Forests, and Livelihoods

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Ornamental, crop, or invasive? The history of the Empress () in the USA

Whitney Adrienne Snow

To cite this article: Whitney Adrienne Snow (2015) Ornamental, crop, or invasive? The history of the Empress tree (Paulownia) in the USA, Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 24:2, 85-96, DOI: 10.1080/14728028.2014.952353

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2014.952353

Published online: 08 Sep 2014.

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Download by: [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] Date: 10 October 2015, At: 11:22 Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 2015 Vol. 24, No. 2, 85–96, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2014.952353

Ornamental, crop, or invasive? The history of the Empress tree (Paulownia) in the USA Whitney Adrienne Snow*

Department of History, Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, TX, USA

The Paulownia tree first arrived in the USA in the early nineteenth century and quickly transitioned from an exotic oddity to a beloved ornamental by some and a reviled invasive species by others. Many gardeners and horticulturalists praised the tree for its rapid growth and beautiful lavender blossoms. Critics thought the non-native tree a threat to native flora and sought its eradication. One species, ,is invasive and has been especially vilified by organizations ranging from the National Park Service and National Forests Service to the US Department of Agriculture. Another species, , started to gain attention as a viable domestic tree crop in the 1980s. Demand derived primarily from Asian countries, especially Japan where the tree had been traditionally used for dowry chests, furniture, and musical instruments. Due to over harvesting, Japan had suffered a severe shortage to the extent that Paulownia made up a large chunk of the country’s wood imports. P. elongata and various hybrids are currently grown by Americans ranging from diversified farmers to businessmen and even former president Jimmy Carter. Paulownia growers believe that the tree’s value expands beyond furniture and other carvings to environmental possibilities such as biofuels, biomass, electricity, and even air purification. Deemed a pest by some and a profitable commodity by others, the Paulownia has become a permanent part of the American landscape but measures must be taken to contain P. tomentosa and keep P. elongata from becoming invasive. Keywords: farmers; biodiversity; homegardens; tree planting; afforestation; biomass

Introduction The Paulownia, a seemingly innocuous tree from China, became a resident of the USA in the 1840s, but only in the last several decades has the transplant taken the country by storm. A small Paulownia wood industry based largely on the species Paulownia elongata began in the 1970s but this particular tree has suffered negative publicity due to the poor reputation of its relative Paulownia tomentosa which many states declare undesirable. Called a beautiful, profitable blessing by some and a pesky bane by others, the Paulownia became a source of controversy. Farmers and lumbermen treasured P. elongata but the US Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:22 10 October 2015 Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the National Park Service (NPS) vilified P. tomentosa. P. elongata serves as a niche crop which not only meets foreign demand but contributes to the environmental movement and while P. tomentosa wears the mantle of invasive species, it has fans among gardeners. Members of the same genus, these two species have become an irrevocable part of the US landscape, but both need to be contained in order to protect native species, especially those on endangered lists. Due to large population numbers and fire/poison risks to native species, total eradication is not the answer. This paper suggests that controlling the spread of P. tomentosa and preventing the escape of P. elongata from plantations into the wild may be the best solution.

*Email: [email protected]

q 2014 Taylor & Francis 86 W.A. Snow

Before delving into the tale of the princess tree, several words must be defined: native, non-native, invasive, and stakeholder (Heger et al. 2013). The term native refers to an indigenous species. A non-native is non-indigenous while an invasive multiplies wildly to the detriment of species in the vicinity. While the invasive has been recognized as a danger, the non-native has yet to pose a problem but has the capacity to do so (Alpert et al. 2000). Whether or not a is invasive has more to do with public opinion than its status as non-native (Kueffer 2013). This is where the term stakeholder, any group impacted by the presence of a non-native, comes into play. These might include farmers, gardeners, and environmentalists. Studies on invasive species have been more and more prevalent since the 1980s and contributors include but are not limited to ecologists, botanists, scientists, biologists, sociologists, psychologists, and historians (Simberloff et al. 2013). Various veins of ecology, natural resources, and/or environmental science appear in numerous articles (Bremner & Park 2007; Garcia-Llorente et al. 2008). Discipline-meshing has become commonplace, but there are fewer works on invasives in which natural sciences and humanities are combined (Kueffer 2013). Many ecologists have tried to implement sociology and psychology when addressing the question of invasives (Fischer et al. 2011; Selge et al. 2011). Written by an historian, this article is, above all else, a work of history but may shed light on two non-native species while adding to the growing body of interdisciplinary research. Addressing public opinion on Paulownia is critical to understanding how one species of Paulownia became invasive and another remained non-native. The public often dislike talk of eliminating a non-native species, especially those that have long been in the country. Pre-conceived notions about these species are deeply embedded. The public may imagine that those advocating eradication are motivated by xenophobia (Selge et al. 2011; Sharp et al. 2011). The pretty blossoms of the Paulownia tree, its nickname Empress, and its over 150-year presence in the USA are powerful inhibitors of public support for its destruction (Pejchar & Mooney 2009; Kueffer 2013). Instead of producing arguments for the elimination of invasives, conservationists need to call for the protection of native species being endangered by invasives. Publications for the public should be pro-native rather than anti-invasive (McKinney 2006; Larson et al. 2011). Unless people can identify invasives, they may target native look-alikes. Even with in-depth community outreach, conservationists argue that public support may remain elusive (Young et al. 2013). Public opposition to the eradication of non-natives often includes the argument that the exotics do no harm. A few experts claim the impact of some non-natives is ‘negligible’ (Skurski et al. 2013). Some argue that the influx of non-natives is perfectly natural, citing Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:22 10 October 2015 Beringia as one example (Brown & Sax 2004). Others claim non-natives are actually secondary to habitat loss when it comes to risks to biodiversity (Wilcove et al. 1998). This stance has been challenged by those who argue that exotics are the main danger to biodiversity (Garcia-Llorente et al. 2008; Kueffer 2013). The positions stakeholder groups have on the risks of non-natives and what, if anything should be done, remain varied. Because so many invasive species are too deeply entrenched in the landscape, containment, not eradication, should be pursued (Somaweera et al. 2010; Kueffer 2013). Control ‘can be very expensive and may be impossible’ (Mehta et al. 2007, p. 238). This is especially true since the presence of these non-native species is intertwined with history, trade, and profits (Pejchar & Mooney 2009). Being a commodity complicates management and this is clearly seen in the following, an analysis that details how the Paulownia tree reached the USA soil, shaped the country’s past, and may yet shape its future. History of the Empress tree 87

Often associated with monarchs, the Paulownia tree had names such as Empress and Princess. With this royal link came mystery, allure, fascination, and appeal that gave the tree a place in popular culture. This exotic resident had a cameo in the film Rocky and can be seen close to the steps actor Sylvester Stallone climbs (Lacy 2000). The tree played a key role in a New York Times Best-selling book – Berry’s (2005) Romanov Prophecy. Given publicity in books, pamphlets, magazines, and movies, the Paulownia has only increased its infamy with the passage of time. While dubbed a trespasser by critics, it has become as much a part of the terrain as any indigenous tree. The Paulownia did not receive the mantle invasive until the late twentieth century even though the tree has resided in the USA since the 1840s. This transition derived in part from Americans growing the trees in response to lulls in Japanese Paulownia-wood production. In this way, commodification of a non-native tree previously thought of as purely ornamental greatly contributed to its spread and fanned its reputation as a blight (Marshall et al. 2011).

Use and history Indigenous to China, the genus Paulownia is currently made up of seven species and a number of hybrids (The International Plant Names Index). Often mistaken for a tree (), the Paulownia actually belongs to another family. The genus was long placed in the or figwort family but was recently transferred by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to the monogeneric family (APG III 2009). All Paulownia species awe onlookers with their attractive lavender-to-white-colored blossoms; enormous forest-green, fuzzy ; white-spotted grayish-brown bark; and impressive growth. Bell-shaped flowers appear in late April or early May. By September, the trees are covered in green seed pods which brown and crack open in October. One tree can produce 20 million seeds, roughly 2.5–4 mm long. When released, the seeds may be scattered up to 9.7 km away by wind (Remaley 2005). Their appearance, resilience, and tendency to spread fueled their reputation in Asian mythology. Both the Chinese and Japanese viewed the Paulownia as unique, representing strength, purity, and renewal (Lacy 2000, p. 57). In China, it was rumored to be the home of the phoenix, a bird which dies in a flame and is reborn from its own ashes. In Japan, it was seen as the home of the Ho-o, a similar creature which only lived in peaceful lands (Meyer 2012). These myths may have arisen from the Paulownia’s tendency to regrow when cut. Respect for the Paulownia also stemmed from its importance in cultural and medicinal traditions. Asian use of Paulownia trees for wood, decorations, and herbal cures began in ancient Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:22 10 October 2015 times. While a monograph on the Paulownia was written by Chen Chu in 1049 BC and the tree received mention in the Erya, an ancient Chinese encyclopedia, the first Paulownia plantation did not form until 221 BC during the Qin Dynasty (Barton et al. 2007). Dowry chests made from Paulownia wood became immensely popular in Japan (Anami 2004). The Chinese and Japanese also thought of Paulownia as a cure-all. They used the leaves in an effort to prevent baldness and heal warts. Many believed that a mixture of Paulownia bark and whiskey could break fevers. Bark mixtures were thought to cure gonorrhea. Blossoms were intended to solve liver problems (Foster & Duke 2000; Akyildiz & Kol 2010). While vital to Asian culture, the ‘royal’ link of Paulownia did not even exist until the tree caught a western eye. One of the first encounters the West had with Paulownia involved a Swedish botanist named Karl Thunberg who wrote of seeing the trees after a visit to Japan in the 88 W.A. Snow

1770s (Lacy 2000). The tree came to be associated with the Russian Princess Anna Pavlovna, daughter of Tsar Paul I and granddaughter of Empress Catherine the Great. Anna later married King William II of the Netherlands in 1816 and in that country she was known as Anna Paulowna. Royal links aside, Paulownia’s rise to horticultural prominence was slow coming. Many sources credit a German doctor employed by the Dutch East India Trading Company to work in Japan with sending the first Paulownia to Europe in the late 1700s. By 1842, Le Jardin des Plantes in Paris, France, had one Paulownia (David 2012). In other European countries, Paulownia slowly but surely became a prized presence in many gardens. Its introduction to the USA took a similar path. Paulownia fossils from the tertiary era have been discovered in several American states but because the trees died out in ancient times, they were never thought of as indigenous (Smiley 1961). Some sources claim that founding father Thomas Jefferson introduced Paulownia as early as 1786 and that he prized it as a unique addition to his growing collection of exotic (Jefferson tried to introduce European flora 1939). More reliable sources claim the introduction occurred accidentally in the 1840s when Paulownia seed pods were used as packing material in miscellaneous shipments from China. However, the American Agriculturalist issue for August 1843 mentions the Parson’s Nursery in Queens, New York City, having a Paulownia tree so the introduction could have been deliberate. Regardless of how the tree arrived, it quickly attracted attention (David 2012). In the 1844 Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, renowned horticulturalist A.J. Downing called Paulownia strong and resilient. Not all plant enthusiasts agreed and in 1851, J. Breck, author of Breck’s Book of Flowers, warned that Paulownia would not thrive in the USA. Few heeded his words and in 1853, T. Meehan’s American Handbook of Ornamental Trees complements Paulownia as a fast grower and remarkable addition to any garden. A Queens nurseryman named W. Prince even suggested battling the maple worm blight by planting Paulownia trees instead. While freezes certainly inhibited growth and blossoms, the trees popped up in prominent cities throughout the country (David 2012). In a September 1882 edition of Gardener’s Monthly and Horticulturist, T. Meehan mentioned that a Paulownia grew in Independence Square, Philadelphia (Meehan 1882). Controlled plantings continued but by 1901, the Paulownia, according to N.L. Britton’s Manual of the Flora of Northern States and Canada, had spread to the wild and no longer confined itself to urban areas (David 2012). Unleashed, the non-native tree multiplied rapidly across the countryside, proving how quickly a novelty can become commonplace. Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:22 10 October 2015 The arrival of the Paulownia tree and its proliferation proved the rule not the exception in American plant introductions. Many species were deliberately introduced for beautification, afforestation, or soil erosion purposes. Kudzu (Pueraria lobata), for example, was recommended by the Soil Erosion Service as a means to prevent soil erosion and it swept across the southern states, becoming known as the ‘vine that ate the South’ (Friedman 2010). The Paulownia tree, however, took a different route in that its arrival had no connection to the federal government but rather, either arrived by happenstance or by the hand of a nurseryman. Like kudzu however, once loose in the wild, it could not be stopped. By the early twentieth century, the Paulownia, while not quite the oddity it had been, still attracted those seeking the exotic so its entourage of gardeners and landscapers multiplied with the passage of years (Figure 1). History of the Empress tree 89

Figure 1. A 100-year-old Paulownia tomentosa tree, planted in the New York Botanical Garden in 1913 (tree no. 37842B; photo taken in June 2014). Photo credit: Kristine Paulus, Senior Plant Recorder, The New York Botanical Garden ([email protected]).

Cultural perceptions One of the main attractions Paulownia held lay in its striking appearance. Its large leaves meant the Paulownia had appeal as a shade tree. Seed pods were used as Christmas decorations or used as make-shift rattle toys (Wertsner 1946). Its purple blossoms served as a beauteous addition to any landscape. Beauty coupled with speedy growth packed a powerful punch and these two qualities combined best explain the tree’s rise to infamy. The Paulownia had been reported to have the capacity to grow 4.6 m a year (Raver Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:22 10 October 2015 2002). Speed came with a price because fast-paced trees do not live long. Paulownia typically died after about 70 years and while many lived to reach over 100, other trees such as pines and redwoods may live hundreds if not thousands of years. Ignoring warnings, those looking for a pretty lawn ornament latched onto the Paulownia thinking it a faster solution to their immediate needs than oaks. While the bulk of interest in Paulownia derived from their convenience, farmers began to notice the tree. Newspapers had mentioned Paulownia as potentially contributing to future lumber endeavors as early as 1900 (Empress tree suitable to cultivate 1900). Notions of an American Paulownia wood industry, however, did not gain serious attention until after World War II. In the post-war era, Japan experienced a Paulownia blight and its production could not meet demand (Lacy 2000). When Japan began importing Paulownia wood, Americans saw an opportunity. 90 W.A. Snow

This desire transformed the tree from a decoration into a commodity. Countries such as China, Australia, Brazil, and the USA began cultivating Paulownia to export to Japan (This tree a shade versatile 1975). By the 1980s, some newspapers equated Paulownia wood to gold. The Chemical & Engineering News mentioned that ‘the lumber has become almost as valuable as black walnut’ (Wood carvers boost Paulownia tree value 1980). Other ads promoted Paulownia as a ‘magic tree’ (Yinong 1989, p. 19). China frequently used the tree in reclamation and intercropping purposes and many figured the same could be done domestically. In 1979, the USDA and Chinese foresters actually swapped indigenous trees, including Paulownia (Daniel 1979). This publicity resulted in something of a craze which leant credibility to the Paulownia but many saw the Paulownia as a fool’s paradise. Opponents of Paulownia decried the ads leading readers to believe the trees would grow anywhere, had no pests, and needed no care. An article noted that Paulownia lacked strength and longevity (Royal paulownia skip Ohio at planting time 1976). Another article claimed it belonged in the ‘garbage can class of trees’ (Bender 2009). A district extension forester told readers not to be fooled by ‘supertree’ statements about Paulownia because the trees suffered in cold weather (Tree buyers told: beware 1981). A plethora of similar columns spoke of other faults and misgivings. Contrary to the glowing descriptions, both P. tomentosa and P. elongata thrived only in certain climates. They needed acidic soils with a pH of 6–8, at least 20 in. of rain a year, and attention. Growers had to harrow the land and remove the weeds and stumps before planting sometime between April and September. Seedlings necessitated watering for at least 8–10 weeks, and when older, pruning (Kays et al. 1997; Zheng et al. 2013). Instead of planting 75–80 trees per acre, which allowed space to branch out, many growers mistakenly planted 300 or more, according to one Paulownia grower/expert (Dickey J, personal communication, 17 June 2014). Most who had leapt on the Paulownia band wagon quickly jumped off but others remained, convinced that they had found their golden goose. While the publicity campaign garnered attention, the Paulownia was hardly an anomaly. The flurry of propaganda makes the Paulownia rather typical in the realm of trees and commodities in general. Ads which deliberately or mistakenly misinformed frequently appeared on any number of species, both native and non-native. One of many to wear the mantle magic tree, the Paulownia had simply become the new fad. By 1980, it remained to be seen whether the Paulownia movement would fade or flourish.

Crop versus invasive Obstacles failed to dissuade growers who thought Paulownia, regardless of species, meant Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:22 10 October 2015 money. In May 1983, the ‘Fairmount Park chainsaw massacre claimed three victims’ (Gallagher 1983). The assailants had attacked Philadelphia Paulownia,likely P. tomentosa, not people. Because of Japanese demand, one 3-m log could sell for $1000 or more, so Paulownia rustlers swept the country (Tree theft reported 1983). Thefts took place nationwide in places such as New York City, New York, and Wilmington, Delaware (Lacy 2000). This crime wave only served to fuel the Paulownia hype. In November 1991, the American Paulownia Association (APA) formed and membership quickly grew to 350 growers in 23 states (Raver 2002). It strove to legitimize Paulownia, namely P. elongata, as a credible commodity by arguing that since Paulownia wood made up three-fourths of Japanese wood imports, demand justified domestic production. The Japanese wanted the wood for musical instruments, carvings, bowls, spoons, canes, paddles, and furniture, especially dowry chests. Americans used the wood History of the Empress tree 91

for carving blocks, turkey calls, guitars, coffins, and skis among other things (Kays et al. 1997; Raver 2002; Clatterbuck & Hodges 2004). Due to its being rather soft for a hardwood, the wood played little to no role in construction but received attention for having impressive thermal and electrical insulation capacity (Rahman et al. 2013). With a ready market, the number of growers kept rising. Requiring far more care and expense than pine trees, Paulownia managed to maintain quite a cult following. Growers pursued several species but P. elongata became very popular. Even when planting costs skyrocketed to $2700 per hectare and many gave up on the princess tree, other growers had faith. Cultivation costs eventually lowered to roughly $1200 (Firm turns to fast-growing trees 1997). While the primary appeal laid in the value of the wood, growers also saw the tree as an erosion preventative and a convenient method of intercropping. It helped that livestock ate Paulownia leaves (El-Showk & El-Showk 2003). These side perks may have fueled appeal, but growers remained focused on profits and that meant more wood. Over the years, they intensified efforts to perfect the Paulownia with scientific innovation and produce a hybrid that grew at exceptional speed. In 1997, Carolina Pacific International planted 900,000 seedlings of a P. elongata variety in 17 states on roughly 1618 ha, 49 of which were in and around Lenox, Georgia. The company focused on selling genetically improved trees. Created in Australia, this new strand of Paulownia grew at record speed and could be harvested in a mere 5–12 years (Firm turns to fast-growing trees 1997). Asia and to a lesser extent Europe have consumed and will likely continue to purchase American-made Paulownia but APA members seek to enhance the domestic market. Twenty-first century Paulownia growers reside in Virginia, Georgia, Maryland, South Carolina, Illinois, and California (Innes 2009; Paulownia tomentosa (Princess Tree) 2010). Some operate independently or enter into contracts with companies which sell seed and buy trees. Many have planted P. elongata hybrids that can better withstand cold weather (Hall 2008). Paulownia is undoubtedly a multi-million dollar industry given that one Paulownia log can sell for $20,000 (Roylance 1993). Growers contend that the tree’s pros far outweigh its cons but critics remain unconvinced. The acclaim lavished by farmers and lumbermen has received many challenges. Objectors, namely foresters and disgruntled growers, often suggest that the Paulownia must have a great press agent for all the fanfare it receives. This suspicions stem from laudatory descriptions of the tree as the be all and end all of the plant kingdom. One EBOOK, Great Business Ideas – How to Get Rich with Paulownia Tree Plantation, claims that a veritable fortune can be made in just three years, but in reality, that is no guarantee. The work uses quotes such as ‘Paulownia is a fast growing tree that can fill your pockets with cash’ (Vincent 2013, p. 16). As many growers soon realized, that is hardly the Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:22 10 October 2015 case. Farmers have learned by trial and error that Paulownia species fare best in USDA zones 7–10. It needs sandy, loamy, acidic soils as well as nitrogen and phosphorous. The trees are stunted or killed due to freezing temperatures, drought, root rot, fungi, and insects (Innes 2009). Despite the criticism, experts have lent credence to the tree. Dr Tim Traugott, a professor emeritus of forestry at Mississippi State University, commented that the lightweight wood has strength and durability (Minor 2001; Traugott T, personal communication, 23 July 2014). According to Scott Merkle, professor of forest resources at the University of Georgia, ‘I don’t think they’d be such great-construction-wood- trees ...but for furniture or things like that, it’s a very pretty wood’ (Firm turns to fast- growing trees 1997; Merkle S, personal communication, 22 July 2014). With such complements, growers remain dedicated. 92 W.A. Snow

Defenders such as Fred Wright of the former Carolina-Pacific International, Inc., argue that planting Paulownia species is in response to the ‘failure of our domestic forests to meet a growing demand’ (New York City’s Royal Paulownia 2004). One of the most successful growers is Jack Dickey, a former Floyd County, Georgia, soybean giant who took a fancy to the Paulownia in 1999. A soybean farmer since 1963, he opened Dickey Seed Company, one of the biggest soybean producers in the South, in 1982. Due to increasing international competition, he decided to end his soybean venture in 1999 and turned to instead of P. elongata or P. tomentosa. This particular species had a reputation for fast growth and he thought it would better thrive in a tropical climate. Initially intent on the afforestation of his roughly 20,234 ha in South America, he quickly realized that the trees fared poorly on cut-over lands, suffered in cold weather, and needed extreme attention and care better suited for an agricultural venture. While disappointed, he still thought the genus had potential as plywood and because it being lightweight made transportation less expensive (Walker 2010; Dickey J, personal communication, 17 June 2014). He soon planted Paulownia on his land in Georgia, but this time, he chose P. elongata. Producing his first farm-grown plywood in 2000, Dickey started shipping them to Japan in 2007. In 2003, Dickey Seed Co. became Dickey Seed International, Inc., and Dickey tried to develop a Paulownia plantation in Guyana, Nicaragua, and later Brazil. He currently serves as the APA’s chairman for international marketing and is a consultant for those interested in starting a Paulownia plantation (Walker 2010; see also APA website: http://www.paulowniatrees.org/links.htm). Growers such as Dickey continue to perceive Paulownia as viable twenty-first century crop but others like David Drexler, a Georgia grower with 121 ha of P. elongata and hybrids, have come to perceive the Paulownia business as a ‘dismal failure’ (Drexler D, personal communication, 2014). Both hailed and dismissed, the Paulownia, thanks to the notorious reputation of one species, continues to carry a nasty stigma – that of an invasive. Since its arrival in the 1840s, P. tomentosa had been a prized addition for gardeners and landscapers but by the 1940s, the tree no longer incited the desire it once did because it had long since spread to the wild. Like its relative P. elongata, P. tomentosa also became caught up in the wood bonanza and increased plantings fueled its proliferation in the woods. The wood frenzy is largely to blame for a 1990s trend in which reports on P. tomentosa went from being adulatory to denouncing. While P. tomentosa can be used to revert land damaged by strip mining or fire to a greener state, once planted, it is difficult to control (Innes 2009). The Paulownia was targeted as a non-native invasive shortly after the creation of the National Invasive Species Council, an organization created when President Bill Clinton signed Executive Order 13112 in 1999 (Available from: http:// Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:22 10 October 2015 www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/laws/execorder.shtml). It can be found nationwide but is best known for its presence in 27 states from Maine to Texas (Paulownia tomentosa (Princess Tree) 2010). The following states declare P. tomentosa as an invasive: Connecticut, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, North Carolina, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, Indiana, and West Virginia (Remaley 2005). The tree can grow on rocky slopes, roadsides, forests, and stream banks in poor quality, acidic soils. It can withstand fire, bulldozing, and being chopped. If cut, it will grow back from the roots and even if girdled, glyphosate or triclopyr must be applied to the stump to prevent regeneration (Remaley 2005). Even these means can prove problematic because the poison could injure native flora and fauna living on or around the trees (Kueffer 2013). The adjective ‘aggressive’ is frequently used by states to describe the Paulownia (Hemmerly 2000, p. 30). History of the Empress tree 93

Some states have declared war on P. tomentosa. Maryland lists it as a threat to rare and endangered species such as Heller’s blazing star (Liatris helleri) and Mountain goldheather (Hudsonia montana) (Cliche 2007). The state of Texas dubs Paulownia as an ‘invader’ (Paulownia tomentosa 2007). Tennessee, too, sees Paulownia as undesirable, especially in the Oak Ridge National Environmental Research Park and the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (Innes 2009). Dr Dane Kuppinger, professor of biology at Salem College, notes that when foresters burned the parks as a management tactic, Paulownia trees swooped in and took over. According to Anjozian (2010), the Paulownia is ‘invasive – no less sweet-smelling, no less beautiful, but recognized by some as a problem.’ She continues: By calling a foreign tree an invasive rather than an ornamental, we conjure the destructive potential it holds. What is in a name is the import it carries. And that can have a powerful effect on how we see. (Anjozian 2010) The poor press P. tomentosa attracted in the Appalachians riled the tree’s advocates. In the words of Robin Lane Fox, author of Thoughtful Gardening, ‘In southern Britain we treasure big Paulownia trees ...over in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, however, they want us to declare war on this “Princess Tree”’ (Fox 2010, p. 283). Such defenses failed to assuage articles and books calling the tree a nuisance. Essays decrying Paulownia warn readers not to be deceived by complementary articles or by the tree’s beauty. In the 2011 Encyclopedia of Trees and Shrubs, Michael Dirr describes Paulownia as a ‘total loser’ (David 2012). The NPS lists P. tomentosa as one of the ‘least wanted’ trees (Remaley 2005; Sharp et al. 2011). The USDA describes P. tomentosa as a ‘non-native invasive plant’ (Stringer 2009, p. 10). Nevertheless, the tree continues to fetch attention as a wood crop, and Dan Blickenstaff, past president of the APA, grows both P. tomentosa and P. elongata at Mount Hope Farms in Hagerstown, Maryland (see APA website: http://www.paulowniatrees.org/links.htm). While P. tomentosa has been largely maligned, P. elongata continues to attract a strong fan base which includes a former USA president. A proud P. elongata enthusiast, Jimmy Carter has 6.1 ha of Paulownia trees on his property in Plains, Georgia. The orchards are managed by Scot Corbett, biochemical engineer and Managing Director of the World Paulownia Institute, a private company (Minor 2001; World Paulownia Institute, personal communication, 23 July 2014). Environmentally conscious, Carter likely prefers P. elongata because it is non-invasive so perceived as far less of a threat to natives. In 2000, a cabinet Carter made from his Paulownia sold for $230,000 at auction and another sold for $200,000 the following year (Carter Center auction raises over half-a-million dollars 2000; Carter Center auction raises a record $1.28 million 2001). Carter has even bigger aspirations for Paulownia. Biofuels, biomass, electricity, and air purification are all ways in which P. elongata Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:22 10 October 2015 might aid the environmental movement. Carter sent one Paulownia to the University of Georgia where the school transformed the wood into ethanol (King 2008). In Coconut Beach, Florida, Clenergen Corporation is cultivating ‘micro-propagated elite strains of Paulownia for producing wood chips (biomass) for the production of clean electricity’ (Clenergen Corporation (CRGE.OB) leases 2009). The World Paulownia Institute also has a biomass experimental plantation in Buena Vista, Georgia (http://www.worldpaulownia. com/html/biomass_plantation.html). The trees may also serve to help air quality (Hall 2008). With such possibilities, the Paulownia may yet convince some skeptics of its value. All of this environmental experimentation could, however, result in an unintended consequence, namely that increased plantings of P. elongata might lead to it, too, becoming invasive (Kueffer 2013). 94 W.A. Snow

The presence of the Paulownia tree in the USA remains a heated debate because both P. elongata and P. tomentosa have fans and foes. P. elongata will likely remain a ‘popular hobby crop’ (Raver 2002). An apt description of P. tomentosa is ‘popular invasive’ (Tenenbaum 2006, p. 62). Too common to be fully eradicated, it could be diminished in number but this might lead to a replacement by another exotic (Larson & Larson 2010). While the words non-native and invasive are often attributed to the tree, TIME Magazine reported in 2011 that in a globalized world, the very notion of ‘nativeness’ might be ‘becoming an oxymoron’ (Walsh 2011). So in the query of one New York Times journalist, ‘So is it a gawky weed tree, a valuable resource, a striking material for environmental art, a menace? Like beauty, which lies in the eye of the beholder, it depends’ (Raver 2002).

Acknowledgements The author thanks Dan Blickenstaff, Jack Dickey, and Timothy Hall.

Funding The author has not received any grants or funding for this research.

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