Logarithmic System of Units

Appendix A Logarithmic System of Units

A.1 Introduction

This appendix deals with the concepts and fundamentals of the logarithmic units and their applications in the engineering of radiowaves propagation. Use of these units, expressing the formulas, and illustrating ﬁgures/graphs in the logarithmic systems are common and frequently referred in the book.

A.2 Deﬁnition

According to the deﬁnition, logarithm of the ratio of two similar quantities in decimal base is called “bel,” and ten times of it is called “decibel.” = p bel log10 pr =[ ]= p decibel dB 10 log10 pr

As the above formula suggests, it is a logarithmic scale, and due to the persistent usage of decimal base in the logarithmic units, it is normally omitted from the related symbol for simplicity. Since values in the logarithmic scale are the logarithm of the ratio of two similar quantities, hence they are dimensionless and measured in the same unit. In other words, the unit of denominator, pr, is the base of comparison and includes the required unit. To indicate the unit of the base in the logarithmic system of units, one or few characters are used according to the following examples:

dBw: Decibel unit compared to 1 W power

A. Ghasemi et al., Propagation Engineering in Radio Links Design, 523 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-5314-7, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 524 A Logarithmic System of Units

dBm: Decibel unit compared to 1 mW power dBkw: Decibel unit compared to 1 kW power

Example A.1. Output power of a transmitter is 2 W, state its power in dBm,dBw, and dBkw. Solution.

2 × 103 P [dB ]=10 log = 33 dB t m 1mw m 2 P [dB ]=10 log = 3dB t w 1w w 2 × 10−3 P [dB w]=10 log = −27 dB w t k 1kw k

A.3 Basic Formulas

Applying the decibel units necessitates the frequent usage of logarithm; thus, it is essential to review the following basic mathematical formulas: a = ⇐⇒ = P ⇐⇒ = 1. log10 P a 10 Antilog10P a a a an 2. log(a1 × a2×···× an)=log 1 +log 2 +···+ log ( p ) q = p 3. log a q log a ( a )= − 4. log √b log a log b m = 1 5. log a m log a

A.4 Common Logarithmic Quantities

Most of quantities used in the radio communications are defined in terms of logarithmic units. Main logarithmic units used in this book are indicated in Table A.1. In addition to the aforementioned cases, all of the quantities mentioned in the sequel are normally defined in dB: • Polarization loss, PL • Cross-polarization discrimination Loss, XPD • Antenna front to back ratio, F/B • C/N, S/N, E/N • Gain or loss factors such as FSL, passive reflector gain, feeder loss, and rain loss A Logarithmic System of Units 525

Table A.1 Main logarithmic units No. Quantity Base Sign No. Quantity Base Sign 1 Gain/loss Ratio dB 8 Noise temperature ◦K(kelvin) dB/K 2PowerWattdBw 9 Bandwidth Hertz dBHz 3 Power Milliwatt dBm 10 Bit rate b/s dBb/s 2 4 Power Kilowatt dBkw 11 Power ﬂux Watt/m dBw/m2 5 Antenna gain Isotropic dBi 12 Noise power Watt dBKTB 6 Antenna gain Dipole dBd 13 Field intensity (strength) Microvolt dBμV/m per meter 7 Voltage Microvolt dBμV 14 Boltzmann coefﬁcient Kelvin/Joule dBJ/K

A.4 Principles of Logarithmic System of Units

Rule 1: The logarithmic system of units are dedicated only for scalar quantities. If this unit is used for a vector quantity, it implies the magnitude of the vector quantity. Rule 2: In the logarithmic system of units, mathematical operations are simpliﬁed compared to the ordinary system of units (IS). Rule 3: The logarithmic scale when compared with the ordinary system of units presents large quantities related to the reference unit in a compact form, while its role for small quantities is vice versa as follows: 10 ⇐⇒ 10 dB 0.1 ⇐⇒ − 10 dB 100 ⇐⇒ 20 dB 0.01 ⇐⇒ − 20 dB 1,000 ⇐⇒ 30 dB 0.001 ⇐⇒ − 30 dB . . . . 10n ⇐⇒ 10n dB 10−n ⇐⇒ − 10n dB In radio communications, most of curves, graphs, and plots are normally illustrated on the logarithmic scaled axis for better presentation and simpler interpretation.

A.5 Advantages of Logarithmic System of Units

Applications of the logarithmic system of units have dominant advantages as speciﬁed below: • Simplicity of the mathematical operations • Much better presentation • Better understanding and more simple interpretation 526 A Logarithmic System of Units

As an example, the following formula indicates the free-space loss in the ordinary (metric) system of units: (4πd)2 · f 2 FSL = C2 The same formula in the logarithmic system of units is given as below:

FSL [dB]=92.4 + 20 log f · d which is more popular in the technical calculations related to the radiowave propagation. It should be noted that every quantity presented in the logarithmic system of units can be easily transformed into the ordinary (metric) system of units or vice versa.

Example A.2. Equivalent isotropic radiated power of a transmitter is 43 dBw (i.e., EIRP = 43 dBw), ﬁnd 1. Equivalent radiated power in terms of kW. 2. Assuming 37 dBi antenna gain, determine antenna directivity in the metric system of units. 3. Transmitter power in watts.

Solution. 1. 43 P = Antilog = 20,000 W ⇒ P = 20 kW e 10 e 2. 37 G [dB]=37 dB ⇒ G = Antilog = 5,000 t i t 10 3.

EIRP[dBw]=Pt[dBw]+Gt[dBi] 6 P [dB ]=43 − 37 = 6dB ⇒ P = Antilog = 4W t w w t 10

Due to the nature of mathematical operations in the ordinary and logarithmic systems, it is important to know the method to be used for every expression or formula. Different methods may be employed in technical books and papers. The method which is applied in this book uses brackets [ ] for the logarithmic units as seen in the following examples:

Pr[dBw]=Pt[dBw]+Gt[dBi]+Gr[dBi] − FSL[dB] − Lm[dB] A Logarithmic System of Units 527

EIRP[dBm]=Pt[dBm]+Gt[dBi] − Lt[dB]

Lbf[dB]=Pt[dBw] − E[dBμV/m]+20 log f (GHz)+167.2 Appendix B ITU-R Recommendations P-Series

Radiowave propagation P.310 Definitions of terms relating to propagation in non-ionized media P.311 Acquisition, presentation, and analysis of data in studies of tropospheric propagation P.313 Exchange of information for short-term forecasts and transmission of ionospheric disturbance warnings P.341 The concept of transmission loss for radio links P.368 Ground-wave propagation curves for frequencies between 10 KHz and 30 MHz P.369 Reference atmosphere for refraction Note-Suppressed on 24/10/97 (RA-97)-This Recommendation has been replaced by Rec.ITU-R P.453-6 P.370 VHF and UHF propagation curves for the frequency range from 30–1,000 MHz. Broadcasting services Note-Suppressed on 22/10/01 (CACE/233) P.371 Choice of indices for long-term ionospheric predictions P.372 Radio noise P.373 Definitions of maximum and minimum transmission frequencies P.434 ITU-R reference ionospheric characteristics and methods of basic MUF, operational MUF and ray-path prediction Note-Suppressed on 24/10/97 (RA-97). This Recommendation has been replaced by Rec.ITU-R P.1239 and ITU-R P.1240 P.435 Sky-wave field-strength prediction method for the broadcasting service in the frequency range 150–1,600 kHz Note-Suppressed on 20/10/95 (RA-95) P.452 Prediction procedure for the evaluation of microwave interference between stations on the surface of the Earth at frequencies above about 0.7 GHz P.453 The radio refractive index: its formula and refractivity data Note-This Recommendation replaces Rec. ITU-R P.369-6 P.525 Calculation of free-space attenuation P.526 Propagation by diffraction draft revision P.526-9(08/05) P.527 Electrical characteristics of the surface of the Earth P.528 Propagation curves for aeronautical mobile and radionavigation services using the VHF, UHF, and SHF bands P.529 Prediction methods for the terrestrial land mobile service in the VHF and UHF bands Note-Suppressed on 22/10/01 (CACE/233) (continued)

A. Ghasemi et al., Propagation Engineering in Radio Links Design, 529 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-5314-7, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 530 B ITU-R Recommendations P-Series

(continued) Radiowave propagation P.530 Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of terrestrial line-of-sight systems P.531 Ionospheric propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of satellite services and systems P.532 Ionospheric effects and operational considerations associated with artificial modification of the ionosphere and the radiowave channel P.533 HF propagation prediction method P.534 Method for calculating sporadic-E field strength P.581 The concept of “worst month” P.616 Propagation data for terrestrial maritime mobile services operating at frequencies above 30 MHz Note-Suppressed on 22/10/01 (CACE/233) P.617 Propagation prediction techniques and data required for the design of trans-horizon radio-relay systems P.618 Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of Earth-space telecommunication systems P.619 Propagation data required for the evaluation of interference between stations in space and those on the surface of the Earth P.620 Propagation data required for the evaluation of coordination distances in the frequency range 100 MHz to 105 GHz P.676 Attenuation by atmospheric gases P.678 Characterization of the natural variability of propagation phenomena P.679 Propagation data required for the design of broadcasting-satellite systems P.680 Propagation data required for the design of Earth-space maritime mobile telecommunication systems P.681 Propagation data required for the design of Earth-space-land mobile telecommunication systems P.682 Propagation data required for the design of Earth-space aeronautical mobile telecommunication systems P.683 Sky-wave field-strength prediction method for propagation to aircraft at about 500KHz. Note-Suppressed on 20/10/95 (RA-95) P.684 Prediction of field strength at frequencies below about 150 KHz P.832 World Atlas of Ground Conductivities P.833 Attenuation in vegetation. Draft revision P.833-5(08/05) P.834 Effects of tropospheric refraction on radiowave propagation P.835 Reference Standard Atmospheres P.836 Water vapor: surface density and total columnar content P.837 Characteristics of precipitation for propagation modeling P.838 Specific attenuation model for rain for use in prediction methods P.839 Rain height model for prediction methods P.840 Attenuation due to clouds and fog P.841 Conversion of annual statistics to worst-month statistics P.842 Computation of reliability and compatibility of HF radio systems P.843 Communication by meteor-burst propagation P.844 Ionospheric factors affecting frequency sharing in the VHF and UHF bands (30 MHz–3 GHz) (continued) B ITU-R Recommendations P-Series 531

(continued) Radiowave propagation P.845 HF field-strength measurement P.846 Measurements of ionospheric and related characteristics P.1057 Probability distributions relevant to radiowave propagation modeling P.1058 Digital topographic databases for propagation studies P.1059 Method for predicting sky-wave field strengths in the frequency range 1,605–1,705 KHz. Note-Suppressed on 20/10/95 (RA-95) P.1060 Propagation factors affecting frequency sharing in HF terrestrial systems P.1144 Guide to the application of the propagation methods of Radiocommunication Study Group3 P.1145 Propagation data for the terrestrial land mobile service in the VHF and UHF bands Note-Suppressed P.1146 The prediction of field strength for land mobile and terrestrial broadcasting services in the frequency range from 1 to 3 GHz. Note-Suppressed on 22/10/01 (CACE/233) P.1147 Prediction of sky-wave field strength at frequencies between about 150 and 1,700 KHz P.1148 Standardized procedure for comparing predicted and observed HF sky-wave signal intensities and the presentation of such comparisons P.1238 Propagation data and prediction methods for the planning of indoor radiocommunication systems and radio local area networks in the frequency range 900 MHz to 100 GHz P.1239 ITU-R reference ionospheric characteristics P.1240 ITU-R methods of basic MUF, operational MUF and ray-path prediction P.1321 Propagation factors affecting systems using digital modulation techniques at LF and MF P.1322 Radiometric estimation of atmospheric attenuation P.1406 Propagation effects relating to terrestrial land mobile and broadcasting services in the VHF and UHF bands P.1407 Draft revision of recommendation ITU-R P.1407-1. Multipath propagation and parameterization of its characteristics P.1409 Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of systems using high altitude platform stations at about 47 GHz P.1410 Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of terrestrial broadband millimetric radio access systems operating in a frequency range of about 20–50 GHz P.1411 Propagation data and prediction methods for the planning of short-range outdoor radiocommunication systems and radio local area networks in the frequency range 300 MHz to 100 GHz P.1412 Propagation data for the evaluation of coordination between Earth stations working in the bidirectionally allocated frequency bands P.1510 Annual mean surface temperature P.1511 Topography for Earth-to-space propagation modeling P.1546 Method for point-to-area predictions for terrestrial services in the frequency range 30–3,000 MHz. Draft revision P.1546-2(08/05) (continued) 532 B ITU-R Recommendations P-Series

(continued) Radiowave propagation P.1621 Propagation data required for the design of Earth-space systems operating between 20 and 375 THz P.1622 Prediction methods required for the design of Earth-space systems operating between 20 and 375 THz P.1623 Prediction method of fade dynamics on Earth-space paths P.1791 Propagation prediction methods for assessment of the impact of ultra-wideband devices P.1812 A path-speciﬁc propagation prediction method for point-to-area terrestrial services in the VHF and UHF bands P.1814 Prediction methods required for the design of terrestrial free-space optical links P.1815 Differential rain attenuation P.1816 The prediction of the time and the spatial proﬁle for broadband land mobile services using UHF and SHF bands P.1817 Propagation data required for the design of terrestrial free-space optical links P.1853 Tropospheric attenuation time series synthesis P.2001 A general purpose wide-range terrestrial propagation model in the frequency range 30 MHz–50 GHz Appendix C Acronyms

ASeries AD: Angle diversity AGL: Above ground level AM: Amplitude modulation AMSL: Above mean sea level AOR: Atlantic ocean region APD: Amplitude probability distribution ATPC: Automatic transmitter power control ATSC: Advanced Television System Committee

BSeries BB: Base band BBS: Base band signal BER: Bit error rate/block error rate BSS: Broadcasting-satellite service BTS: Base transceiver station

CSeries CATV: Community antenna TV CBD: Cross band diversity CCW: Counterclockwise CDMA: Code division multiple access CNR: Carrier-to-noise ratio CP: Circular polarization CT: Cordless telephone CW: Clockwise/continuous waves

A. Ghasemi et al., Propagation Engineering in Radio Links Design, 533 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-5314-7, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 534 C Acronyms

DSeries DAB: Digital Audio Broadcasting DBS: Direct broadcasting-satellite system DCT: Digital cordless telephone DECT: Digital enhanced cordless telephone DTH: Direct to home DTT: Digital terrestrial television DWDM: Dense wavelength-division multiplexing

ESeries EHF: Extremely high frequency EIRP: Equivalent isotropic radiated power EM: Electromagnetic ERP: Equivalent radiated power

FSeries F/B: Front to back (ratio) FD: Fading depth/frequency diversity FDMA: Frequency division multiple access FEC: Forward error correction FF: Far ﬁeld FFM: Flat fade margin FM: Fade margin /frequency modulation FNBW: First null beam width FSL: Free-space loss

GSeries GEO: GEO-stationary Earth orbit/GEO-synchronous Earth orbit GHz: Gigahertz GO: Geometric optics GPS: Global positioning system GSO: Geostationary orbit

HSeries HBW: Half-power beamwidth HD: Hybrid diversity HDTV: High-deﬁnition television HEO: Highly inclined Earth orbit HF: High frequency HP: High performance HPA: High-power ampliﬁer HS: Hot standby

ISeries IBO: Input back-off IDU: Indoor unit IF: Improvement factor/intermediate frequency IFRB: International Frequency Registration Board IG: Improvement gain C Acronyms 535

INMARSAT: International maritime satellite INTELSAT: International telecommunications satellite IOR: Indian Ocean region IR: Infrared ISL: Intersatellite link ISO: International Standard Organization ITU: International Telecommunications Union ITU-R: International telecommunications Union-Radio section

KSeries KHz: Kilohertz

LSeries LAT: Latitude LEO: Low Earth orbit LF: Low frequency LHC: Left-hand circular LHCP: Left-hand circular polarization LHEP: Left-hand elliptical polarization LNA: Low-noise ampliﬁer LNB: Low-noise block LON: Longitude LOS: Line of sight LP: Linear polarization

MSeries MEO: Medium Earth orbit MF: Medium frequency MHz: Megahertz MPE: Maximum permissible exposure MSL: Mean sea level MSS: Mobile satellite system

NSeries NAD: Noise amplitude distribution NDB: Nondirectional beacon NF: Near ﬁeld NF: Noise ﬁgure/noise factor NFM: Net fade margin NLOS: Non-line of sight NRCS: Normalized radar cross section

OSeries OBO: Output back-off ODU: Outdoor unit 536 C Acronyms

PSeries PD: Polarization diversity PLF: Polarization loss factor POR: Paciﬁc Ocean region PSDN: Public switched data network PSTN: Public switched telephone network

RSeries RADAR: Radio detection and ranging RCS: Radar cross section RD: Research and development RF: Radio frequency RFI: Radio-frequency interference RHC: Right-hand circular RHCP: Right-hand circular polarization RHEP: Right-hand elliptical polarization RLAN: Radio local area network RPE: Radiation pattern envelope/radiation peak envelope RSL: Received signal level RX: Receiver

SSeries S: Standard SAR: Search and rescue SCADA: Supervisory control and data acquisition SCDMA: Synchronous code division multiple access SD: Space diversity SDH: Synchronous digital hierarchy SDTV: Standard-deﬁnition television SFD: Satellite ﬂux density SHF: Super high frequency SHP: Super high performance SNR: Signal-to-noise ratio SWR: Standing wave ratio

TSeries TBW: Tenth power beamwidth TDMA: Time division multiple access TEC: Total electron content TV: Television TVRO: TV receive only TX: Transmitter C Acronyms 537

USeries UHF: Ultrahigh frequency UHP: Ultrahigh performance UTD: Uniform theory of diffraction UV: Ultraviolet

VSeries VHF: Very high frequency VLF: Very low frequency VSB: Vestigial side band

WSeries WARC: World Administrative Radio Conference WDM: Wavelength-division multiplexing WLAN: Wireless local area network WLL: Wireless local loop WMO: World Meteorological Organization WPBX: Wireless private branch exchange

XSeries XPD: Cross-polarization discrimination References

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Softwares

1. GIMS-Graphical Interference Management 2. SpaceCap-Space Data Capture on PC 3. SpaceCom-Space Comment Capture on PC 4. SpacePub-Space Publication 5. SpaceQry-Space Query and Extract System 6. SpaceVal-Space Filings Validation Software 7. SNS-Space Network Systems 8. Electronic Submission of Graphical Data 9. SRS-Database Conversion Utility 10. SRS -Fix Electronic Notiﬁcation Database Utility 11. SRS-Space Radio Communications Stations on CD-ROM 12. SNL-Space Network List 13. Global Administration Data (GLAD) 14. Maritime Mobile Access and Retrieval System (MARS) 15. HFBC Planning Software 16. FXM Data Capture 17. TstTrs Attention to the File Size 18. Interference Calculations GE84 Attention to the File Size References 541

19. Interference Calculations GE89 Attention to the File Size 20. SG 1-Programs on Spectrum Management 21. SG 3-Databanks and Computer Programs on Radiowave Propagation 22. SG 4-Databanks (Currently in Development) 23. ITU Patent Statement and Licensing Declaration Information 24. Ground-wave Propagation (GRWAVE) 25. UTD Formulation for Diffraction Loss due to Finitely Conducting Wedge 26. Point-to-area Prediction, 30–3000 MHz 27. Point-to-point (Interference) Propagation 28. Rain Scatter (SCAT) 29. Radio Refractivity 30. Atmospheric Gaseous Absorption 31. Atmospheric Proﬁle Data 32. Water Vapour Data 33. Rainfall Rate Model 34. Speciﬁc Attenuation Model for Rain 35. Rain Height Model 36. Cloud Liquid Water Data 37. Annual Mean Surface Temperature 38. Topography (0.50 Resolution) 39. K9SE: VHF and UHF Propagation www.dxzone. 40. W6EL Prop: Predict Ionospheric (Sky-wave) Propagation (3–30 MHz) www.qsl.net/w6elprop 41. TAP: Terrain Analysis Package www.softwright.com 42. PA 3CQR Gray Line www.iri.tudelft.nl 43. HF Software www.elbert.its.bldrdoc.gov 44. Wincap Wizard 3 www.taborsoft.com 45. Win BASMS www.winpath.com 46. Win BASMS www.itu.int

Web Sites

1. INMARSAT www.inmarsat.com and www.Inmarsat.org 2. EUTELSAT www.eutelsat.org 3. INTELSAT www.intelsat.com 4. METEOSAT www.meteosat.com 5. IEC www.iec.chandwww.iec.org 6. ISO www.iso.ch 7. EIA www.eia.org 8. BTS www.bt.com 9. ITU www.itu.int 10. ETSI www.etsi.org 11. ASTM www.astm.org 12. WMO www.wmo.ch 13. IEEE www.ieee.org, www.ieeexplore.ieee.org 14. IEE www.iee.org 15. IMO www.imo.org 16. ICAO www.icao.int Index

A SHF/EHF, 69, 76, 78 Angle diversity (AD), 477, 494, 504–505, 508, VHF/UHF, 69, 73, 75 515, 518, 519 Apogee, 132 Angular parameters, 281–284, 297, 298 Ascending node, 135 Antenna Atmosphere azimuth, 148 layers, 2–3, 22, 37, 125, 130, 152, 189, basic, 51–69, 81 300, 322–323, 474 beamwidth, 52, 411, 412, 515 noise, 435, 436, 450–451, 456, 465, 466 bearing, 148–149, 210 standard, 14, 17, 20, 21, 38, 319, 439, 441, boresight, 111, 171, 188, 441 530 classiﬁcation, 43 Atmospheric coupling loss, 34, 111, 154, 471 attenuation, 130, 151, 152, 158, 159, 164, directivity, 52, 53, 111, 412, 413, 526 223, 318, 321, 339, 341, 385, 457 effective area, 316, 334 gases, 2, 16, 156–159, 223, 277, 320, 385, efﬁciency, 55, 88, 111, 297 432, 439–441, 458, 530 elevation, 66, 67, 139, 148, 154, 158, layers, 2–3, 22, 37, 125, 130, 152, 189, 161, 164, 350–352, 364, 459, 460, 514 300, 322–323, 474 gain, 27, 31, 33, 49, 56, 57, 68, 73, 111, vapor, 13 112, 114, 115, 117, 120, 142, 151, 164, 182, 183, 185, 186, 188, 190, 206, 237–239, 264, 267, 293, 297, 298, 301, B 305, 315, 316, 334, 345, 349, 355, 356, Backscattering, 318, 332, 335, 337, 339 362, 418, 419, 428, 455, 473, 525, 526 Band width, 1, 4, 8, 9, 36, 38, 58, 68, 128, 130, height, 230, 231, 236, 244, 249–253, 184, 187, 194, 196, 198, 201, 202, 214, 256–260, 326, 356, 361, 379, 382, 386, 215, 220–222, 234–236, 239, 263, 267, 387, 392, 393, 397, 399–401, 413, 415, 272, 274, 275, 287, 298, 317, 341, 345, 494 369, 401, 424, 429, 430, 433, 434, 437, MF/HF, 69, 70, 72 450, 453, 461–463, 466, 467, 471, 472, noise temperature, 65–68, 423, 429, 431, 475, 476, 499, 506, 525 434, 455, 458, 459, 471 Basic antenna, 51–69, 81 parabolic, 48, 50–52, 54, 57, 73, 76, 87–89, Basic radar equation, 312–316, 333, 334, 341, 94, 100, 103, 115, 183, 222, 275, 285, 343, 345 297, 401, 455, 505 Basic transmission loss, 29–31, 33–35, 39, polarization, 413, 494 251, 295, 296, 323, 381, 382, 384, 392, radiation pattern, 210, 356, 411–413, 439 393, 418

A. Ghasemi et al., Propagation Engineering in Radio Links Design, 543 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-5314-7, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 544 Index

Beam spreading, 152, 154–155, 207, 493 global, 127, 135, 136, 138–140, 144, 203, Beamwidth, 43, 51–53, 58, 88, 90, 92, 120, 205 138–140, 204, 206, 274, 276, 278–280, local, 135, 214, 215 285–287, 297, 328, 332, 333, 339, 364, region, 128, 240 401, 411, 412, 455, 459, 505, 515 spot, 144 Bistatic radar, 302, 303 time, 140–141, 265, 268, 269, 472 Boresight, 45, 88, 111, 148, 171, 188, 330, CP. See Circular polarization (CP) 364, 441, 505 Cross band diversity (CBD), 477, 494, Brightness, 66, 67, 439–444, 447–450, 472 501–502, 509, 519 Broadcasting bands, 13, 37, 211, 213–218, 222, 223, 225–244, 263, 273 D satellite, 11, 12, 76, 129, 214, 216, Delay spread 218–225, 431 impulse response, 409–410 services, 11, 12, 130, 177, 211–218, 223, multipath, 409 224, 227, 228, 233, 236, 238, 243, 244, r.m.s, 410–411 263, 266, 269 Depolarization loss, 33 wireless, 211–269 Depression angle, 333 Bulge, 13, 18, 20–21, 37, 38, 251, 318 Descending node, Desert climate, 289 Diffraction, 34, 227, 273, 277, 318, 370, C 377, 385–387, 391, 392, 395, 404, Carrier to noise ratio (CNR), 156, 182–185, 409, 417 194, 196–200, 203, 209, 223, 458, Directivity, 43, 47, 52–55, 57, 58, 111, 112, 464 115–117, 412, 413, 505, 526 CBD. See Cross band diversity (CBD) Diversity Circular polarization (CP), 29, 59, 61, 172, angle, 477, 494, 504–505, 508, 515, 518, 174, 180, 222, 329, 412, 441, 491, 519 518 antenna, 485, 496–498, 515 Climatic combined, 502–504 classiﬁcation, 288–290 cross band, 477, 494, 501–502, 509, 519 continental, 289, 290, 298 frequency, 369, 413, 477, 483, 489–490, desert, 289 494, 498–503, 508, 515–518, 520 equatorial, 288 hot standby, 494 maritime, 290 hybrid, 477, 494, 504 polar, 290 polarization, 477, 483, 491 temperate, 181 reception, 476, 477, 479, 480, 482, 483, tropical, 157 493–496, 505, 517–519 Clutter route, 476, 506 land, 318, 335–338, 349 site, 477, 484, 509–514, 518, 519 sea, 323, 335–336, 349 space, 508 surface, 332–335, 338, 346, 363, 365 system, 476, 493, 494, 507 types, 332–333 time, 477, 483, 492, 518 volume, 320, 332, 339–340, 346, 347, 361 Doppler CNR. See Carrier to noise ratio (CNR) effect, 165, 227, 232–234, 266, 318, Combined diversity, 502–504 323–325, 331, 361, 371 Continental climate, 289, 290, 298 frequency, 232, 233, 235, 236, 267, 324, Cosmic noise, 437–439, 447, 448, 455, 459, 325, 363 470 Double passive, 85, 86, 95–98, 105, 113, 121, Coupling loss, 34, 35, 111, 154, 293, 417, 418, 122 471 Downlink, 8, 12, 119, 128, 157, 161, 184–187, Coverage 189, 194–198, 200, 207, 209, 210, 456, geographic, 135–138, 210 464 Index 545

E Frequency Earth allocation, 6–9, 12, 37 bulge, 20–21, 37, 38, 251 assignment, 7–10, 36, 212 radius, 17, 18, 20, 38 bands, 1, 3–7, 37, 41, 43, 67, 76, 100, Effective area, 43, 64–65, 89, 94–100, 119, 129–130, 142, 152, 153, 158, 178, 180, 127, 316, 334 184, 203, 211, 212, 214–216, 219, 220, Effective earth radius, 17, 18, 474 222–225, 228, 229, 236, 243, 263–266, EIRP. See Equivalent isotropic radiated power 272, 300, 301, 304, 320, 337, 361, 362, (EIRP) 364, 369, 384, 385, 398, 403, 407, 408, Electric field intensity, 32, 49–50, 311, 312, 418, 420, 421, 423, 439, 446, 454, 455, 356, 357 465, 467, 498–501, 509, 517, 520 Elevation angle, 25, 66, 67, 98, 135, 137–139, classification, 304 141, 148, 149, 154, 155, 157, 158, diversity, 369, 413, 477, 483, 489–490, 160–162, 164, 165, 169–171, 178, 494, 498–504, 508, 515–518, 520 180–181, 204–207, 210, 217, 223, 224, planning, 37, 129, 499, 501, 520 258, 277–279, 282, 283, 292, 304, registration, 6 348–352, 364, 439, 443, 457, 459, 460, FSL. See Free space loss (FSL) 462, 463, 505, 511–515, 518 Elliptical polarization, 59, 174, 329, 330 Equatorial climate, 288 G Equatorial orbit, 127, 131, 147, 189, 205, 206, Gain 210, 214 antenna, 27, 31, 33, 49, 56, 57, 68, 73, 111, Equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP), 112, 114, 115, 117, 120, 142, 151, 164, 28, 29, 31, 32, 37, 49–51, 57, 58, 114, 182–184, 186, 188, 190, 206, 237, 239, 135, 141, 182–185, 188–196, 199, 200, 241, 263, 267, 293, 295, 298, 301, 305, 204, 208, 209, 241, 244, 253, 268, 306, 306, 315, 316, 334, 345, 349, 355, 356, 355, 360, 472, 526, 527 362, 418, 419, 428, 455, 473, 525, 526 Equivalent radiated power (ERP), 1, 31–32, 39, improvement, 479, 482, 519 49, 112, 221, 244, 251, 356, 360, 526 reflector, 96, 99, 121, 205, 308, 309, 524 Extreme high frequency band, 5, 13, 56, 87, Galactic noise, 436–438, 444, 446, 447, 450, 111, 112, 130, 214, 216, 223, 369 454–456, 465–467 Geographic coverage, 135–138, 210 Global coverage, 127, 135, 136, 138–140, 144, F 203, 205, 206 Fade Grazing angle, 333–338, 346, 364 depth, 415 Ground noise, 457 margin, 57, 93, 105, 122, 123, 181, 234, 235, 265, 267, 464, 475, 476, 497–499, 501, 506, 508, 519–521 Fading H depth, 401, 402, 477, 479 HD. See Hybrid diversity (HD) multipath, 234, 263, 320, 417, 475, 493, High frequency band, 501 496, 506, 508 Hot standby (HS), 494 scintillation, 224 Hybrid diversity (HD), 477, 494, 504 Faraday rotation, 25, 165, 166, 172, 174, 175, 208, 223, 224, 323 Far field, 48, 84, 86–88, 100, 105, 112, 113, I 120, 122, 367, 378 Improvement Foot print, 135, 141–143, 185–186, 188 factor, 477, 479, 482, 483, 486, 489, 490, Free space loss (FSL), 26–27, 33–35, 39, 57, 493, 496–505, 508, 510–512, 515, 152–154, 186–189, 203, 207, 228, 230, 518–521 267, 288, 291, 295, 298, 315, 319, 320, gain, 479, 482, 519 323, 361, 372, 385, 396, 404, 408, 417, parameter, 479–480 418, 460, 524, 526 techniques, 473–521 546 Index

Improvement techniques magnetosphere, 2, 3, 25 LOS links, 492–508 stratosphere, 2, 3, 155, 164 mobile radiowaves, 480–492 troposphere, 2, 12–14, 37, 150, 152, satellite, 509–514 155–164, 169–172, 204, 271, 273, 297, troposcatter, 515–518 322, 518 Impulse response, 407–408 Leaky cable, 416–418 Inclined orbit, 131, 140, 210 Length parameters, 284–285 Indoor radiowaves propagation, 374–377, 403, Lightning noise, 36, 318, 428, 436, 450–451 406 Line of sight links, 12, 17, 475 Interference region, 240–243, 268 Link equation, 182–186 Inter link, 124–125 Local coverage, 135, 214, 215 International telecom union (ITU), 1, 9–10, Location 151, 211, 376 diversity, 483–485 recommendation, 1, 10, 13, 18, 29, 37, 111, variability, 257, 262–264, 392, 394 129, 132, 156, 160, 163, 169, 177, 178, Loss 203, 223–225, 243–244, 249, 257, 266, basic, 39, 419 291, 394, 422, 450, 499, 501, 511 free space, 26–27, 33–35, 39, 57, 152–154, regulations, 4, 10 186–189, 203, 207, 228, 230, 267, 288, Ionosphere, 1–3, 12, 21–25, 37, 39, 59, 125, 291, 295, 298, 315, 319, 320, 323, 361, 138, 150, 152, 164–172, 174–175, 189, 372, 385, 396, 404, 408, 417, 418, 460, 203, 204, 207, 217, 224, 272, 276, 299, 524, 526 318, 320, 322, 329, 361, 435, 447, 456, polarization, 35, 55, 63, 175, 329–331, 524 473 total, 34, 35, 156, 187, 194, 198, 204, 210, Ionospheric 325, 330, 407 effects, 165, 166, 202, 223–225 layers, 1, 3, 22, 24–25, 37, 39, 125, 138, 150, 152, 164–168, 170–172, 174, 189, M 204, 207, 217, 272, 318, 320, 322, 329, Magnetosphere, 2, 3, 25 361, 447 Man-made noise, 36, 318, 422, 428, 432, phenomena, 22, 25–26, 37, 165, 166, 320 441–447, 454, 458–459, 465–472 polarization, 59, 174–176 Maritime climate, 290 scattering, 272 Medium sub-layers, 22–23 effects, 34, 173, 174 ITU. See International telecom union (ITU) frequency, 5, 7, 12, 13, 21, 23, 43, 56, 58, 64, 69, 70, 72, 112, 211, 212, 214–215, 217–218, 266, 271, 274, 367 J propagation, 42, 43, 125, 172, 227–228, Jamming, 212, 300, 341, 345–346, 349 266, 319–320, 330, 349, 374, 376–377, 403–404, 419 MF/HF antenna, 69, 72 K Micro-cell, 370, 379, 380, 397, 398, 400 K-factor, 17–21, 37, 38, 251, 278, 292, 318, Micro strip antenna, 43, 69, 80 325–327, 349, 361, 398, 474, 506 Millimetric waves propagation, 385 Mobile radar, 301–302, 361 L radio, 7, 11, 13, 73, 227–229, 232, 243, Land clutter, 336–338 264, 274, 367, 370, 374, 382, 418, 421, Layer 465–468, 471–473, 477, 480, 483, 488, atmosphere, 2–3, 22, 37, 125, 130, 152, 490, 492, 518, 520 189, 300, 322–323, 474 satellite, 12, 37, 76, 111, 129, 152, 165, 480 ionosphere, 1, 3, 22, 24–25, 37, 39, 125, Monostatic radar, 302, 315, 361, 431 138, 150, 152, 164–168, 170–172, 174, Multipath 189, 204, 207, 217, 272, 318, 320, 322, effects, 151, 165, 263, 343, 371, 404, 413, 329, 361, 447 475, 496 Index 547

fading, 234, 263, 320, 417, 475, 493, 496, P 506, 508 Parabolic antenna, 46, 50–52, 54, 57, 73, 76, Multistatic radar, 302, 303 86–88, 93, 100, 103, 115, 183, 222, 275, 285, 297, 401, 455, 505 Passive N double, 84, 85, 95–98, 105, 113, 121, 122 Natural noise, 36, 67, 422, 466–467 reflector, 41–123, 126, 127, 205, 308, 312, Near field (NF), 81, 85, 86, 100–102, 105, 112, 362, 524 113, 120–123, 396, 505 repeater, 41, 77–86, 89, 93–95, 112, Noise 121–123, 203, 204 antenna, 65–68, 423, 428, 429, 431, 434, single, 85, 96, 102, 105, 121, 122 455, 458, 459, 462–463, 470, 471 Path atmosphere, 465 clearance criteria, 18, 497, 504 brightness, 439, 472 gain factor, 327, 329, 343, 361, 475 cosmic, 437–439, 447, 448, 455, 459, 470 length, 18, 31, 38, 169–171, 189, 230, 231, factor, 423–427, 432–434, 437, 464, 250, 251, 257, 259, 276, 280–282, 284, 470–472 386, 396, 401, 409, 420, 456, 475, 476, figure, 239, 316, 341–342, 361, 363, 497–499, 501, 506–508, 520 423–428, 430, 431, 433, 435, 437, 446, profile, 277–280 447, 456, 458, 461, 470–472 Performance, 13, 43, 55, 58, 65, 111, 182, 183, galactic, 436–438, 444, 446, 447, 450, 185, 186, 195, 197, 200, 224, 271, 297, 454–456, 465–467 318, 335, 341, 409, 421, 423, 434, 450, ground, 458 473–476, 480, 493, 496, 504, 506, 515 intensity, 433–435 Perigee, 132 level, 65, 434–439, 450, 461, 466–469 Periscope, 84, 102–104, 121 lightning, 36, 428, 450–451 Pico-cell, 370, 380, 397, 401 man-made, 36, 318, 422, 428, 432, Plasma, 23–25, 166–168, 174, 204 441–447, 454, 458–459, 465, 467–472 Point to area links, 13, 28–29 natural, 36, 67, 422, 466–467 Point to multipoint link, 13, 87 sky, 66, 67, 120, 156, 223, 438, 454, Point to point link, 13, 29 456–459, 463, 464, 470 Polar climate, 290 solar, 455–456, 459, 465, 466, 470 Polarization source, 345, 424, 426, 432, 439, 447, 448, antenna, 413, 494 450, 454, 470 diversity, 477, 483, 491, 518 temperature, 36, 43, 65–68, 120, 156, 183, loss, 35, 55, 63, 175, 329–331, 524 208, 209, 223, 239, 277, 287, 298, 318, radiowaves, 59, 62, 67, 477 341, 423, 427–432, 434, 437, 439, 447, Polar orbit, 127, 131 454–467, 470–472, 525 Power thermal, 209, 300, 316, 320, 341, 344, 346, flux density, 26–28, 30–32, 49, 55, 56, 114, 361, 364, 422–424, 428, 456–466, 470 313 traffic, 468–471 level, 117, 126, 127, 287, 314, 340, 343, 346, 347, 414, 419, 471 received signal, 27, 126, 127, 183, O 286–288, 298, 314, 485 Orbit TX, 142, 183, 185, 190, 193–194, 202, 209, equatorial, 127, 131, 147, 189, 205, 206, 210, 267, 286, 297, 298, 314, 355, 356, 210, 214 362, 370, 374, 473 inclined, 131, 140, 210 Propagation polar, 127, 131 curves, 244–248, 252 satellite, 131–149, 222, 511 impairments, 370–372, 377, 404–405, 505 Orbital parameters, 134–135 ionospheric, 21–26, 37, 212, 217, 322 Orbital plane, 131, 132, 134, 135, 141 mechanism, 33, 318, 389, 395, 396 548 Index

Propagation (cont.) Radio waves medium, 42, 43, 125, 172, 227–228, 266, polarization, 59–60, 62, 67, 151, 172–178, 319–320, 330, 349, 374, 376–377, 419, 477, 483 403–404, 419 propagation, 1–39, 41, 44, 45, 125, 130, phenomena, 3, 13, 18, 125, 150–152, 217, 150–152, 163, 165, 172, 187, 189, 211, 225, 228–236, 266, 299, 349 217, 218, 225, 227–236, 243, 266, 267, tropospheric, 13–21, 273–274, 276 271–298, 320, 367, 370, 372, 374–376, Protection ratio, 241, 242, 268 379, 403, 404, 406, 416, 418, 419, 422, 439, 441, 473, 506, 523 types, 10–12, 59–60, 213 R Radome, 43–44, 111 Radar Received signal level (RSL), 35, 57, 127, 154, AGL diagram, 351 179–181, 186, 189–190, 204, 206, 207, angle diagram, 349, 351–352 217, 218, 230, 231, 262–264, 266, 286, clutter, 318, 331–340 294, 298, 304, 313, 315, 341, 343, 371, coverage, 347–360, 362, 364 373, 401, 403, 415, 417, 460, 461, 464, coverage diagram, 347, 349–353, 362 473–477, 479, 487 cross section, 304, 306–309, 316–317, Reception criterion, 236–238 319, 323, 330–335, 337, 339, 342, 349, Reflected waves, 59, 86, 89, 95, 99, 180, 181, 361–364 230–232, 299, 303, 304, 309, 311, 312, horizon, 284, 300, 318, 322, 325–327, 361 328, 329, 362, 377, 387, 389, 390 jamming, 341, 345–346, 349 Reflection, 2, 12, 14, 25, 34, 59, 67, 89, links, 30, 126, 321–323, 327–329, 341, 180–181, 225, 227, 230–232, 249, 263, 361, 430 272, 273, 277, 300, 312, 318, 323, MSL diagram, 352, 354, 362, 364 327–329, 370, 377, 385, 391, 404, 409, range diagram, 349–351 411–414, 441, 458, 474, 475, 494 reflectivity, 339 Reflectivity index, 299, 332, 339, 340 target, 30, 306, 330, 332, 339, 347 Reflector gain, 96, 99, 121, 205, 308, 309, waves, 299–365 524 Radiated peak envelope (RPE), 50–51, 111, Refraction, 14, 16–17, 19, 25, 153, 157, 159, 114, 115 160, 166, 224, 225, 272, 283, 318, 322, Radiation pattern, 43, 45–47, 50, 52, 54, 56, 323, 473–475 58, 71, 74, 77, 85–93, 112–117, 120, Refractive index, 16–17, 20, 34, 224, 273, 286 141, 142, 156, 185, 210, 231, 240, Route diversity, 476, 506 309–313, 355, 356, 361, 411–413, 439, RPE. See Radiated peak envelope (RPE) 491 RSL. See Received signal level (RSL) Radio horizon, 271, 273, 274, 278, 281, 283, 285, 318 S links, Satellite noise, 2, 36, 65, 67, 172, 222, 228, broadcasting, 11, 12, 76, 129, 214, 316–318, 341, 346, 421–423, 428, 216–225, 431 432–454, 461, 472 flux density, 209 path, 31, 38, 41, 81, 168, 224, 228–230, frequency band, 130, 211, 216, 266 251–252, 256, 257, 264, 277, 283, 284, transponder, 135, 141, 142, 182, 185, 188, 320, 381–396, 405, 497, 504, 505, 515 192, 203 path clearance, 251–252, 497, 504 Scattering, 2, 14, 34, 227, 272–275, 277, regulations, 6, 7, 10, 37, 55, 129, 130, 211, 309–312, 318, 323, 331, 361, 370, 373, 215, 216, 266, 369 385, 395, 409, 413, 464, 465, 517 relay networks, 83, 112, 117, 308 Scintillation, 25, 151, 164–166, 223–225, 475 services, 1, 6, 7, 12, 70, 73, 125, 214, 243, Sea clutter, 323, 335–338, 349 368, 468 Short range radio communications, 367–420 Index 549

Signal to noise ratio (SNR), 36, 117, 181, 217, Tropical climate, 157 218, 239, 267, 268, 287, 298, 304, 313, Troposcatter 316–318, 341–344, 361, 363, 424, 425, angular parameters, 281–284, 297 429, 430, 434, 461, 471, 475–477, 506, length parameters, 284–285 513 worst month loss, 295–296 Single passive repeater, 85 Troposcattering, 272, 274, 275, 277–285, 291, Site diversity, 477, 484, 509–514, 518, 519 295, 297, 473, 477, 515–518 Sky noise, 66, 67, 120, 156, 223, 438, 454, Troposphere, 1, 2, 12–14, 16–17, 21, 37, 125, 456–459, 463–465, 470 138, 150, 152, 155–164, 169–172, 189, SNR. See Signal to noise ratio (SNR) 203, 204, 223, 227, 228, 271, 273–274, Solar noise, 455–456, 459, 465, 466, 470 276–277, 279, 292, 297, 299, 318, 320, Space diversity 322, 329, 361, 456, 462, 473, 518 gain, Tropospheric horizontal, 485, 518 effects, 14, 150, 152, 155–164, 189, 223, vertical, 485, 496–498 318, 322, 361 Space waves, layer, 2, 12–14, 37, 150, 152, 155–164, Spot coverage, 144 169–172, 204, 271, 273, 297, 322, 518 Standard atmosphere, 14, 17, 20, 21, 38, 319, phenomena, 21, 125 439, 441 propagation, 13–21, 273–274, 276 Stratosphere, 2, 3, 155, 164 Sub-layers, 3, 15, 22–25, 39, 160 Sub-refraction, 19, 318 U Sub-satellite point, 145, 146, 148, 188, 204, Ultra high frequency band, 13, 57, 73, 112, 206 130, 178, 211, 213, 215, 218, 224–243, Super high frequency band, 56, 111, 223, 224, 251, 260, 263–267, 273, 382, 393, 420, 320, 384, 418 466, 467, 480 Super refraction, 19, 318, 474 Up fading, 475 Surface clutter, 332–335, 338, 346, 363, 365 Uplinks, 8, 12, 128, 154, 161, 186, 187, System diversity, 476, 494, 507 189–195, 197, 198, 200, 209, 210, 456, 464 T Temperate climate, 181 Terrain V clearance angle, 257, 260–262 Very high frequency band, 7, 111, 172, 232, mixed, 256 244, 260, 265, 466, 467 Thermal noise, 209, 300, 316, 320, 341, 344, Very low frequency band, 111 346, 361, 364, 422–424, 428, 456, Volume clutter, 320, 332, 339–340, 346, 347, 458–466, 470 361 Time coverage, 140–141, 265, 268, 269, 472 diversity, 477, 483, 492, 518 W variability, 264–265 Waves Total loss, 34, 35, 156, 187, 194, 198, 204, radar, 299–365 210, 325, 330, 407 radio, 1–39, 41, 125–211, 271–299, 367, Trafﬁc noise, 468–469, 471 421–521 Trans-horizon, 271–298, 477, 515, 519 Wireless Transponder, 8, 38, 127, 130, 135, 141, 142, broadcasting, 211–269 182, 184, 185, 188, 192, 196, 201–203, local area network, 368, 376, 405 209, 218, 220–222 Worst month, 155, 159–163, 223, 295–298