Indian-Geography.Pdf

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Fundamentals of Physical Geography

Solar System

➢ Sun

• Hottest layer of the Sun is Core with a temperature of 15 million Degree Celsius • In the radiative zone, energy generated by nuclear fusion in the core moves outward as electromagnetic radiation • Temperature in this region is below 2 million Degree Celsius • In the convection zone energy is transported by convection • Temperature in this zone is 5800 degree Celsius • Photosphere is the layer where light (Photos) is formed • It is the visible layer of the sun • Temperature of this sphere is 5500 degree Celsius • Chromosphere: The chromosphere's rosy red colour is only apparent during eclipses • Temperature is 27800 Degree Celsius

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• Corona of the Sun is a circle of plasma that surrounds the sun • It is fully visible during the eclipses • Its temperature is about 2 million Degree Celsius

Planets

➢ Mercury • Inner most planet • It has the fastest revolution • Second slowest rotation • Once in 3 to 30 years, Venus and mercury comes exactly between Sun and Earth • Temperature of mercury is the second highest after Venus: 427 Degree Celsius ➢ Venus • It has highest temperature: 462 Degree Celsius • It has a plateau like structure named as Ishtar Terra Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• Prominent mountain in the atmosphere of Venus is Maxwell Montes • It has the slowest rotation among all planets • Rotation: 243 days • Revolution: 224 days • The only planet whose rotation takes more time than revolution • Size is approximately equal to that of earth and hence known as the Earth’s twin ➢ Mars • It has ice-caps on the poles • Olympus mons is the highest mountain in Mars • Deepest valley is Valles Marineris • It is known as red planet • Prominent satellites are Phobos (inner most/Closer to Mars) and Deimos (Outer) • Both were discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877 ➢ Jupiter

• Most massive planet in solar system • 318 times as massive as earth • About 1000 earths are needed to fill up Jupiter • Fastest rotation in 9 hours and 56 minutes • One revolution takes 12 years • It has largest number of satellites (67) • 4 satellites are discovered by Galelio and known as Galelian Satellites • They are: Io (Volcanically active), Europa, Ganymede (Biggest Satellite of Jupiter), and Callisto • Jupiter has one ring (Saturn has seven rings) ➢ Saturn • Second most massive after Jupiter • Second largest number of confirmed satellites (62) • Second fastest rotation after Jupiter (10 hours and 30 minutes) • It has 7 rings around it Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• One revolution is 29 and half years

➢ Uranus • 3rd largest number of satellites (27) • Revolution takes 84 years • One rotation takes 17 hours and 14 minutes ➢ Neptune • Longest revolution: 165 years • It has 14 Satellites • Satellite Triton is the coldest satellite in the whole solar system Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• Permanent atmosphere of Neptune is called as Great Dark Spot ➢ Kuiper Belt Objects are rocky icy objects beyond solar system ➢ Pluto is a prominent Kuiper Belt object ➢ Asteroid belt is made up of rocky mass between Mars and Jupiter

Some Points on Earth

➢ Equinox is the moment in which the plane of Earth's equator passes through the centre of the Sun, which occurs twice each year, around 20 March and 23 September. ➢ On these days, all parts of earth will have equal day and night ➢ The Solstice occurs twice each year (around June 21 and December 22) as the Sun reaches its most northerly or southerly excursion relative to the celestial equator on the celestial sphere ➢ One these days, there will be maximum inequality between day and night

Latitudes and Longitudes of Earth

• Latitudes are the lines parallel to equator • Angle varies at 0 at equator to 90 at poles • Equator passes through 13 countries • They are Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Sao Tome & Principe, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia and Kiribati • Based on latitude, earth can be further divided into following sub-divisions 1. Tropical Region (Between Tropic of Cancer (23 ½ North ) and Tropic of Capricorn 23 ½ South) Vertical movement of Sun is limited to this region 2. Sub-tropical Region: It is between 23 ½ latitude and 60 Degree latitude in both hemispheres Sun light reaches here, but does not come vertically 3. Sub- Polar Region: Between 60 and 90 degrees on both regions 4. Polar Region at 90 degree on both hemispheres

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Longitudes

• Longitudes are vertical lines which meet at poles • Time of a region is fixed based on it • 0 Degree passes through Greenwich and it is considered as international standard time • Difference in one point on longitude makes a difference of 4 minutes in the time • Moving east, time will be ahead • Moving West, time will be behind • France has 12 time zones • United States and Russia have 11 time zones • India has only one-time zone

Internal Structure of Earth

Crust

• It is from 5kms to 40Kms (Total length of crust is 35Kms) • Crust has 2 parts: Upper Crust is dominated by SIAL (Silicon and Aluminum) Lower Crust is dominated by SIMA (Silicon and Magnesium) Conrad discontinuity is the border between upper and lower crust Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• Mohorovicic discontinuity is the border between crust and mantle

Mantle

• The distance from the surface is 2900kms • The border between Mantle and outer core is called Guttenberg discontinuity

Core

• Outer core is molten metal (Nickel and iron) • Inner core is solid metal (Nickel and Iron) • Lehman discontinuity is the border of these two parts

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Oceans

• 97% of total water is in ocean • 3type of movement of the water of Oceans • 1 waves 2) tides 3) Currents

Waves

• caused by pushing action of wind on ocean coast

Tides

• Sea water rises and falls twice a day at regular interval • It’s called tides • cause: Attraction of moon and some extend that of sun • Highest Elevation -Hight tide • Lowest Depression -Low tide • It's of great use in navigation trade and finishing • Increase of water near the cost at the time of high tide helps the ships to enter and leave the harbour safety • Eg; Kandla in Gujrat

Ocean Current

• Def: Constant flow of water on the surface of the ocean as a stream in definite direction • speed: 20-10/km hr. • 2types • 1. Warm current • 2. Cold current • warm current moving from equatorial region to pole • cold: - from poles to equator

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Effects of ocean currents

• They have considerable influence on climate and Agriculture of the coastal region • Warm currents make the place warmers and cold current makes the place colder • Wind blowing over warm currents absorbs moisture and brings heavy rainfall over cost • E. USA Ireland and Britain receive such rainfall • Opposite with cold currents Hence hot deserts are found near the places passed by the cold currents eg: Atacama deserts in South America • Planktons are largely found where warms cold currents meet • Hence, they support fish in large numbers • Meeting of WC and CC produces very thick fog • it's dangerous for ships because visibility is reduced. • A ship sailing down the current will move faster • ships prefer to go with current to save time and fuel • Warm Currents helps to melt icebergs which is an advantage to navigation

Largest oceans in the order

1. Pacific Ocean 2. Atlantic Ocean 3. Indian Ocean 4. Arctic Ocean • Mariana trench is the deepest trench. It is in the Pacific Ocean • Pacific Ocean is surrounded by Asia and Australia on one side and South and North Americas on the other side • Atlantic Ocean is surrounded by North and South America on one side and Europe and Africa on the other side • It is busiest ocean from the point of view of commerce • Indian ocean has Africa on its west, Asia on its north and Australia on its east • Arctic is the northward extension of Atlantic • Bering Strait is the connection between Arctic and Pacific ➢ Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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Types of Rocks

• Igneous Rocks ✓ Formed from hot molten lava or magma ✓ 2/3 of earth’s crust is made up of it ✓ Examples are Granite and Basalt rocks ✓ Another name is Primary/ Basic rocks • Sedimentary Rocks ✓ Formed by sediments ✓ It is soft and break easily ✓ It is most of the rocks found on earth’s surface ✓ Egs: Conglomerate, Sandstone, Limestone, Shale and Coal • Metamorphic Rocks ✓ Formed by chemical and structural changes in existing rocks ✓ Metamorphic means change of form ✓ Eg: Gneiss is change in form of Granitic Rocks ✓ Slate is change in form for Shale ✓ Marble is a change in form for limestone ✓ Diamond is a change in form for Coal

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Atmosphere

Gases of Atmosphere

▪ Nitergon: 78% ▪ Oxygen: 20% ▪ Argon: 1% ▪ CO2: .03%

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Layers of Atmosphere

▪ Troposphere. ▪ Stratosphere. ▪ Mesosphere. ▪ Thermosphere.

Troposphere

▪ 10-15 kms ▪ Densest part of atmosphere. ▪ All weather phenomena take place here ▪ Temperature reduces as per the height ▪ 6.5 degree Celsius per 1 KM is the lapse rate ▪ Clouds are found at the boarder of troposphere with stratosphere

Stratosphere

▪ Ozone layer is in this sphere. It absorbs radiation ▪ 12- 55 KMs ▪ Temperature increases by increasing altitude ▪ It is almost free from clouds ▪ Aircrafts fly through this layer

Mesosphere

▪ 50-85KMs ▪ Temperature drops by increasing altitude

Thermosphere

▪ 80-1000 Kms ▪ The lower part of Thermosphere (80-550) is Ionosphere ▪ All electronic communications on earth are happening here ▪ Without this no communication is possible on earth ▪ The International Space Station orbits in this layer

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Heating of atmosphere

▪ The amount of solar radiation received by earth is called INSOLATION (Incoming solar radiation) ▪ Atmosphere is heated mainly from below by the heated surface of the earth. ▪ Hence temperature in the lower parts of the atmosphere is usually higher. It decreases as we go higher

Factors of Temperature

▪ Temperature of air decreases with increase in Latitude. ▪ Eg: Siberia is cooler then Africa ▪ Temperature decreases with altitude. ▪ Eg: Shimla is cooler than Ludhiana. ▪ Sea shore is cooler then distant places.

Air on the move.

▪ Barometer. Instrument to measure pressure. ▪ Aneroid Barometer: different kind of Barometer used to measure air pressure. ▪ Atmospheric pressure decreases with height or altitude. ▪ It’s highest at sea level

Permanent Pressure belts of the World.

▪ Equatorial low pressure belt or Doldrums. ▪ Because of high temperature ▪ Polar high pressure belt because of high cold. ▪ 30’ N & 30’S: Subtropical high or Horse latitudes. ▪ The subsidiary air is relatively dry because of its moisture has already been released near the equator. ▪ Hence world’s major desert are in this area.

Sub Polar low

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▪ It forms sub polar low.

Permanent wind belts of the world.

▪ Wind blowing constantly throughout the year in a particular direction is called prevailing/permanent/planetary wind. ▪ 3 main planetary wind blowing from high pressure belts to low pressure belts. ▪ Trade winds ▪ Westerlies ▪ Polar Winds.

Trade Winds.

▪ From sub-tropical high to equatorial low. ▪ Blow in tropical zones. ▪ In N. Hemisphere blow from NE side. ▪ In S. Hemisphere blow from SE side.

Westerlies.

▪ From sub-tropical high to sub polar low. ▪ Blow from south west in N. Hemisphere.

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▪ Blow from north west in S. Hemisphere.

Polar Wind.

▪ From polar high to sub polar low. ▪ In N. Hemisphere from north east. ▪ In S. Hemisphere from south east.

Mansoons

▪ They are winds which reverse their direction with the change in season. ▪ Wind start moving from land to sea in the winter. ▪ From sea to land in summer. ▪ Winds coming from sea brings moisture and heavy rainfall during summer.

Water in Air

▪ Water vapor is responsible for white clouds in the atmosphere. ▪ More water vapor in summer than in winter. ▪ Less amount of water vapor in high altitudes than the plains. ▪ Water vapor plays a crucial role in the heating and cooling of atmosphere and the day to day changes in the weather.

Evaporation

▪ Change in water from liquid to gaseous form.

Humidity

▪ Amount of water vapor present in the air. ▪ A certain amount of air can hold at a given temperature, only a fixed maximum amount of water vapor. ▪ At this stage, the air is said to be saturated. ▪ If the amount of water vapor in the air is less than the amount it can hold, it is said to be unsaturated. ▪ The temperature at which air gets saturated is known as DEW POINT.

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▪ At this point water vapor changes into minute droplets of water or ice crystals. This process is called condensation.

Forms of Condensation

▪ Dew & Frost: ▪ In cold, clear nights when comparatively warm, moist air comes in contact with cold objects it cools down. ▪ Then it transforms moisture condense into droplets of water called DEW. ▪ If the dew point is below 0’C, dew gets frozen

Cloud

▪ Condensation of water vapor in the atmosphere result in cloud formation

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Types of Rainfall

Relief rainfall

▪ When Mountain or hill range lies in the path of rain bearing wind it causes wind to rise along its slope ▪ Then the wind gets saturated further due to its cooling and leads to rainfall ▪ Windward side of mountain gets heavy rainfall and leeward side is called rain shadow region (It does not get rainfall)

Convectional rainfall

▪ When land is heated the air close to it is also heated ▪ warm air then starts rising and it leads to cooling, condensation and formation of cloud. ▪ Results in heavy rainfall ▪ Common in equatorial region:

Cyclonic rainfall

▪ When winds blow firm all sides to the centre of low pressure they have spiral motion of great speed and it causes whirling air to rise up ▪ If air has moisture it causes rainfall ▪ Common in mid latitude

Barometer: Instrument to measure pressure

simple barometer use mercury to measure air pressure

They are not easy to use hence, Aneroid Barometer us used to measure pressure of wind (without liquid)

Barograph: If continually records charges in air pressure

Wind direction and speed

▪ Normally named after the direction from which it Eg westerlies ▪ Wind vane: -Instrument to find wind direction ▪ Anemometer: Instrument to measure wind speed Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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▪ Recorded in KM/hr ▪ Anemograph: it records wind speed automatically

Humidity

▪ Expressed in 2 ways: ▪ 1. Absolute Humidity: ▪ weight of water vapour in a given volume of air ▪ usually expressed in grams per cubic meter of air less commonly used ▪ 2. Relative Humidity ▪ Expressed in percentage ▪ it's a ratio b/w the total capacity of the air for holding moisture under a given temp and actual amount of moisture carried by it. ▪ Air is saturated when its relative humidity is 100% ▪ Hygrometer is the name of the instrument used to measure the humidity

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Geography of World

ASIA

➢ Introduction • 1/3 of total land of the world • 3/5 of total population

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➢ Geographic Divisions • Northern Low Land Between Ural Mountains (Russia) in the West and Lena River (Russia) in the East Ural Mountain and Ural river are the natural boundaries between Asia and Europe This region is called Siberian Plain Tartars are the age-old Muslim tribes found in this region Major Rivers in this region are Ob (Russia), Yenisei (Mongolia and Russia) and Lena. Lake Baikal (Russia), deepest lake in the world is in this region It holds 20% of all fresh lake water in the world

The Mountains

Pamir plateau is known as the roof of world It is spread in Tajikistan, Kirgizstan, Afghanistan and China Pamir knot is the region from where chains of mountains spread Tian Shan mountains extend to North east (China, Kazakistan, Kyrgistan and Uzbekistan) Kunlun to goes to east (China) Karakoram goes to South East (Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, Tajikistan and China) Hindukush Mountains are spread to west Hindukush is further sub-devided into two: 1. Norther Group named as Elbruz (It is in Russia. It is the highest mountain both in Russia and Europe) 2. Southern group called as Zagros (Iran, Iraqi Kurdistan and SE Turkey)

These two mountains join at the knot of Mount Ararat (In Turkey)

Another important mountain in Asia is Mount Fujiama in Japan

It is an active volcanic mountain in Asia

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The Great River Valleys

Tigris and Euphrates passes through Turkey, Syria and Iraq Indus is shared by India and Pakistan Ganga passes through India and Bangladesh Yangtze (Chang Jiang) in china is the longest river in Asia Brhamaputra passes through Tibet, India and Bangladesh Ayeyarwady (Irrawady) is the major river system in Myanmar Mekong passes through China, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam Sikiang or Xi-Jiang is in China and Vietnam Huang He or Yellow river in China is the second longest in Asia Wang Chin and Togsa rivers flow through Bhutan Mahaveli Ganga is the longest river in Srilanka Ural River in Russia forms the natural boundary between Asia and Europe Chhukha Hydro power project in Bhutan was developed with the help of India. It uses water from different rivers

Deserts of Asia

• Hot Deserts 1. Arabian Desert Extends over Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Yemen 2. Thar Desert in India and Pakistan In India, it is spread over Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Gujrat • Cold Desert 1. Gobi Desert in China and Magnolia 2. Tibet Desert in China, Nepal and India. In India, it is found only in Ledakh

Important Straits in Asia

• Strait of Malacca devides between Malaysia and Indonesia (Sumatra Island) • It is in the India ocean • Palk strait lies between India and Srilanka (Gulf of Mannar) Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• Babe Mandeb Strait lies between Yemen (Asia) and Dijbouti (Africa) • It connects Gulf of Aden and Red Sea • It forms the natural boundary between Asia and Africa • Berring Strait is between Alaska (North America) and Russia • It forms the boundary between Asia and North America • It is also the connecting point between Pacific Ocean and Arctic Ocean • Bospherous Strait connects the European part and Asian part of Turkey • It is the natural boundary between Asia and Europe • It connects Marmara sea and Black sea

Some Important Points on Asia

• Russia is the country with largest forest area in the world (In KM Square) • India is at 10th Position in this regard • China is the top fish producing country in the world • India ranks 3 in this regard

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Africa

➢ Boarders • Separated from Europe by Mediterranean Sea • Bordered with Asia by Red sea • In 3 points it touches with Eurasia 1. Strait of Gibraltar in North West It lies between Spain and Morocco It also connects Atlantic Ocean with Mediterranean Sea 2. Suez Canal in the North East Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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It connects Mediterranean sea to Red Sea 3. Bab el Mandeb in the East It connects Gulf of Aden and Red sea and forms the boundary between Asia and Africa ➢ Mountain Systems in Africa

• Atlas mountain in the North spreads over Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria • Ahaggar Mountain/ Hoggar Mountain passes through Algeria Tropic of cancer also passes through this mountain • Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania is the highest mountain peak in Africa ➢ Rivers and Lakes of Africa

• Nile is the longest river in the world • It passes through Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo-Kinshasa, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan and Egypt. • Aswan Dam on River Nile in Egypt is one of the earliest dams in Africa • Lake Victoria (the largest lake in Africa) is the source of River Nile • Lake Victoria is spread over Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya • It is the second largest fresh water lake in the world by area • Zaira River in Central Africa is also known as Congo River It carries greatest volume of water among the rivers in Africa It passes through large number of countries • Orange River is the longest river in South Africa it passes through Lesotho, South Africa and Namibia • Lake Nasser in Egypt and Sudan • Lake Tanganyika forms the boarder of Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and also borders of Burundi to the north and Zambia to the south • It is the second largest fresh water lake in the world by volume of the water and depth

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➢ Deserts of Africa • Sahara in the North is the largest hot desert in the world It is extended over Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia The hot, dry and dusty local wind blowing from Sahara desert is called as Harmattan • Kalhari Desert is in the South Africa Extends over Botswana, Namibia and South Africa ➢ Climate of Africa • Africa lies in the tropical region and hence has very high temperature • Al Aziziya in Libya is the hottest place in the world (58 Degree Celsius) • They have continuous rainfall on both sides of equator • The grass land vegetation in Africa is known as Savana • Hence, it is the homeland of grass eating animals ➢ Minerals of Africa • Africa produces more than 95% of the world diamond • It also produces more than 50% of the world gold • South Africa is the largest producer of Gold and Platinum ➢ Agriculture in Africa • Zanzibar and Pemba islands are biggest producers and exporters of clove in the world (9/10 of world clove is coming from here) • Cocoa and Kola are grown in equatorial region, especially in Ivory Coast, Nigeria and Ghana • Ivory Coast is the largest producer of cocoa in the world and Ghana is the second largest producer ➢ Nature, Land and Climate • Congo is often called a Gigantic Zoo because of large variety of wildlife • Nigeria is called as the land of palm oil • Egypt is known as the gift of Nile • South Africa is called as the land of Gold

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North America

➢ Physical Features

• The Canadian shield • The Appalachian Mountains /Eastern Highland • The central Plains • The western cordilleras ➢ The Canadian Shield • A number of lakes are found in this region • Lake Great Bear in Canada Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• Lake Winnipeg also in Canada • Great Lakes in the boarder of Canada and the US 1. Lake Superior (US and Canada) It is the largest fresh water lake in the North America by volume It is also the third largest fresh water lake in the world by volume 2. Lake Michigan (US) 3. Lake Huron (US and Canada) 4. Lake Erie (US and Canada) 5. Lake Ontario (US and Canada) • Niagara Falls is between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario • It forms the boarder of the US and Canada • St. Lawrence (Canada and the US) is an important river and fall into Atlantic ocean

➢ The Applachian Mountains • In South Eastern part of North America • Known as E. Highlands • Hudson river (passes through New York and New Jersey states of the US) flows through it joined to great lakes by Erie canal ➢ The Central Lowland • Between Western Cordilleras and Eastern Highlands • River Mackenzie (Canada) forms delta in the norther part of this region • It is the second longest river in North America. • River basins of Mississippi (the US) and Missisouri are in this region (the US) • Missisippi is the longest river in North America • Its origin is Lake Itasca (the US)

➢ The Western Cordilleras • It is the Mountainous region • Highest peak in Mount McKinley in Alaska (6187m) • It has many parallel ranges

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1. Mount Rocky (Canada and the US) 2. Sierra Nevada (The US) ➢ Other Points on North America. • Grassland found in the interior plains of North America is called as PRAIRIES • Yellowstone national park is one of the famous and very old national parks in the US • Polar bear and reindeer are the imp animals of North America • Florida Strait connects between the US and Cuba • It also connects Gulf of Mexico with Atlantic Ocean

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South America ➢ Western Mountains • Andes mountain chain is the longest mountain chain in the world • It passes through seven South American countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. • It is second to Himalayas in the average height • Mount Aconcagua in Argentina is the largest peak of Andes • Cotopaxi in Ecuador is the highest active volcano in the world ➢ Central Plains

• River Amazon passes through this region • It is the largest river by discharge of water • It passes through Peru, Columbia and Brazil ➢ Eastern Highlands • Angel Waterfall in Venezuela, is the highest waterfall in the world ➢ Amazon Forest • It is spread over 9 countries • Most of it (60%) lies in Brazil • It is the largest rain forest in the world (represents more than half of the total rain forest in the world) ➢ Other Important Points on South America • Equatorial rain forests of South America are known as SELVAS • Atacama Desert is in Peru and Chili • Grasslands of Central Argentina is known as PAMPAS • Peru is the important country for fishing • Brazil is famous for coffee • Alfalifa is a special type of grass found in Argentina

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Australia

• It is the only island continent • It was discovered by Captain James Cook ➢ Central Low Lands • Lake Eyre is the largest lake in Australia • Murray is the longest river in Australia • Darling is another prominent river in Australia • Both of them do not join any ocean. They join lakes ➢ Eastern Highlands • Great Dividing Range is the largest mountain in Australia ➢ Other Points • Great Barrier Reef in the north east coast of Australia is the largest coral reef in the world • Tropical grasslands of Australia is Savanna • Temperate grasslands of Australia is called DOWNS • Kangaroo is a special wildlife found here • Australia is the largest exporter of wool in the world • Trans-Australian railway is between Sydney and Perth

Antarctica

• It is called the White Continent • Queen Maud Range equally divides the continent into two • Temperature in winter is -95 and in mid-summer is 0 • Iceberg is the huge masses of ice broken from the ice caps and float in the surrounding sea

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India in Antarctica and Arctic

Antarctica

• It covers the south of the earth • There no human inhibition • In 1950, international community reached into Antarctica Treaty System (ATS) • According to that treaty no country will have sovereignty above 60 degree South • It will not be used for any military activity • India constructed the first basin called Dakshin Gangotri in 1983 • It was destroyed as the glacier on which it was constructed has moved away • 2nd Permanent base of India is MAITRI • The third base BHARATI is under construction

Arctic

• In Arctic, there are national jurisdiction and control • According to Saval Bard Treaty, the archipelago named Saval Bard can be used for research purposes • Nye Alsund is a village on the extreme east Saval Bard • India has established its research base in HIMADRI in this village

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Geography of India

Introduction

• India is located between 8.4 and 37.6 North Latitude and 68.7 and 97.25 longitude

Size of India

• With an area of 3.28 million square km, India is the 7th largest country of the world.

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• India has a total land boundary of about 15,200 km. • there is a time difference of two hours between Gujarat and Arunachal Pradesh • India’s total length of coastline is 6,100 km of its mainland and after including Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep islands, it is about 7,516 km

India: Latitude and Longitude

• Meridian (82.5) crossing through the Mirzapur city of Uttar Pradesh is taken as India’s Standard Meridian. • Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time by 5 hours and 30 minutes. • Tropic of cancer passes through Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and Mizoram.

Boundaries of India

• India shares its international boundaries with Afghanistan and Pakistan in the North- West; China, Tibet (China), Nepal, and Bhutan in the North and North East; and Myanmar and Bangladesh in the East. • Southern most point is Indra point in Nicobar islands • Boarder with Bangladesh and Pakistan is known as Radicliff line • Boarder with china is Macmohan line • Boarders in the order of Length 1. Bangladesh 4096.70kms 2. China 4057kms 3. Pakistan: 3323 kms 4. Nepal: 1751 kms 5. Myanmar: 1643 kms 6. Bhutan: 699 kms 7. Afghanistan: 106 kms

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Regions of Peninsular India.

Deccan Plateau.

• Kathiawar. • M.H. • North Karnataka • Telangana’s Northern part. • Deccan plateau is a volcanic plateau due to fissure volcanism.

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• Inter trapped structure. • Deccan Plateau slops towards east. • Maximum thickness in the west towards Bombay because lava moves from west to east. • Sahyadris: Northern Western Ghats, (North of Goa) are edges of Deccan Plateau. • Palghat Pass is between Nilgiri & Anamalai hills. • Sahyadris: Made up of volcanic rocks. • Basalt: Volcanic rock in Deccan Plateau. • Basalt: Creates black soil. Black soils are in-sithu soils developed by Basalt rocks. • Basalt: makes up entire ocean crust. Most part of entire ocean crust • Hence, most part of earth’s surface is made up of Basalt Rocks. • Deccan plateau is the largest plateau of India by surface area 5 lakh sq/kms.

Chota Nagpur Plateau.

• Jharkhand. • West of Chhattisgarh. • West of Orissa. • A very small part of west Bengal in west. • 2nd largest plateau by surface area. • Oldest rocks of world are found in Jharkhand. • Plateau within Peatlands structure. • Peatlands: Ranchi and Hazaribagh • Hazaribagh: north of Damodar river . • It is taller than Ranchi. • Parsavanath Hills(famous for Jain temple) is highest elevation of Chota Nagpur Plateau. • Ranchi: South of Damodar. • India’s richest mineral rich regions. • 40% of India’s metallic mineral deposits are in Chota Nagpur Plateau.

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Boundaries

• East: Rajmahal Hills • West: Mikala Hills. • North: Ganga. • South: Subarnarekha.

Aravallis

• India’s oldest tectonic mountains (or fold mountains) • 2b years. • Himalayas are only 6500 years old. • Red sand stone: A vindhyan rock present in Aravalli. • Delhi Range: (Resina Hills) is the northern part of Aravallis. • Mt. Abu block: Aravallis are tallest sections. • Guru Shikar: tallest peak of Aravalli, 1722 mtrs. • Dilwara temple is an important Jain Temple in Guru Sikhar • Mt Abu is the wettest area in entire Aravallis. • Nakki lake: Small artificial lake on top of Mt Abu.

Rajmahal Hills

• Best example of relict/residual mountains. • Relict mountains are formed by erosions of sands. • Very old basalt Rocks are found here (older then Deccan basalt). • Trap Structure called Rajmahal Traps is found in this region. • Black soils of west Bengal come from these hills. • Raajmahal-Garo gap: via this Ganga flows into Bay of Bengal (in south directions). • It is the continuations of Chota Nagpur plateau.

Meghalaya plateau

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• Shillong peak is the highest point of Meghalaya plateau. • India’s most rapidly rising plateau. 100 cm in 100 years.

Western Ghats

• Between 11’ N and 21’N. • Sahyadri: North of 16’ or north of Goa. It’s a part of Deccan plateau. • Two passes. • Thalghat Pass: between Mumbai and Nasik. • Borghat Pass: between Mumbai and Pune.

Nilgiris

• Blue mountains of India. Granitic rocks in Nilgiris are blue in colour. • Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats meet at Nilgiri Hills • Doddabeta: 2637 mtrs is a part of Ootaccamund hills or Ooty hills. • It marks the junction between eastern and western Ghats.

Southern western Ghats

• Anamalai Hills. • Palghat pass: between Annamalai and Nilgiri hills. It is the most important break in western Ghat (24 kms). • Anamudi peak: this is the highest peak in south India of 2695 mtrs. • It is also the highest peak in whole Western Ghats

Eastern Ghats.

• Mahendragiri is the tallest peak of eastern Ghats. It is in Maliya Konda Range(1501 mtrs)

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The Extra Peninsular Land Mass of India

Himalayas

• Coalitions between Indian and European plate began 65m years ago. • Total No. of Coalitions happened so far is five times • Therefore Himalayas became block by block (independent blocks).

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Trans Himalayas.

Karakorams

• largest collection of snow and ice is found here. • Divides between central and south Asian rivers. • Glaciers of Karakoram: • 1st Siyachin: world’s largest glacier out of Polar region. • 2nd Fedchenko • 3rd Hispar • 4th Biafo. • Largest collection of tallest peaks is part of it • It is known as Qogir by the Chinese. • Peaks in the order of length: K2, Casharbrum, Broad, Crasharbrum 2. • 5.5 kms is the Average height of this region. • Muztagh pass: in the further east of Karkorams • It marks the present boarder between Pakistan and China. • Khunjerab Pass in Karakoram is the border between Pakistan and Xinjiang region of China (Uigur Muslims are populated in this region)

Ladak Ranges.

• North of Indus and South of Shyok rivers. • Rakaposhi peaks is the tallest. • Kailas Ranges is the continuation of Ladak in Tibet. • Ladakh plateau in Jammu and Kashmir is India’s highest plateau. • Chusul is the highest Airfield of India.it is a part of Ladak plateau.

Greater Himalayas/Himadri.

• Average height is 6.1 kms. • Out of total 28 tallest peaks in the world with 8 kms and above, 14 is Greater Himalayas. • 4 tallest

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1st Mt Everest, 2nd Kanchenjunga1, 3rd Lhotse1, 4th Makalu. Passes. • Raxaul pass is situated in India-Nepal highway in the east Champaran district of Bihar. • Ship ki La pass: It is Himachal Pradesh. It is also border post between India and China. River Sutlej enters India form Tibet through this pass. It was a part of ancient silk trade route with China • Zozila Pass: Leh to Srinagar. between the valley of Kashmir and the Kargil district, and is the only Western entrance to the highlands of Ladakh

Lesser Himalayas/ Himachal.

• Average Height is 3.5 kms. Well developed in west Himalayas. • Pir Panjal is the last ranges to be raised in Himalayas. It raised once more after the development of Shivaliks. • Banihal pass is in Pir Panjal. Jammu and Srinagar highway passes through it. • Sonapani glacier is the only one in Pir panjal. • Dhaladhar Ranges is in South east continuation of Pir panjal.

Hill Stations.

• Shimla, Dalhousie, Dharamshala.

Musoori Range.

Outer Himalayas/Shiwaliks

• The entire length is 2400 kms. Average height of 1.5 kms. • In Arunachal Pradesh it is known as Abhor, Mishmi, Miri and Daffla. • In Jammu and Kashmir it is known as Jammu Hills. • In West Bengal it is known as Darjeeling hills.

Other Major Passes of Himalaya

• Bomdila Pass is Arunachal Pradesh • Nathula pass is at India China boarder in Gangtok, Sikkim

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• Mohan Pass is the only major pass in Shiwaliks (Sikkim)

Islands of India

Andaman and Nicobar

• Saddle is the highest peak in Andaman. • Duncan Passage is between south and little • Barren and Narcondum are active volcanic island. All islands are very hilly and forested. • Car Nicobar are surrounded by coral reefs.

Lakshadweep

• All are coral islands of 32 sq km in total. • Minicoy is the largest with 4.5 sq kms in total. • 9 Degree Channel passes between Cannanore and Minicoy • Coir industry is the most important industry Soils of India.

Types of Soils in India

Black Soils.

• The 2nd largest surface is covered by it after Alluvial soil. • It is in-situ soil • In Situ soil are the soils produced by rocks. • Black soils are in situ soils produced by Basalt rocks, so it is called volcanic soils. • Maharashtra has the largest area of black soils and is of High fertility.

Red and Yellow soils.

• In situ soils developed from granite rocks. • Most widely distributes soil is Red Soils. • The red colour forms because of a thin film of iron oxide. • Yellow soils have hydrated iron oxide. It occurs as patches in Red soils. • Tamil Nadu has the largest area for occurrence of red and yellow soil. Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• It is favourable for pulses cultivation.

Laterite Soil.

• It is found only in area of abundant availability of heat. • Leaching in this area leads to the formation of laterite soil. • It is only found in hill tops and plateau tops where the rain fall is very high. Eg: Rajmahal hills. • They are known as cap soils because found in shape of cap. • Honey comb structure • It is found mostly on the Eastern Ghats and the Southern parts of Western Ghats.

Alluvial Soils

• Northern plains and Deltaic Plains. • It is marshy soil • Khadar is new alluvial • It is most fertile of Alluvial. Alluvial has maximum diversity of mineral species. • It is the basis of its fertility. • Loam are Alluvial soils. • By volume alluvial soils are most dominant because 1100 mtrs wide and 2400 km long Indo Gangetic plain is filled by it.

Desert soils of Rajasthan.

• Excessively rich in Phosphorous. • It is filled with Phosphate rock under the plains of Rajasthan. • Sandy in texture. • They are ex-situ. These are marine sands posted by waves and currents of ocean floor.

Podzol soils.

• Found in Himalayas. This are developed in very cold climate but with lot of water.

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Largest by area.

• 1st Alluvial soil, 2nd Black soil, 3rd Desert,4th Red soil.

Plains of India

Rajasthan Plains.

• It was the part of continental shelf of Arabian sea 200 years ago. • Sands and silts of Rajasthan Plains are not a result of deposition by rivers and are not alluvial sands. • RP are neither aggregational nor Alluvial. all others are aggradational. • RP are made of Marine Sands. Rich in oil and natural gas because • Crude oils in found in Barmer. • Luni is the largest river of RP. It loses in the Rajastan plains and does not join any Ocean • Sambhar lake is adjacent to Jaipur city.

Punjab Haryana plains.

• It is Indus plains. • It is made up of two doabs, Ravi and Bist doabs.

Brahmaputra Plains.

• River Terraces in upper Brahmaputra plains. • It has the national water way No.3. from Sadiya to Dhubri

Climate of India.

Hot/dry are from March to May.

• Barmer in Rajesthan) has the highest temperature of 48’c. • Loo are typical dust storms formed in northern plain in hot season. • Pre- monsoon showers of India are thunder storms by nature. It is formed by severe heat in may. • Mango shower are pre monsoon shower in Kerala. Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• In Assam it is known as Bordoi chilla. • In West Bengal it is known as kalbai sakhi.

Hot/Wet season are from June to Sep.

• Known as the season of summer monsoon in India with 70% of India’s rainfall. • Weather disturbances in this season. • Monsoon depression: Orissa, Bengal, Bihar faces cyclone like disturbances. • Malabar coast has the largest rainfall in this season.

Cool/Dry season are from September- mid of December.

• Season of Retreating monsoons. • Rainfall in Rajasthan, coastal Tamil Nadu. K.G Delta in A.P and NE India. • Weather disturbances in east India: Tropical cyclones.

Cold-Dry season are from December-Feb.

• Weather disturbances: cyclones in J&K, Himachal, Chandigarh, Haryana, Delhi, and Punjab. • In India, it is called as western disturbances.

Development of South West Monsoon

• The southwest monsoon arrives in two branches: Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. • The latter Arabian Sea Brach extends toward a low-pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times stronger than the Bay of Bengal branch. • The southwest monsoon typically breaks over Indian Territory by around 25 May, when it lashes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. • It strikes the Indian mainland around 1 June near the Malabar Coast of Kerala. • By 9 June, it reaches Mumbai • it appears over Delhi by 29 June. • Burst of Monsoon is First appearance of Monsoon in large amount of rainfall • It happens on Malabar coast by first week of June ..

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Arabian Sea Branch

Stream 1

• One branch of it hits western Ghats and gives a lot of rainfall to Western Ghats. • Then Enters Andhra Pradesh and moves Rajasthan • No rainfall in Tamil Nadu because it is in the leeward area of Western Ghats.

2nd stream

• Reaches Sahyadris • Rainfall on Konkan coast, gives rainfall and enters Chota Nagpur plateau. • Chota Nagpur plateau: Bay of Bengal branch and Arabian sea branch meet here.

3rd Stream

• Comes to Gir ranges in Gujrath. • It gives rainfall to Katcch in Gujrath • Aravallis do not obstruct. • Goes to Punjab, Haryana and reaches to J&K. High Himalayas block and it returns to Ganga plain.

Bay of Bengal Branch

• Starts rain in Andaman and Nicobar. • Enters Burma. • Arakan ranges diverts it into North • Comes to Bangladesh (entirely delta in Bangladesh) • Then to Meghalaya Plateau. • Comes to south slopes of Khasi and gets heavy rainfall at Mousinrum and Chirapunchi • Through Assam and Orissa enters to chota Nagpur plateau.

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North East monsoon (Dec- Feb)

• It is NE trade winds which is normally on landmass of India throughout the year. • It gives rainfall to KG Delta and coastal T.N. • Gives rainfall to entire Kerala. • Maximum amount of monsoonal rainfall in July-40%, June-August 30%. • Kerala gets largest rainfall from monsoons

Natural Vegetation of India.

Tropical Forests

1. Tropical evergreen forest. • Rainfall 300-250 cm/year. • Only in Peninsular India. • Sahyadris, Andaman & Nicobar, NE India, Western Ghats and slopes of shiwaliks. • Not above 900m high. 2. Tropical semi evergreen forest.

• It is a mixed forest of evergreen trees and deciduous species • Species: All the above and Champa and Aini. • A narrow strip of sahyadri. • Largest area: in Orissa hill and West Bengal hills. • Rainfall 250-200 cm/year. 3. Tropical dry Evergreen forests.

• Only along the hills of Tamil Nadu coast. • Rainfall of 100cm/year by NE Monsoons. • Species: Neem, all varieties of Palm, casuarinas. 4. Tropical Moist Deciduous. • 150-100cm rainfall. • Grow flowers before they develop leaves. • Hills of central India. North-east hills, eastern Himalayas. • Species: Teak, Sal, Sandalwood

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5. Tropical Dry Forests. • Tropical Dry Deciduous. 100-75 cm/year of Rainfall. • Hills of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra. • Species: Sal and Teak. • Sal dominates in eastern India where rainfall is more. • Teak in western eastern coastal India where rainfall is low. • Burma has the largest reservoirs of Teak. • Russia has the world’s largest reservoir of forest. • Sequoia: softwood of California (red wood) is the world’s tallest tree. 6. Tropical Thorn • 100-60 cm/year of rainfall. • Katch, Rajasthan and Interior Deccan and rain shadow regions • All species are different varieties of Acacia. • 2 species of Acacia dominate India’s forest: Babul and Kikar. • Parkland appearance: few trees and lot of grass. • In Africa, it is called Savana forests.

Temperate Forests/Sub- tropical

1. Broad leaf Hill forest/Sub-tropical wet land.

• On hill slops on the height of 900-1800 metres. • Mixed forest of Temperate evergreen forests and Tropical evergreen. Eg: Nilgiris, Annamalai, Palani, tall hills of Chhattisgarh and eastern Himalayas. • Species: Oak (commercial Oak) and Chestnut. • Shoal forest: Only in Silent Valley in Nilgiris. Oldest forest of India. • Lion taled Macaque is species found only here (A type of monkey)

2. Temperate dry evergreen forest.

• Slopes of Shiwaliks and western Himalayas slopes after a height of 1000 metres only. • Only one in India which resembles Mediterranean forest. • Species: olive.

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3. Montane wet temperate forest.

• Found at slopes in 1800-3000 metres high. • Eastern Himalayas of Assam and Bengal. Hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. • Species: Oak and Pine

4. Alpine Shrub Temperate Forest.

• At 3500-4500 metres height, only in Himalayas • Short trees, evergreen. • Stunted varieties of coniferous.

Statistical Data on India’s Forests.

• Largest area of forestry of all types. Madhya Pradesh (77,462) Arunachal Pradesh (67,248) Chhattisgarh (55,586)

Dense forest: Ground shading is 40%.

Largest area under dense forest: Madhya Pradesh.

Largest area under open forest: Maharashtra.

Largest area under Shrub forest: Madhya Pradesh.

Largest area under mangrove forest: West Bengal, Gujrat, Andaman & Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh(KG Delta) respectively

Forest area as a percent of state area.

Mizoram (88.93%) Lakshadweep (84.56%) A&N islands (81.84%) Arunachal Pradesh (80.30%

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Forest type of India which covers largest area.

• Moist Deciduous forest • Dry Deciduous forest.

Largest producer of fuel wood.

• Karnataka

Largest producer of timber wood.

• Jammu & Kashmir.

Mangrove Forest.

• Evergreen(Tropical) • Shrub forest. • Always confined to Inter tidal zone or littoral Zone. • Trees of it can only grow in Saline water. • Heat timber. • Species: Agar, Sundari and Palm. • Sundarbans is the world’s largest Mangrove forest (In West Bengal)..

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Rivers of India.

• Himalayan rivers are youthful. • Conducive for hydro-power generations.

Indus River.

• Born in Mangareva lake in Tibet. • Circles Leh in Ladakh. • Indus in India, Pakistan& Afghanistan. • Indus in India: only through Leh district in J&K. Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• It is the longest river in Pakistan and known as the national river of Pakistan

Jhelum river.

• Born in pir panjal ranges close to verinag. • It forms India-Pakistan boundary. Enters Pakistan in Potwar plateau. • 3rd longest tributary of Indus. • Flows through Srinagar & Wular lake.

Chenab River.

• Born in Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh. • It forms due to the merger of Chandra & Bhaga rivers which unite to form chandrabhaga. • Chandrabhaga is the name of chanab in H.P. • It is the longest tributary of Indus and receives waters of Ravi & Jhelum.

Ravi river

• Born in the Kullu hills of H.P close to west of Rohtang pass. • Enters Pakistan through south of Amritsar. • 2nd longest tributary..

Sutlej river

• Born in Rakas lake near Mansarover lake. Enters India north of Shipkila Pass. • 4th longest tributary of Indus. Bakra & Nangal dam is on Sutlej River • It is the highest gravity dam in India (Himachal Pradesh)

Beas

• Shortest tributary of Indus . originates in Kullu hills close to Rohtang Pass. • Cuts across Dhualadhar ranges, joins Sutley close to Hariki.

Tributaries of Indus on the basis of Length

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1. Chenab 2. Ravi 3. Jhelum 4. Sutlej 5. Beas

Indus River Water Treaty

• Between India and Pakistan • Mediated by World Bank • Eastern Rivers: Beas, Ravi and Sutlej are given to India • Western Rivers: Indus, Chenab and Jhelum are given to Pakistan • Signed in 1960

Brahmaputra

• Originates in Chemayungdung Glacier in Kailash range. • Called Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet • 2900 kms. • Only 916Kms in India • It flows via Indus switcher zone between Kailas and Greater Himalayas. • Enters India via Dihang/Siang Gorge and enters the place of Sadiya inAssam

tributaries from North bank Tributaries from South bank

The Jiadhal The Noa Dehing

The Subansiri The Buridehing

The Siang The Debang

The Kameng (Jiabharali in Assam) The Dikhow

The Dhansiri(North) The Dhansiri(S)

The Puthimari The Kopili

The Pagladiya The Digaru

The Manas The Dudhnai

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The Champamati The Krishnai

The Saralbhanga

The Aie

The Sankosh

• After ganga joins it in Bangladesh, it is called Padma and after

Ganga Basin.

• 26 % of India’s geographic area. • Largest basin area is in UP • Shortest Basin area is in Delhi.

Ganga River.

• Born in Gangotri glaciers in Bhagirati in Uttarkhasi district of Uttarkhand. • Baghirati joins Alakanda at Dev prayag and now it is called Ganga which enters Indo Gangetic Plain at the place Haridwar • 2525 kms long. • Ganga alone flows through 6 states. • Longest: UP, Bengal, Bihar and Uttarkhand. • It forms a part of the boundary of UP & Bihar.

Tributaries of Ganga

1. Yamuna:

• Originates in Yamunotri glaciers on the Bandarpunch in Uttarkhasi. • It is the longest and largest tributary of Ganga. • Confluence with Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad)

Tributaries of Yamuna.

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• joins Yamuna at the Triveni Sangamam at Prayag in U.P. b) Sindh • BORN IN Malwa Plateau of M.P & joins Yamuna at a distance from Haripur. c) Betwa • Born in the Vindhyan Mountains of Bhopal, joins Yamuna near Haripur. 2. Ghagara: • 2nd longest tributary of ganga. • Born in Kailas ranges south of Mansarovar lake. • India has 45% of the basin of Ghagara. • Joins Ganga in Bihar • It is the largest tributary of Ganga by volume of water • It is the second largest by length after Yamuna 3. Gomati

• 3rd longest tributaries of Ganga. • Born in the Shiwaliks of Uttarkhand. • Joins Ganga beyond Lucknow. 4. Gangtok • Born in Nepal-Tibet boarder of Himalayas. • Enters India from Nepal close to Triveni (town in Nepal). • Joins Ganga near Hajipur, Bihar. 5. Budi Gangtok • Born in Lower Himalaya in India- Nepal boarder. • Joins Ganga close to Monghyr in Bihar. 6. Kosi • Most meandry in the tributaries of ganga. • The tributary of Ganga which has Shifted its course most. Called Sapt Kosi –Nepal. • Joins ganga near Bhagalpur, Bihar. • It is called Sorrow of Bihar 7. Ram Ganga • Born in Nanital ranges of of Uttarkhand Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• Joins Ganga at Kanoj,UP. 8. Kali • Swiftest tributary of ganga. • Born in the Zaskar ranges along India- Nepal boarder in Uttarkhand. • It forms the complete boarder of Nepal with Uttarkhand. • Enters India as river Sharada. • Joins Ganga close to Tanatpur, Uttarkhand. 9. Son • Born in the Amarkantak plateau. • Flows north to join Ganga in Danapur in Patna district. 10. Damodar

• Born in the peninsular hills of Chota Nagpur in Jharkhand. • It is called as sorrow of Bengal

Peninsular Rivers

Godavari.

• Also, called Vridh Ganga. • 48.6% of its basin M.H. • 23.8% in Andhra and Telangana • 20.7% in Madhya Pradesh. & Chattisgarh. • Rest in Karnataka and Orissa ( River Indravati). • Born in Brahmagiri mountain in Nasik district. • Longest tributary is Manjira. • Others: Banganga, Indravati, Sabari, (Wardha). • Indravati joins Godawari from Orissa-Chhattisgarh border.

Krishna

• Born in Mahabaleshwar plateau of Sahyadri. • Its basin states are Karnataka=44%. • Andhra Pradesh=29.5%

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• Maharasthra= 27%. • Longest tributary is Bhima. • Bhima joins Krishna in Karnataka. • Others: Tungabhadra joins Krishna in AP. • Important tributaries: Gatapraba, Koyna, Malpraba. • Koyna dam is the highest dam in Western Ghats.

Cauvery

• Born in Talakaveri in Coorg district of Karnataka (Western Ghats) • Basin states: Tamil Nadu=55.5%, Karnataka=41%, Kerala & Puducherry the rest. • Form Sivasamudran falls in Mysore district. • Longest tributary: Bhavani. • Others: Bhawani, Kabini, Hemavati & Amarvati.

Mahanadi

• Born in Sihawa in Chattisgarh. • Basin states: Chattisgarh-53%, Orissa-46.5%, Jharkhand & M.P- the rest. • Seonath is the longest tributary. • Others: Hasdeo, Mand, Telen, Ong, & IB. • Mahanadi starts forming delta close to Katak.

Brahmani

• Passes through Odisha due to merger of Koel & Sankh streams. • Flows to Bay of Bengal.

Narmada

• Born in Amarkandak plateau in Chhattisgarh • Flows between Vindhyas & Satpuras. • Basin states: M.P-87%, Gujrat-11.5%, Maharastra-1.5%. • Hiran is the longest tributary. • Others- Shakkar, Tawa, Kolar & Banjar.

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• Narmada forms Dhuandhar falls in Jabalpur district. • Sardar Sarovar Dam is constructed on that • It flows to Arabian Sea

Tapti

• Flows between Satpuras and Ajanta hills in Khandesh. • Basin states- M.H- 79%, M.P-15%, Gujrat-6%. • Most important tributary is Purna. It also flows in Khardesh. • Others- Arunavati & Gomai. • It also flows to Arabian Sea

Sabarmati

• Born in Dhebar lake of Udaipur, Rajasthan. • Basin states: Gujrath-81%, Rajasthan- 19%. • Most important tributaries are Hathmati & Vatrak. • It also flows Arabian Sea

Suvarnaveka

• Known as the Gold river of India. • Born in the Ranchi plateau in Jharkhand.. • Forms border between Bengal and Orissa. • Basin states- Jharkhand- 71%, Orissa: 16%, Rest- West Bengal.

Mahi

• Born in Vindhyan ranges of M.P. • Basin states: Rajasthan-47%, M.P- 19%, Gujrat-34%.

Luni

• Known as the salt river of India. • Flows into the Rann of Kutch and does not reach into any sea.

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Longest rivers of India

• Ganga, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada respectively

Longest peninsular rivers

• Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Cauvery, Tapti respectively

Catchment Area of Indian rivers

• Ganga, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi respectively

Catchment of Peninsular rivers

• Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, Narmada, Cauvery, Tapti respectively

Superimposed rivers

• Structure is already present& rivers are newly formed. • Peninsular rivers are superimposed &they are in old age stage. So no sediments.

Types of Irrigation in India

Well irrigation

• No permanent rivers. • Water table is very close to surface. • Humid climate. • UP, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat has the largest area under well irrigation respectively. • Largest irrigation in India is well-irrigation.

Canal irrigation

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• 2nd most important source of irrigation in India. • Ranking: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan.

Tank Irrigation

• Rocky land. • Poor in underground water. • No permanent rivers. • Ranking wise: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Orissa.

Uttar Pradesh Largest area under irrigation.

Punjab as the largest net irrigated area as a percent of agricultural area.

80% of entire water of India is deployed for irrigation.

50% by underground water.

Important irrigation project in India

Bakra Dam

• Highest gravity dam in India. • Gravity Dam- water enters automatically to reservoir and to dam by gravitational force. • Across Sutlej in Himachal Pradesh. • Beneficiary state: Punjab, Haryana & Chandigarh.

Nangal Dam

• Also a gravity Dam. • In Punjab across Sutlej.

Salal Dam

• Across Chenab in J&K. • Hydro and Irrigation project.

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Nagarjuna Sagar

• World’s highest Masonry class. • Across river Krishna, Andhra Pradesh.

Damodar Valley Project

• India’s first multipurpose project in West Bengal and Jharkhand. • DVP includes four Dams , Maithon dam, Panchet dam, Thilaiya dam and Konar Dam. • Konar dam is across Konar. • Panchet Dam is on Damodar.

Hirakand Dam

• Longest Dam in India. • Across Mahanadi, Orissa.

Rihand Dam

• Across Rihand, tributary of Son. • In UP. • Created India’s largest Artificial lake (Gobond Ballabh Pant Sagar in UP)

Chambal Multipurpose Project

• Joint project of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. • Includes 3 irrigation dams. • Gandhi Sagar dam, Madhya Pradesh. • Ranapratap sagar dam in Rajasthan. • Jawahar sagar dam (new name of Kota dam) in Rajasthan. • Matatila dam across Betwa joint venture between Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh.

Beas Dam

• Across Beas in Punjab. • Joint venture of Punjab, Haryana & Rajasthan.

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Gangtok Project

• International Hydro cum irrigation project between India & Nepal across Gangtok along Nepal-UP Boarder.

Kosi Project

• International Project between India-Nepal across Kosi in Bihar.

Ukai Project

• Hydro cum irrigation project across Tapti, Gujrat.

Kakra Para Project:

• Hydro cum irrigation • Across Tapti, Gujrat.

Mahatma Gandhi Hydro Power Project

• Across river Shravati, close to Jog falls, Karnataka.

Gadhaprabha Project

• Joint of Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka. • Irrigation project in Karnataka in Gadhaprabha, tributary of Krishna.

Tawa Project

• Irrigation project across tawa in Madhya Pradesh.

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Agriculture in India

• 53% kharif and 47% Rabi food grains output. • Largest producer of kharif and Rabi food grains is Uttar Pradesh. • MH largest producer of non-food grain crops.

Kharif: June-October

• Growth in Kharif coincides with south west Monsoon. • Rabi: season starts in October and last till Feb or early March. • Rabi is an important agricultural season for northern plains. Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• 80% of Rabi crop is watered by retreating monsoon. • Rabi: Wheat dominates. • Kharif: Rice dominates.

Zaid Season

• March- May. • Between Rabi and Kharif. • Pulses and oil seeds.

Rice

• Three varieties of Rice(seasonal) • Aman- Rabi rice, Aus- Kharif rice, Boro- early summer(spring) • Rice is the only crop under mono culture. • Monoculture: agriculture in all the three seasons. • In east & west coastal plains. • Largest producer of rice in India is UP. • India is the largest producer in the world • Paddy is the rice of low lands. • Rice is cultivated without irrigation if rainfall is more than 100cm/year. • Jasmine rice: Thailand (Aromatic rice). • Pusa I $ II is almost are like Basmati and India has registered under GI.

Wheat

• 80% of crops are irrigated. • Grows in regions where rainfall is not more than 70cm. • UP is the largest producer and largest in Area. • China is the largest producer in the world • In winter, it grows rapidly.

Jawar

• It is Rabi & Kharif crop in India.

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• Also, called great millet or Swargen. • Regions of less than 45 cm of rainfall is suitable. • High temperature of around 30’c. • India has world’s highest productivity of Jowar. • Maharashtra is the largest producer and largest area. • Nigeria is the largest producer in the World

Bajra

• Also, called Rush millet. • In India, it’s a short season Kharif product. • It cannot tolerate heavy rains and compared to Jowar it grows in poorer soils & more drier conditions. • Rajasthan is the largest in area and Gujrat is the largest in production. • India is the largest producer in the world

Ragi

• Also called finger millet. • Kharif crop. Rainfall- 50/100 cm. • Temperature:20-30’C. • Karnataka has the largest area and producer of 55%. • India is the largest producer in the world

Barely

• Rabi crop. • In Northern plains, only. • Grows in more Alkaline soils and more cooler conditions and lesser rainfall compared to wheat. • Uttar Pradesh has the largest area and production. • ¾ of India’s Barely comes from UP and Rajasthan. • Russia is the largest producer in the world

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Maize

• Kharif crop. • High temperature crop,35’C in growth season. • 75 cm of rainfall/year. • For India, it is grown as an inter crop with pulses and oil seeds • Rajasthan has the largest Area and Karnataka is the largest producer. • Argentina is the largest producer in the world

Pulses

• India is the world’s largest producer/area and importer. • Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of Pulses • Mostly import from Australia.

Cotton

• 70% of India’s cotton is BT cotton. • Genetically modified crops: United States, Argentina, Brazil, India are the largest producers of BT Cotton • Typical Kharif crop. • 50-80 cm rainfall is needed minimum • 150-200 cm ideal rainfall. 21’C temperature. • Gujrat is the largest producer • India is world’s third largest producer after China & U.S.A. • Maharastra- Rainfeed. Gujrat- Irrigated.

Sugar Cane

• Brazil is the world’s largest producer of sugarcane. • India ranks third. • It is known as Eleven-month crop. • Main growing season is Kharif • Clay-water retentive. 150-100 cm/year. • UP is the largest area and producer. Maharastra is second. Copyright © Academy of Civil Services www.acsassam.com

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• Brazil is the largest producer in the world • It is included in the category of Beverages crops.

Tea

• India is World’s biggest exporter of black tea. • Pluck leaves on 2nd year. • Tannic acid in tea leaves. • 21’C temperature. • Acidic soil which has potassium is suitable for tea • 200-150 cm rainfall. Grows in cooler hill shades. • Assam gives more than 50% of tea output in India. • 2nd west Bengal, 3rd Tamil Nadu,4th Kerala. • China is the largest producer in the world

Coffee

• It requires hot and humid season.200-150 cm/year rainfall. • Hot hill slopes. soils are slightly alkaline. • 24-26’C temperature. • Biennial tree :i.e, coffee beans once in 2 years. • Found in two varieties: Robusta termed as best quality. Arabica. • More than half of India’s production : Robusta. • 80% of India’s coffee is exported and 80% of India’s tea is consumed. • World’s biggest producer is Brazil with 30%. • In India- Karnataka (70%), Kerala, Tamil Nadu ,Andhra Pradesh.

Natural Rubber

• It originates in brazil. India is the 4th largest producer in the world. 1st Thailand,2nd Indonesia,3rd Malaysia,4th India. • 300 cm of yearly rainfall.25-35’C temperature. • Well drained soils. No stagnant water. • In India Kerala is the largest with 90% of area and output.

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Jute.

• India is the world’s largest producer, area & importer. • Hugli banks-900 jute mills. • 90% relative humidity of atmosphere is needed. • Heavy rainfall of 150 cm/year. 25-35’C temperature. • Grown in Swampy, Marshy soils. • West Bengal is the largest area & production with 75%. • It is called golden fibre.

Mesta

• Fibrous crop like jute. • Known as Sister of jute. • 1st Andhra Pradesh

Tobacco

• India ranks 3rd in the world.1st China, 2nd Brazil. • 18’C temperature. 50-75cm /year rainfall. • Soil conditions are more important than climate. • Mahrashtra is the largest producer in India

Cashew Nut

• India is the world’s largest producer, area, importer& exporter. • 1st Kerala,2nd Maharastra,3rd Andhra Pradesh,4th Karnataka.

Coconut

• Kerala, Tamil Nadu & Karnataka are all largest producer. • Top producer in the world: Indonesia • Kerala is the largest producer in India

Other Points

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• Kerala leading producer of Cardamom, ginger & Pepper. • Maharashtra: grapes, citrus fruit& onion. • Tamil Nadu- Banana. • J&K- Apple.

Livestock of India

• 24% of Agro GDP is livestock. 5.8% of overall GDP is livestock. • India has 50% of world number of Buffalo. • 2nd largest population of cattle in the world. • 2nd in goat in the world. • 3rd largest population of sheep in the world.

Composition of livestock of India

• 42%- cattle,23%- Goats, 19%- Buffallows,12%- Sheep.

Fisheries

• India is the 2nd big producer of fish from inland • 5th biggest producer in Marine fisheries. • We produce 50% from marine and 50% from inland. • West coast is rich in Pelagic fish species like Mackerel& Tuna. • East-coast is rich in Shrimp like Prawns. • India’s leader in Marine fisheries.1st Kerala& 2nd Gujrat. • Largest producer of inland fisheries is West Bengal & Gujrat. • West Bengal is the largest producer of inland fisheries

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Minerals of India

Coal fields in Assam

• Nazira valley field, Mikr, and Makum.

Oil and Natural Gas

• India has less than 1% of total oil reserves of the world • Oil basins: Bombay high- offshore field, 60% of India’s oil reserves.

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Cambay Basin

• Partly on shore and off shore in Gujrat. 20% of India’s reserve. • New discoveries in the Cambay basin are Lakshmi, Gouri, and Bhima.

Assam

• 19% of Indian reserve. • Oldest field is Digboi, • Others are Naharkatia,Moran, killi boy& Laqwa.

Krishna Godavari Basin Andhra Pradesh.

• Both on shore and off shore. • New discoveries in KG: Annapurna, Karaka, Durga (D1 ,D2 ,D3).

Tripura

• Natural gas in Gojalia field.

Rajasthan

• Barmer district has new oil fields at Mangala & Bhagyan. • In Jaisalmer gas has been discovered

• Largest producer of crude:1st Maharashtra,2nd Gujrat,3rd Assam,4th Tamil Nadu. • Largest producer of natural gas: 1st Maharashtra,2nd Gujrat,3rd Assam,4th Tamil Nadu.

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Indian Industry

Steel Industry

• First attempt to produce steel 1813. Portonova Tamil Nadu. • First modern steel plant is Saatchi. Jamshedpur 1907. • Steel was produced in 1918. • Billai steel plant: Drug district, Chhattisgarh was set up with Russian help in 1954. • It is the largest producer of crude steel in public sector.

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Bokaro Steel Plant in Jharkhand

• Set up with Russian help in 1972. • Gets power from Damodar valley power project .

Raurkela Steel Plant

• It is in Orissa with German help in 1959.

Durgapur Steel Plant.

• Burdwan district in west Bengal. • Set up with the help of the United Kingdom in 1962.

Cotton- textile Industry

• Largest organised industry of India. Accounts for 1/3 of India’s export earnings. • 4% of India’s GDP. • 1st cotton mill is Fortglaster, Howrah, West Bengal in 1818. • 1st modern mill at Bombay in 1851.

Handloom Sector

• Roughly 15% of cotton is produced in Handloom • Power loom produces- 63%. Rest- mill sector 22%. • Largest employer is Handloom. • Largest producer of cotton cloth- Maharashtra,

Jute Industry

• India is the largest producer of raw jute & jute good and 2nd largest exporter. • 1st jute was produced at Rishra, west Bengal in 1855. • West Bengal accounts 60% jute output & 72% jute mills.

Silk Industry

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• India is the 2nd largest producer of raw silk after China. • 1st modern silk mill is Howra-1883. • Karnataka: 70% of raw silk output & produce Mulberry silk. • West Bengal also produces Mulberry silk with important centre at Murshidabad and Malda • Assam is the top producer of Muga Silk. Most of units are in Silchar. • Jharkhand: Chief producer of tassar silk.

Woollen Textile Industry

• Punjab is the largest producer

Cement Industry

• India- Third largest producer after china and japan • Firstly, produced in Chennai 1904 • Top producer – Madhya Pradesh

Sugar Industry

• Second largest agriculture-based industry after cotton • First sugar mill- Allahabad 1876 • Top producer- is Maharshtra • MH

Transport Geography

• National highways accounts for less than 2% of road route length • But carry 40% of road based cargo • Madhya Pradesh comes first in the length of national Highways • Road density is highest in Kerala • Maharashtra comes first in total road length • India- third largest road network in the world after USA and china • Golden quadrilateral – connects Kolkata,, Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi

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Major National Highways in India

• National Highway 1: New Delhi to Amritsar (Attari in Pakistan Boarder) • National Highway 2: Delhi to Kolkata • National Highway 7: Varanasi to Amritsar (it is the longest in India)

Longest running train in India is Vivek Express from Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari.