term “stress” will be used unless the referenced For example, mice subjected to social isolation stress had study used the word “distress”. decreased splenic NK cell activity [49]. In the same mice, metastasis required less time after tumor cell injection in stressed animals than in controls. Stressed animals also did 2. Neuroendocrine and Immunological not respond as well to chemotherapy [50]. Aspects of Stress and Cancer Stress hormones can also alter cell-signaling pathways, which have been implicated in cancer progression. Many Stress is characterized by psychophysiological processes studies suggest that stress hormones can decrease apoptosis in response to an event or circumstance that is per- in certain cancer cells through decreased activity of pro- ceived as threatening, harmful, or challenging [26]. The apoptotic caspases-3, 8, and 9 [51] and protein BAD [52]. hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sym- Increases in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), pathetic nervous system (SNS) are involved in the physical which is important for tumor vascularization and survival stress response. The HPA axis functions through a negative [53], have been shown in cancer cell culture models as a feedback system: increased cortisol and other glucocorti- result of norepinephrine-dependent β-adrenoreceptor acti- coid (GC) levels inhibit release of corticotrophin-releasing vation of the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway [54–56], and this hormone (CRH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) could be critical in tumor progression. In an animal model of from the neurons of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, ovarian cancer, psychological stress simultaneously increased respectively, leading to a reduction in GC levels (Figure 1(a)). VEGF expression and tumor burden [57]. A chronic or repeated exposure to a stressor decreases CRH, Metastasis relies on tumor cell invasion, which requires ACTH, and GC levels [27, 28] indicating a reduction in proteins that can break down the extracellular matrices of negative feedback in the HPA axis. In cancer patients, such the invaded tissues; preliminary evidence of the same is dysregulation of the HPA axis and the SNS may be related provided by norepinephrine-stimulated ovarian