DISSERTATION ASSESSMENT PROFORMA: Theoretical / Conceptual (Including: Desk-Based, Secondary Data, Meta-Analysis) 1

Cardiff School of Sport DISSERTATION ASSESSMENT PROFORMA: Theoretical / Conceptual (Including: Desk-Based, Secondary Data, Meta-Analysis) 1

Student name: Camilla Altmann Student ID: St20000741

Programme: SPE

Dissertation title: The media representation of Olympic equestrian sport: an analysis of London 2012 Supervisor: David Brown

Comments Section Title and Abstract (5%)

Title to include: A concise indication of the research question/problem. Abstract to include: A concise summary of the theoretical study undertake. Extended Introduction (20% [10%]) 2

To include: outline of context for the question; clear articulation and justification of the research question; indication of research expectations. Research Methods/Process (15% [10%]) 2

To include: justification of a secondary data collection approach; justification of inclusion and exclusion criteria and any search parameters utilised; process/procedure adopted; clear articulation and justification for the structure and development of the study. Critical Review (35% [50%]) 2

To include: a synthesised academic exposition and evaluation of: - factually relevant data - conceptual understanding(s) - theoretical account(s) - established line(s) of argument in relation to the research question(s)/problem posed by the study; logical structural divisions that evidence appropriate and thorough development in critical analysis; reasoned enquiry progressing towards the formation of a justified position in relation to the research question(s)/problem posed by the study. Explicit Summary (15%)

To include: explicit presentation of position concluded from the study; discussion of the limitations and a critical reflection of the approach/process/ procedure adopted in the study; an indication of any potential improvements and future developments derived on completion of the study; an insight into any implications and a conclusion which summarises the relationship between the research question and the major findings. Presentation (10%)

(To include: academic writing style; depth, scope and accuracy of referencing in the text and final reference list; clarity in organisation, formatting and visual presentation).

1 This form should be used to assess Theoretical/Conceptual dissertations. The descriptors associated with Theoretical/Conceptual dissertations should be referred to by both students and markers. 2 There is scope within CONCEPTUAL/THEORETICAL dissertations for the EXTENDED INTRODUCTION and RESEARCH METHODS/PROCESS sections to be presented as a combined section, particularly where matters of REPLICABILITY of the study are not central. The mark distribution to be used in studies of this kind is indicated in square brackets. CARDIFF METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd

CARDIFF SCHOOL OF SPORT

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS)

SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION

2013-4

(Dissertation submitted under the discipline of )

THE MEDIA REPRESENTATION OF OLYMPIC EQUESTRIAN SPORT: AN ANALYSIS OF LONDON 2012

Cardiff Metropolitan University Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd

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Word count: 11,899

Name: Camilla Altmann

Date: 21.03.14

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………... i Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………... ii CHAPTER ONE 1. Introduction...... 1 CHAPTER TWO 2. Literature Review…………………………………………………………………… 5 2.1 Equestrian background: only royals and horses…………………………………………………………………………. 6 2.2 Class and equestrian: the have-nots and the have- lots……………………………………………………………………………… 7 2.3 Media and equestrian………………………………………………………………………. 10 2.4 Olympics and equestrian: 5 golden rings…………………………………… 13 CHAPTER THREE 3. Methodology…………………………………………………………………………. 14 3.1 Paradigm………………………………………………………………………… 15 3.2 Methods………………………………………………………………………….. 15 CHAPTER FOUR 4. Analysis and Interpretation……………………………………………………….. 18 4.1 High Culture as an introduction to the analysis………………………………………………………………………… 19 4.1.1 Charlotte Casiraghi……………………………………………………………. 26 4.2 Money………………………………………………………………………….. 35 4.3 Class……………………………………………………………………………. 38 4.4 A media constructed reality: fighting for respect…………………………………………………………………………… 39 4.5. Positive impact………………………………………………………………….. 40 4.5.1 Olympic legacy…………………………………………………………………. 42 CHAPTER FIVE 5. Conclusion 44 References…………………………………………………………………………………… 47 Appendices…………………………………………………………………………………… A-1

Appendix A - 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………. A-1

List of figures

Figure 1: An image showing the misrepresentation of Great Britain’s dressage team...... 2

Figure 2: An image displaying the struggles that equestrian sport faces regarding media representation…………………………………………………………………………………….3

Figure 3:.. An image showing the equestrian athlete’s clothing...... 21

Figure 4:.. An image showing the Great British equestrian team kit...... 22

Figure 5:.... An image showing the pristinely presented Great British horse and rider; Carl Hester and Utopia...... 22

Figure 6:.. An image showing the elegance of the rider (‘Telde’s smile for the crowd’...... 23

Figure 7:.. Showing the elegance of dressage: Charlotte Dujardin and Valegro...... 24

Figure 8:..... Showing the venue for London 2012: Greenwich Park...... 25

Figure 9: Front cover of Town & Country magazine issue August 2012: Charlotte Casiraghi...... 27

Figure 10: Figure 10. Georgina Bloomberg: daughter of Mayor Michael Bloomberg...... 28

Figure 11:. Charlotte Casiraghi models for Gucci campaign ‘Forever Now’...... 30

Figure 12:.. An image demonstrating the equestrian influenced style...... 31

Figure 13: An image showing how fashion is immersed within equestrian spor...... 31

Figure 14:.. Charlotte riding her stallion ‘Troy’ for Gucci...... 32

Figure 15: Charlotte Casiraghi with friends in the members’ area at the Global Champions Tour in Cannes...... 33

Figure 16: Charlotte Casiraghi shows how equestrian and fashion integrate …………………………………………………………………………………………………….34

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to my dissertation supervisor, David Brown, for allowing me the freedom to engage in a study in which was of great interest to me, whilst also providing me with support and guidance through this project.

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to undertake an exploration into the role that the media plays in constructing and representing equestrian sport. This is done primarily through a qualitative textual and visual content analysis of the media coverage during and surrounding the London 2012 Olympic Games. In doing so, the relationship between sport and the media is explored in relation to wider socio-cultural issues. An analysis of how the media represents these issues in sporting contexts is of value as it develops a deeper understanding of how the equestrian sporting culture is constructed. In deconstructing this representation of equestrian sport, certain themes emerged. Sport is a valuable contributing factor of analysing class-related lifestyles and this study provides an insight into how we can use this analysis to understand how and why the media represent equestrian sport in the particular the way they do. Sport, media and representation is a complex phenomenon and issues within sport are never independent of social elements and actually can be used to explain issues in society and how they are reproduced. The notion of high culture appeared to be a significant theme that is symbolic of the equestrian sport culture. Related to this notion of high culture was the repeating references made to class and money in the media when representing equestrian sport, enforcing that they are integral parts of the equestrian culture. In order to develop a deeper understanding of the cultural values and social structures surrounding sport, as a result of the media representation, the implications of the media representation are then discussed.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction

The focal issues explored in this study are illustrated by the images (see figures 1 and 2), in which the front pages of two mainstream newspapers ‘The Daily Express’ and ‘The Daily Mirror’ proudly parade a celebratory display of the Great British equestrian team’s 2012 Olympic success in London. However, ignorance is the only thing that is displayed as the newspapers accidently print images of the Netherlands dressage team opposed to our Great British dressage team. This lack of appreciation for and naivety towards equestrian sport performed by the media signifies the inherent struggle and issues that equestrian sport faces regarding their representation in the media.

Figure 1: An image showing the misrepresentation of Great Britain’s dressage team. (Daily Express, August 8, 2012).

Figure 2: An image displaying the struggles that equestrian sport faces regarding media representation. (Daily Mirror, August 8, 2012).

Jarvie (2006) acknowledges that media influences the way sport is represented and how it is consumed. Media is a mass form of communication that reaches out to millions and sport has become one of its leading areas of focus. Sport media has thus ‘become an integral part of popular culture. Ever since sports found its way into newspapers, broadcasting, and onto the Internet, sports have had a very popular share in the media content’ (Helland, 2007, p. 112). Therefore, the media plays a significant role in the representation of sports and consequently the perceptions created of different sports, this highlights a range of academic disciplines that argue whether this has positive or negative outcomes. Wu (2010) pays homage to the media for simply providing a space for new sports to emerge, whereas Entman contended that the media ‘call attention to some aspects of reality while obscuring other elements…The media create dominant interpretations of reality that appeal to a desired or anticipated audience’ (1993, p. 169). This can create an unrealistic depiction of sports.

Although considered by those within in the equestrian subculture as exciting, equestrian sport fails to be considered a mainstream sport that receives significant media attention. Popular forms of media culture structure our ideas about the particular sports, ‘The way in

3 which particular sporting events are covered influences what people think about particular sporting action or events’ (Jarvie, 2012, p. 239). With commercialisation on the rise and now a huge contributor to the sporting industry financially, and also responsible for its exposure, exploring how media represents sport is important in order to understand how particular perceptions emerge and how this effects the sport with a consideration for the future of the sport. Wenner (1998) reinforces the significant role that media plays in shaping our understanding of sport and proposes that it is because of this role that the media representation of sport has become a recent focal area of research.

The aim of this study is to undertake an exploration into the accountable role that the media take in constructing and representing equestrian sport. This exploration seeks to consider the media‘s role within the relationship between sport and the media that Helland (2007) has identified has produced concepts such as: sports/media complex (Jhally, 1989), the media/sport production complex (Maguire, 1993), the media sport cultural complex (Rowe, 1999), and the sport-media107 nexus (Boyles & Haynes 2000). In reviewing the literature for this study, an examination of the current literature regarding general sports media is necessary to illustrate the existing state of research. There is an eclectic range of previous and current research regarding the role media has within the sporting industry. Content analyses of sport media has previously explicitly focused on mainstream sports which has provided an insight into media representation of sport but simultaneously revealed a gap in the research to undertake similar studies but with a focus on sports in particular that have been neglected. Therefore researching how equestrian sport is represented in the media is interesting and important because there is no previous research on how it is portrayed as a sport.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2. Literature Review

This chapter reviews the relevant literature in relation to the relationship between the sport and the media. The chapter begins by providing a brief historical review of equestrian sport, in order to establish the values the sport holds and the origins of these values. This will provide a starting point to explore the relationship between class and equestrian, once this has been established the chapter will move on to outline the role that the media has in portraying these class-based factors of the equestrian culture.

2.1 Equestrian background: only royals and horses

Equestrianism has a traditional British heritage with a strong royal and military background. There are three disciplines within Olympic equestrian sport, these include: dressage, showjumping and eventing (the latter consists of three elements, including cross-country, showjumping and dressage). All three disciplines eventing, showjumping and dressage were designed to train the horses for war with the competitions intended to prepare them for the challenges they would be face. Equestrian sport was introduced into the Olympics in Paris 1900 but then was absent from two Games before returning in 1912, and has been a recognised Olympic sport since. Competing in any equestrian discipline was exclusive to military officers and therefore was a male only event until 1948 (International Olympic Committee, 2011).The sport since has been modernised and men and women now compete on equal terms, but although the sport has evolved, its heritage is still apparent. Early Olympism in general was founded on the amateur ethos that restricted broad social class participation and equestrian in particular was restrictive. Being a part of the military was considered a privilege and therefore was often an upper class profession, which is how equestrian sport developed it’s associated with social status and wealth. The royal heritage of equestrian sport derives from the historical involvement of royals in the sport, ‘Everyone knows that the British royal family are keen horse enthusiasts’ (Olympic.org, 2012). Zara Phillips was the only Great British royal in the London 2012 Olympic Games but her involvement descends from her royal blood. Zara’s mother, Princess Anne had a strong sports career, holding several championship titles and a former President of the International Equestrian Federation. Her father Mark Phillips was an Olympic champion in the 1972 Munich Games and her aunty, The Duchess of Cornwall, is also as a patron of the British Equestrian Federation and was a host for the equestrian events in the London 2012 Olympic Games. This combination of royal and

6 military involvement has contributed to the establishment of equestrianism’s upper class associations.

2.2 Class and Equestrian: Have-nots and the have-lots

Class is an integrated part of society that is situated amongst other sociological structures, which collectively form the dimensions of society. Wenner recognises that ‘Britain remains besotted with issues of class, privilege and how the rest of the world perceives Britain to be’ (1998, p. 305). Therefore a copious amount of research has explored the role and influence of class in society creating ideologies which are defined by Coakley and Pike (2009), as ideas that people use to understand economic inequalities and then accordingly identify their own position in society with regards to the class structure. This has led to a familiarisation of the role that class has in society which in turn can provide an insight into how class shapes the sporting society. The relationship between sport and class has become symbiotic. Bourdieu (1978) identifies that sport is an object of struggles between social classes. It must be noted that when referring to ‘upper’ and ‘lower’ classes or ‘high’ culture throughout this study, as Gans clarifies, these “are not used judgmental terms but as rough indicators of positions in a socioeconomic hierarchy that has culture implications” (2008, p. 7).

When researching this relationship between class and sport, the work of Pierre Bourdieu emerges strongly. The French sociologist explored the relationship between certain sports and their particular appeal to certain class communities and not others (Bourdieu, 1984). On the surface some reasons for these connections are obvious as Coakley and Pike (2009) explains, “Active sports participation, attendance at events and consuming media sports are positively correlated with a person’s income, education and occupational status (Booth & Loy, 1999; Donnelly & Harvey, 2007; Scheerder et al., 2002; Wilson, 2002).This corresponds with Jarvie ‘s(2012) findings that suggest sport is closely associated with the class system which is constructed by the differential distribution of wealth and other related aspects. Although Hughson et al. (2005) acknowledges these obvious reasons by identifying that of course issues of wealth create restrictions by denying opportunities to many when it comes to sports that demand one to have a disposable income. However, other reasons for this connection between certain sports and class communities will also be explored to discover why these patterns of class determined sporting taste continue. Taste, a concept originating from the work of Bourdieu, is defined as a culture that ‘contains shared or common aesthetic values and standards of tastes’ (Gans, 2008, p. 6).

The concept of taste relates to habitus, ‘a set of acquired characteristics which are the product of social conditions’ (Bourdieu, 1986, p. 29). By using these concepts a clarification of what actually explains this attraction of certain sports to specific classes can be explored.

Class differentiation is relevant in habitus as it encourages this concept of othering, ‘an identity-defining process’ (Prieler, 2010, p. 522) that categorises people as ‘us’ and ‘them’. The ‘us’ and ‘them’ with regards to class, often refers to the differences between the upper classes and the lower classes or the wealthy and the poor. These differences then affect our taste. Hughson et al. (2005) proposes that these taste cultures, determined by social factors such as class, embrace specific sports that are considered appropriate to their cultural interests. Considering ideas such as habitus which relate to identity, highlights the body’s role within in sport ,relating to Bourdieu’s (1984) ‘Embodiment of class’, explained by Craig and Beedie (2008) as how bodies are judged within sport according to their class identification and therefore the typical sports that different class communities participate in. This idea is described by Bourdieu; ‘It’s the relations to one’s body, a fundamental aspect of the habitus, which distinguishes working class from privileged classes’ (1978, p. 837). Bourdieu states that working class sports ‘combine all the reasons to repel the upper classes’ (ibid). The upper class habitus is “based around ideas of ease and elegance’ (ibid, p. 154), characteristics that are similarly representative of the equestrian habitus. The equestrian habitus offers the rider a space in which to present themselves in ways that have attachments to upper class, ‘in equestrian sport it is through a combination of balance, precision, specialised training and the elusive concept of feel that success is achieved’ (Dashper, 2012, p. 215). Whereas for working classes, it is more frequently restriction rather than distaste that results in this lack of engagement with particular sports. These restrictions include financial barriers that keep the sport closed off to working classes. In the equestrian habitus these boundaries are apparent in the sense of financial reasons which are binding in the tacit clause of the sport, such as the mandatory expensive clothing and where the social gatherings are as important and as expensive as the sport itself. Social elements are of huge significance as Hughson et al. (2005) identify that the desire to be involved with these particular types of sports is often based on the social events that come with being a part of the community, as well as recognition of being a part of it. Horne describes this as sport acting as a badge of ‘social exclusivity and cultural distinctiveness for the dominant classes’ (2005, p. 52). These restrictions ‘Highlights how the significant financial investment required for success in elite equestrian

8 sport poses real problems for would-be riders’ (Dashper, 2012, p. 219). However, Craig and Beedie (2010) identify that equestrian sport is dominated by the upper classes and it is not just whether classes can or can’t afford it, there is no significant indication that the working classes are even interested in the sport, which has had a substantial effect on the sports culture.

Horne (2013), suggests that these segregated classes in society can encourage ‘reproduction of existing patterns of social stratification’ (2013, p. 51). Social stratification is defined by Scheerder et al. as ‘a system of social classification in which entire categories of people are ranked in a hierarchy’ (2002, p. 219), based on factors such as income, wealth, status and power. This concept of social reproduction describes how sporting cultures, constructed around social class, perform in ways that mean they can be held responsible for patterns of social stratification and inequality being reproduced (Horne, 2013; Craig & Beedie, 2010). Effects of these class divisions can lead to conflict theory which is defined as:

“A sociological perspective that emphasises that modern society is characterised by social divisions that are based on unequal distributions of economic, social and cultural resources and his inevitably leads to a conflict of interests between those who benefit from this distribution and those who do not”

(Craig and Beedie, 2010, p. 60).

Coakley and Pike (2009) expand on this definition of conflict theory by explaining how sports participation amongst the lower classes is affected as they are deprived of opportunities due to financial resources. This highlights the implications of class inequalities and also relates to Bourdieu’s (1986) concept of capital, which is significant in the sense that, ‘The probability of practising the different sports depends to a different degree for each sport primarily on economic capital and secondary on cultural capital’ (Bourdieu, 1978, p. 836). In order to understand the connections of several of Bourdieu’s key concepts that have been identified and how they relate to conflict theory in particular, it is relevant to recognise Bourdieu’s ‘generative formula’ which is: ‘(habitus)/ (capital) +field =practice’ (1984, p. 101). Field refers to a ‘social arena’, such as a field of sport, which is hierarchically structured in accordance with social divisions and within this field, struggles take place due to the restrictions such as class barriers. These concepts provide a strong theoretical underpinning to how class and sport are interlinked.

2.3 Media and Equestrian

When exploring the relationship between the sport and media, Anderson’s (1983) concept of ‘imagined communities’ is of relevance as it explains as how people connect with one another through shared values and practices creating this sense of a community although the people within this community do not even know one another. The media has become a vital instrument in constructing this unity and creating a shared visual culture. The Olympics in particular is the pinnacle of displaying ‘imagine communities’, where numerous nations compete against one another and a sense of unity is created as people of the audience support their nation. The equestrian habitus could be described as an imagined community where in their field there are assumed shared values, this relates to what Larson and Park (1993) recognise that the Olympics have become a media constructed reality. However it is then the media’s role to be able to show an understanding of this community in order to appeal to the appropriate imagined target audience. The misrepresentation that was demonstrated in the introduction of this study shows that this is perhaps not the case and the media in fact do not have an understanding of this community.

The media as a mass form of communication acts a shop-window display for sport and the Olympics in particular, act as a world stage for exposure. Inevitably socio-cultural issues are existent within sport and therefore, within the media representation as media sports forms are, as Rowe (1999) identifies, integrated with social patterns. Media is ubiquitous and therefore it punctuates, articulates and manipulates the world around us by influencing our perceptions, our understanding of sport is constructed by the media (Wenner, 1989). The representation of sport is effected by the discourse and the content of the media presented. Discourse is theory by Foucault that ‘is about the production of knowledge through language’ (Hall, 1997, p. 44), which effects the way subjects are given meaning and are talked about. Foucault was also interested in the meanings of representation and how representations are given this particular meaning (ibid). The relation between the two is summarised by Hobbs as ‘the mass media are infused with discourse (or ‘discourses’), which define the meaning of media representations’ (2008, p. 9). Hobbs (2008) also identified that Foucault’s theory on discourse helped to relate culture and representation, and thus the relationship between culture (and its hierarchies) to media texts. These connections help to underpin the theory underlying representation which is vital as ‘The

10 media influence our knowledge and attitudes. ‘Most people’s experience, limited to media text and picture, affects their perceptions, attitudes and beliefs about Olympic sport’ (Girginov and Parry, 2005, p. 9).

Explaining a sport to those people that are unfamiliar with the sport is difficult, Billings (2008) identifies this as a challenge that the media face. This struggle is apparent in the effort the media make to address this. As acknowledged earlier, media is a space in which people can be connected and therefore a way in which sport can be made relatable to the majority is through storytelling. However, ‘The media have only a limited capacity to transmit a full and complete picture of sport, and therefore, they have to continue to pick and choose what will feature and how to present it’ (Jarvie, 2012, p. 230). As a result the representation of sports are often distorted or not well received by audiences which Wu (2010) suggests could be detrimental as sports that don’t have the favour of television will fade away. Boyle and Haynes (2009) point out that we must consider that the media ultimately aim to gain profit and therefore they want to offer the popular sport. However, within sport media there is evidently a dominant male gaze and the traditional idea that the core audience is male is present (Rowe,1999). Ping Wu (2010) stresses that the media are convinced that their majority audience is male and so they represent sports by appealing appropriately to that audience which unfortunately does not fend favourably for equestrian sport.

Kinkema and Harris (1992) identify three main areas of mass media and sport that shape the media coverage presented in relation with the aim to target audiences: production of mediated sports texts, messages or content of mediated sport texts and audience interaction of mediated sports texts. The production phase includes hierarchisation, personalisation, narrativising and framing of events for a particular audience. The content includes the attempt to maintain and maximise viewing figures for sport and the audience reception identifies the higher the audience value, the more likely coverage received and therefore aims to maximise this. ‘Mixed together with coverage of the actual competitions, these are the ingredients of thrilling histories and breath-taking stories of emotion drama and spectacle’ (Billings, 2008, p. 5).

The media depiction of the sport is important because it affects the reputation of the sport,

‘Each sport has its own distinctive history, its own way of negotiating how it is represented in the print and broadcast media, just as individuals and social groups interpret and use

11 the sports media according to their own reading positions and relations within and across texts and social institutions’

(Rowe, 2004, p. 212).

However what is vital are the effects that the media representation has on the sport. Olympic sports are judged against criteria that determine how much funding the sport receives. In a hierarchical order with the first being the most influential, the factors that this is judged on according to the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations are as followed:

 Television (the television audiences that each sport attracted during the games)  Internet (the number of internet page views and social media mentions)  General Public (favourite sports, according to a survey)  Spectators (ticket requests in the host territory)  Press (number of favourable press articles)  Universality (number of national federations)

(Association of Summer Olympic International Federations, 2012)

This demonstrates the importance of popularity of sport which is influenced by the extent to which the media cover the sport. Due to modern developments in sport forms of new media (as mentioned above when referring to internet), that are now emerging as important mediums alongside the more original dominating mediums such as television. Helland (2007) investigates the historical analysis of symbiosis between sports and media and its findings suggest that these developments of and changes that media have had on the format of sport are due technology and social developments. The Olympic media consumer experience now includes social media due to the integration within mobile technology such as apps. Social media, including Facebook, Twitter and YouTube are significant, yet it is recognised that it is difficult to capture the volume of this with regards to collecting data from these forms of media. Consequently ‘The Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOG) have now included it in their marketing campaign (Miah and Garcia, 2012). It is also important to note the difference between different types of media presentation that Girginov and Parry (2005) identify. Print media is usually presented as in a news based format aimed at distinct audience groups and is often critical in its report, whereas broadcast media is aimed at a large scale audience and more supportive in order to create a more of an entertaining case opposed to a report.

2.4 Olympics: ‘5 Golden Rings’

The culture of the Olympic movement and thus of Olympic media is modernist (Roche, 2000). ‘Dramatic changes and controversial developments are transforming the ways in which sport is experienced and understood…there are anxious and often confused debates about the impact of new technologies and cultures of consumption on the integrity of sport’ (Hargreaves, 2004, preface x). The Olympic Games are influenced by commercialisation; the process of attempting to gain money from an activity, rather than being interested in the activity purely for its own sake. As a result of this, sport and the Olympic Games in particular have become gladiatorial whereby the media now dominate and control the Olympics Games to a certain extent by programming them to suit television schedules. For example, in the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games extreme measures and precautions were taken in order to monitor the effects of the weather on the equestrian events. With the hot and humid weather conditions in Hong Kong, temperatures soar up to 35 °C with a humidity of 80–90% (Kohn & Hinchcliff, 1995; Jeffcott & Kohn, 1999). ‘These conditions are difficult and exhausting for horses, especially in the Eventing competition’ (Jeffcott, 2009) and there can be profound effects on performance with the risk of exhaustion and heat stroke (Jeffcott & Kohn, 1999). Yet, regardless of these concerns, the equestrian events had to take place in peak temperatures in order to suit the timing needs for television coverage.

During the London 2012 Olympic Games, Britain had the chance to project any cultural message they desired as they held audience attention all over the world and therefore had the power to influence audience perceptions (Heistand, 2006). With an estimated 20,000 media reps at London 2012 Olympics (Girginov, 2013), the opportunity for the Games to be a zeitgeist was inevitable. Roche (2000) confirms that the Olympic Games are an example of a mega-event which are said to make history, media event analysis therefore explores the role that the media played in making this history. Previous studies that explore the London 2012 Olympic Games were limited due to how recent the Games were. Roche (2000) also notices that there is a lack of research on Olympic media in particular, which is surprising considering it is the pinnacle of sporting spectacle. However, Girginov’s (2013) recent study on the London 2012 Games identified issues that arose in preparing each sporting team for the Games. One of the main challenges was establishing the status of the sport in the public perception and the consequent media pressure.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3. Methodology

3.1 Paradigm

This study will derive from an alternative paradigm perspective in the social science world. The focus within the study is to analyse the meanings of the discourse and is not a quantitative study that counts the amount of times a certain word metaphor is used in the media. The reason for this is that this could not be measured accurately when the subjectivity of people is involved including their feelings and experiences which shape their views. The epistemology (what counts as knowledge) in this paradigm is affected because of this and therefore to ensure the study holds reliability and validity, this method is best utilised. In order to appreciate why the research method is inclusive of visual content analysis, a theoretical understanding must be established of how the visual content can produce knowledge. Pink (2007) identifies that using a more reflexive approach opposed to the more traditional scientific paradigm by rejecting the ‘objective social science position (which is dominated by the written word)’ (ibid, p.5), gives a chance for the visual image to establish itself as equal to the written word rather than trying to fit in the scientific paradigm.

3.2 Methods

This study specifically engages with a critical textual and visual analysis of different medium forms of representation of equestrianism. In doing so the study employs a qualitative and exploratory methodology. The rationale for pursuing this method is due to the nature of the research study requiring a theoretical approach, as it is an analysis of the media coverage that has already been published. The focus of this study desires to find out the reasons behind and the implications of the representation or perhaps the misrepresentation of equestrian sport. This will include recognising the stereotypes within the sport, that are presented by the media and then exploring whether it is the responsibility of the high mass culture of equestrian sport itself that reproduces these ideals. A media constructed reality around equestrianism has been created that relates to the hyper realities and the idea of imagined communities.

This project will take the procedure of media analysis for the method of this study. There are many methods of media analysis that can be utilised but the forms used in this study will involve a content analysis of textual and visual data. The content analysis consists of a qualitative analysis of content including texts and images, which allows for an in depth

15 exploration into the meanings and motives of the text or image allowing themes to emerge. This is with accordance to Payne and Payne’s concept that ‘content analysis seeks to demonstrate the meaning of written or visual sources’ (2004, p. 51). Comparable to previous media analysis studies, analysing the actual content of the media will inform us of the motives behind the perceptions created by the media of equestrianism. Pink (2007) identifies that including visual analysis will help to generate an understanding of the meanings behind the images explored, which will contribute towards deeper sociological findings. Within the visual analysis certain aspects of the image were considered such as facial expression, body language, dress code, the subject of the image, location, as well as light and colour. With a consideration of these aspects of imagery, an interpretation is then presented in a descriptive manner in an attempt to discover the messages that are portrayed through the image. The aim was to investigate what the image is about and how it tells this story through formal components and their relationship with the content. This takes on a similar method that Rowe describes, ‘The bodies of sportspeople are closely observed through striking images which draw their power not merely though the drama of action, but also by connecting the imaged body for wider social issues and identities’ (1999, p. 120).

There are several forms of media that will be valuable within this study to use. Over recent years there has been a development of technology, Clavio and Eagleman (2011) state that studies of sport media to this point have primarily concentrated on traditional forms of media, such as magazines, newspapers, and television. However, several recent studies have begun to examine internet and new media-based forms of sport media. Therefore to keep with current research the majority of my data will be collected from the internet. Jarvie identifies that ‘The study of the media in relation to sport culture and society has tended to be dominated by television rather than the print media’ (2012, p. 227), so although aspects of the television coverage will be touched on, the majority of the analysis will come from print media as there is capacity for it to be explored. Whannel (2002) identifies the ‘Study of media in relation to sport, culture, society, dominated by TV not print media’, correlating with Miah and Garcia (2012), who acknowledge that although television is the dominating medium, it is mostly celebratory of the Games and therefore for the purpose of this study, print media would provide a better place for an analysis as it seems to be a more critical and controversial coverage.

This study particularly focuses on, but is not limited to, the recent London 2012 Olympic Games. The recentness of these Olympic Games and the fact these Games were hosted 16 by Great Britain allows for an up to date and relevant study. Due to these conditions of the study the focus will naturally be mostly on the media representation within Great Britain in particular and also specifically on the Great British equestrian team, although other findings have been drawn on where relevant. Billings describes the Olympics as a reflection of the ‘links between the social, political, and economical influences on sport’ (2008, p. 5) and therefore is a symbolic event to use for analysing media representation as it draws on other aspects of society. Due to my personal involvement within the 2012 London Olympics as a member of the stables team for the equestrian events and as an equestrian athlete, I hold a valuable inside position. I do not consider this to be a bias view, but a unique position from within the culture itself that allows for a compelling case opposed to a neutral one. Therefore it is acknowledged that this reflexive approach accepts the subjectivity of this research method. Through this investigation of the media representation of equestrian sport, certain themes have emerged that capture the predominant issues and their implications. Jarvie (2006) identifies that most of media sport research has studied meanings and messages of representations that are generated by the media’s relationship with sport.

The Great British and Northern Ireland team profile and the competing nations in equestrian sport at the London 2012 Olympic Games are identified here in order to familiarise the reader with athletes and nations that will be referred to throughout the study.

Dressage: Carl Hester, Charlotte Dujardin, Laura Bechtolsheimer

Eventing: Mary King, Nicola Wilson, William Fox-Pitt, Zara Phillips

Show Jumping: Ben Maher, Nick Skelton, Peter Charles, Scott Brash

The 21 nations that competed in equestrian in London 2012 Olympic Games is inclusive of: Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, France, Germany, Netherlands, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Sweden, Switzerland, USA, Ukraine, Great Britain, Argentina, Japan, New Zealand, Columbia, Denmark and Spain.

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

4. Analysis and Interpretation of Results

Through the analysis of the collected visual and textual data, certain themes have emerged, these themes have been identified and the data has then been categorised into each of these thematic areas. Separation of the themes was challenging as they are all interlinked in some way or another so although separated by subheadings their relationship is acknowledged. Under each subheading the relevant data is presented and the analysis and interpretations are made throughout as this proved a clearer and more concise way to layout this section. This section aims to provide an insight into how ‘We use media images and narratives as we evaluate ourselves, give meaning to other people and events, form ideas and envision the future’ (Coakley and Pike, 2009, p. 426).

4.1 High Culture as an introduction to the analysis

High culture has emerged as arguably the most significant theme, therefore it acts as an umbrella term for some of the other prevailing themes, including fashion, money and class which are explored separately but their connections to high culture are made clear. Determining characteristics of the sport that contribute towards the creation of this high culture have been explored in order to understand why equestrian sport is represented as an elitist and high cultured activity. The concept of taste is relevant here because as Bourdieu (1984) identifies, taste will influence what particular sports appeals to which classes. To introduce this theme visual analysis is undertaken, high culture is illustrated by a selection of images from the London 2012 Olympics that have been selected to demonstrate certain features of this high culture. Chris Lewis states that he believes ‘Greenwich will provide the images from London that people will remember in 20 years’ time’ (White, 24 July, 2012, online).

One of the most expressive features of high culture is the physical presentation of the equestrian athlete with an apparent feature being the smart clothing that although is designed appropriately for sport, it also highly influenced by fashion and style. The images of Great Britain’s dressage riders Carl Hester, Charlotte Dujardin and Laura Bechtolsheimer are accompanied by images of Minna Telde, a Swedish dressage rider, who although not a British rider, is similarly useful in demonstrating the display of the typical equestrian clothing. The Swedish dressage rider (see figure 3), and GB rider Laura Bechtolshiemer (see figure 4), wear top hats, an immediate example of how intrinsic elements of the sport, in this case safety, has been overridden by fashion. In dressage competitions, the riders do not have to wear safety helmets, they can wear these top hats 19 instead which is a condition in place for style related aesthetic reasons only. The riders also wear a long tailed jacket over a white shirt and stock accompanied by white jodhpurs and perfectly polished black leather boots and white gloves. Under the smart top hat Telde wears her hair in a neat bun, tied in a velvet scrunchie complemented with silver earrings. The images also show the smart appearance and style of the equine athlete. The horse’s tack is of a similar style with the saddle and bridle both black leather decorated with a dazzling diamante browband. The horses’ manes are plaited, their coats glossy and their hooves polished (see figures 3-7). This display of immaculate appearances, influenced by an elegant style, correlates with the suggestions that particular sports, such as equestrian, that demonstrate characteristics associated with high culture, such as elegance, appeal to certain tastes and therefore certain classes. ‘Class attitudes to the use of body influence the kinds of sports taken up, the kinds of style associated with a sport and the cultural status of the specific sport” (Jarvie and Maguire, 2002, p. 175).

Figure 3. An image showing the equestrian athlete’s clothing. (Minna Telde of Sweden: London 2012’, Olympic.org, 2012).

Figure 4. An image showing the Great British equestrian team kit. (Mail Online, 3 August, 2012).

Figure 5. An image showing the pristinely presented Great British horse and rider; Carl Hester and Utopia. (Mail Online, 7 August,, 2012). 22

Figure 6. An image showing the elegance of the rider (‘Telde’s smile for the crowd’, Olympic.org, 2012).

Characteristics of the sport are considered as the sport is one of fine skills, a characteristic that is associated with high class sporting activities, as identified by Bourdieu’s concept of ‘embodiment of class’ (1984). This is revealed through a demonstration of the body language of the riders which is emphatic of poise and grace. The posture in their riding positions, (see figures 4,5 and 6), where the riders smile to the crowds and gracefully wave, display this. The image that captures Valegro (Dujardin’s horse) in mid stride of extended trot also displays graciousness (see figure 7).

Figure 7. Showing the elegance of dressage: Charlotte Dujardin and Valegro (‘Horse and Country, 1 Nov, 2012).

Figure 8 shows the venue that hosted the equestrian events at the location of Greenwich Park. This chosen venue is also suggestive and illustrative of the high culture associated with the equestrian culture as ‘The arena is situated in front of the Queen’s House’ (British Dressage, 2012).

Figure 8. Showing the venue for London 2012: Greenwich Park (Mail Online, 3 August, 2012).

This royal venue also helped to encourage the public to spectate, ‘There's a real buzz and I hope it will bring more public interest and help people see what a fabulous sport this is’ (Jeavans. C., 5 July, 2011, online), enforcing Wenner’s (1998) point that Britain is infatuated with the ideal of privileged classes which is used as a symbol to entice mass appeal.

Steering away from a visual analysis but still focusing on high culture, a consideration of the sponsorship that was provided for the equestrian Olympic teams is also representative of this high culture. Land Rover was the main supplier and sponsor for the Great British eventing team, ‘Equestrian Sports are a real test of horse and rider, combining poise, elegance and sheer strength. It’s also something Britain is very good at – no wonder Land Rover is proud to help the sport’ (Land Rover, n.d.). Land Rover also sponsors equestrian events including The Burghley Horse Trails and The Royal Windsor Horse Show, other prestigious events in the equestrian calendar. Hermes, a stylish fashion brand modified its brand ‘to a modern international show jumping label’ and supplied jackets to the French Olympic equestrian team in the London 2012 Games as well, ‘Hermes have hand-picked select riders who they feel represent their exclusive and elegant brand’ (Noellefloyd.com,17 April, 2013). This equestrian consumer culture, as identified by the 25 sponsors themselves, is a reflection of equestrian sport’s characteristics. This relates to Anderson’s (1983) concept of ‘imagined communities’ in that these brands assume a particular community of people will be watching and consuming equestrian sport, a space in which they believe will hold tastes relevant to their brands.

4.1.1 Charlotte Casiraghi

Throughout collecting the data from media sources that represent high culture, a key theme of fashion arose. Focusing on this theme, numerous representative articles of Charlotte Casiraghi, a Monaco Royal and top level showjumping enthusiast arose. Therefore, although taking a focus away from the 2012 London Olympic Games, a mini case-study on Charlotte Casiraghi has been undertaken as it will provide a more in-depth demonstration of the role of fashion in the equestrian subculture and how this affects its image. Although this section will focus on the visual, the textual content that surrounds these images that are part of articles are important as what is said can influence the audience’s interpretation of the visual.

Figure 9. Front cover of Town & Country magazine issue August 2012: Charlotte Casiraghi (Mail Online, 6 July, 2012).

The first image is of the front page of ‘Town and Country’ magazine, featured in the article titled ‘Beautiful, connected and winning over the equestrian world: Monaco Royal Charlotte Casiraghi leads talented crop of socialites riding at Olympic-level’ (Fleming, O., 6 July, 2012, online). Within this article additional images show other riders that are also emblematic of these themes, such as Georgina Bloomberg (see figure 10) that will be discussed to complement the study of Casiraghi. Figures 9 and 10 both originate from the same magazine article stated above that was published in July, 2012, in the run up to the London Olympics. The images not only display prestigious and wealthy young girls by 27

name but also by appearance. These images show the daughter of Princess of Monaco (Charlotte Casiraghi) and the daughter of an American Mayor (Georgina Bloomberg) dressed in their sporting riding attire, however, the emphasis appears to be on beauty not sport. Image 10 is clearly situated in a luxurious setting which is highlighted by the bright green grass and palm trees situated in front of the affluent looking house. The horse is immaculately groomed, as is the rider, with her luscious long locks falling on her smart jacket. The image itself captures style and sophistication. This is represented by the clothing and the understated yet tasteful make-up, alongside the facial expression of Casiraghi revealing parted lips (suggesting a subtle sexual theme) that shows her perfectly straight and white teeth. This beauty that dominates the image is representative of wealth, class and status. As image 9 is situated on a front-page magazine, there is text that accompanies the image which as Rowe (1999) points out, helps to communicate the photographic message. The language and discourses used in correlation with this is now considered.

Figure 10. Georgina Bloomberg: daughter of Mayor Michael Bloomberg (Mail Online, 6 July, 2012).

The subheading of this article is ‘Grace Kelly’s effortlessly exotic granddaughter, Charlotte Casiraghi, is leading the way in the newest hobby for the world’s most pedigreed daughters’ (ibid), a consideration of the use of language here highlights the message the writer is trying to portray. Firstly, the subheading describes equestrian as a ‘hobby’ not a sport which immediately takes away any sporting focus from the article and the following language draws attention to other aspects. Throughout the article Charlotte Casiraghi is described as: ‘exotic’, ‘beautiful’, ‘connected’, ‘exotic’, a ‘pedigreed daughter’, ‘young socialite’, ‘elegant equestrian’ and a ‘trend setter’ (ibid). Within these descriptions there is reference to her appearance, fashion, class, sociability and her poise within the sport yet not one of these accounts refers to her talent as a sportswoman. Koivula identifies that ‘The language used in media is a powerful tool in the reinforcement of these distinctions’ (1999, p. 591). The further comment ‘our continued fascination with her well-dressed sporting endeavours’ captures the underlying reasons for our interest, which are ones of idolisation of the royal but not for sporting reasons. This is not only this article where she is depicted in such a way, in March 2012, again just before the Olympics, Casiraghi became the face of Gucci and in the launch Frida Giannini (Gucci’s creative director) says that Charlotte Casiraghi ‘embodies the beauty and the grace of equestrian’ (Derschowitz, J., 7 March, 2012, online). Succeeding is a collection of images of Charlotte Casiraghi modelling for Gucci fashion (see figures 11, 12, 13, 14). The fact that an already established, famous and recongnised fasion brand chooses to use an equestrian athlete to represent their brand suggests that the equestrian image and its culture suits their target audience of classy and highly chic fashion, ‘Gucci has a long heritage informed and inspired by the equestrian world’ (Mambro, D.Y., n.d., online) The following images portray athletic glamour, that combines the ‘best of sport and style’ (ibid). Gucci utilises Casirgahi’s beauty and status as a royal to promote their brand. In each image both horse and Casiraghi are pristenely groomed and positioned in an elegant manner.

Figure 11. Charlotte Casiraghi models for Gucci campaign ‘Forever Now’ (Huffington Post, 19 September, 2013).

Figure 12 . An image demonstrating the equestrian influenced style. (CPP Luxury, 2 August, 2012).

Figure 13. An image showing how fashion is immersed within equestrian sport. (Noellefloyd.com, 15 Feb, 2013.)

Figure 14. Charlotte riding her stallion ‘Troy’ for Gucci. (Vogue, 15 August, 2010).

To conclude this this mini case study, are two images of Charlotte Casiraghi in a showjumping competition setting (see figures 17 and 18). This provides evidence that even when Casiraghi is not modelling but in the equestrian culture, the images of her still portray a sense of fashion and style. The clothing she wears is designed especially for her by Gucci which she matches with delicate jewellery and trendy sunglasses. The second image shows the social side of the sport, where she joins friends in the members club in- between rides, this relates to Howe’s (2013) findings that the social activities of the culture is as important as the sport itself. Casiraghi not only demonstrates how fashion is a significant attribute of the equestrian culture but how she encapsulates and is representative in general of the image that epitomises the equestrian habitus and its imagined community.

Figure 15. Charlotte Casiraghi with friends in the members’ area at the Global Champions Tour in Cannes. (Huffington Post, 14 June, 2012).

Figure 16. . Charlotte Casiraghi shows how equestrian and fashion integrate. (Huffington Post, 14 June, 2012).

4.2 Money

Another prominent theme that arose was the influence of wealth and money and how it affects and is part of equestrian sport. The exploration begins with an article ‘Did Saudi Arabia’s Olympic bronze cost $49 million?’ (Al Arabia News, 12 August, 2012, online). This article vividly situates the position money has in the sport by exposing how Saudi Arabia shockingly won Bronze at the 2012 London Olympics after ‘buying success’ with the team’s unlimited budget to purchase the best horses on the circuit. ‘Millions of pounds have changed hands, much of the cash coming from the Middle East’ such as Saudi Arabia, ‘They have definitely moved the whole sport and business up a level. They’ve got a big budget, and horses at that level are of course expensive, probably between £500,000 and £2.5m each’ (William, O., 10 Jan, 2012). This demonstrates how money is an eminent factor within equestrian sport and supports Bourdieu’s (1992) suggestion that it is mostly financial reasons which are assumed fundamental restrictions of the sport.

The restrictions not only come for those outside of the sport but for those within it too. The article ‘London 2012: Are GB victims of the horse transfer window?’ (William, O., 10 Jan, 2012), provides an insight into how money is an inescapable matter within equestrian sport and specifically mentions the issues it caused in the London Olympics for the equestrians. ‘In equestrian sport, rarely do the best riders own the best horses. Far more common is for international competitors to ride and train a horse owned by somebody else’ (ibid).This structure allows for the best riders to be given the best horses by the people with the most money. For example, the owner of Hello Sanctos (Scott Brash’s Olympic ride) was bought by Lord Harris and Lord Kirkham for £2 million. However this can cause problems as Rob Hoekstra, GB showjumping performance manager explains

‘If the owner is presented with an offer for the horse that they consider too good to turn down, there is nothing to stop them selling – regardless of the consequences for the rider or a nation’s Olympic hopes…For a lot of people it’s a business, and the only way to keep going is to sell’

(ibid).

This situation was apparent in the London 2012 Olympics where ‘The British Olympic team lost three top showjumping horses to foreign rivals before the window closed, and Sweden nearly poached a British dressage horse considered a leading contender for Olympic gold’ (ibid). This proves the detrimental effects that money can have on the sport. The money

35 involved in not only the Olympics but in other mass events has attracted interest of wealthy owners.

There are also several other ways asides from business that money is a part of the sport, in the article ‘Welcome to the people’s sport (As long as the people are millionaires or holiday with the King of Morocco)’, (Kelly, 3 August, 2012, online), different aspects of the sport that explicitly display money are identified.

‘The equestrian sport of dressage is constantly battling accusations that it is somehow the preserve of a privileged elite. This is clearly unfair. Anyone can participate in dressage, just as long as they have a top hat, tails, white gloves and a £1million horse that can do ballet’

(ibid).

The sarcastic tone of this opening quote amongst the choice of words used to describe the sport, sum up the undertones of people’s perceptions on equestrian sport. The sarcasm continues throughout the article, ‘So dressage is for everybody. The wealthy just get to do it better’ (ibid). It is evident here that the upper-classes are dominating the equestrian world due to the money that they have which highlights the intimate relationship between sport and the class system which is underpinned by wealth, as identified by Jarvie (2012) . This analysis exposes the notion of stereotyping as demonstrated in an article published by Forbes, an American magazine renowned for their ‘rich-list’ and therefore associated with having a business and money focus, during the 2012 London Olympic Games titled ‘The billionaires and Blue-Bloods Behind The Olympic Equestrian Team’ (Elliott, H., 31 July, 2012, online). In this article they acknowledge that ‘the thing is, the rich-and-famous stereotype is partly true’ (ibid).

However, another dimension of this theme is revealed as contradictory findings challenge this idea that equestrian sport is defined by money by unveiling an unassuming outlook on the sport. John Madden (husband of well-known American showjumper Beezie Madden) confesses ‘I really hate it that this gets labelled as so elitist…Our whole sport gets painted with a wide brush that the horses are so expensive, but regular people can enjoy it, too’ (Caple, J., 9 May, 2012, online). The word ‘labelled’ here is of importance as it refers to stereotyping in equestrian sport. Stereotyping is explained as occurring ‘because the media consistently seeks to present complicated issues in a clear, succinct manner to large-scale audiences, generalisations in the form of stereotypes become inherent’ (Centre

36 for Gender Equality 2008, p .8). Laura Bechtolshiemer challenges aspects of the equestrian stereotypes by identifying that ‘The perception you needs millions in the bank to make it is changing’ (Metro, 13 May, 2013, online). Other articles not only simply disagree with this stereotype that is associated with equestrian, but actually make an effort to prove it is not true. The article ‘Olympics prove you don’t have to be rich to ride’ argues that ‘equestrians aren’t all posh and loaded. Fact’ (Ricca-Smith, C., 13 August, 2012). It also claims the London 2012 Olympic Games ‘proved that riding horses isn’t all about money’. It is not denied that money is involved within the sport, and that the majority involved in the sport are wealthy such as ‘elite newcomer’, Bill Gates’ 15 year-old daughter, Jessica, who was a potential member of the 2012 Olympic showjumping team. However, Katie Monshsn-Prudent a former showjumper states that ‘A lot of them are growing up with a lot of money. But it takes not only money’ (Fleming, O., 6 July, 2012, online). This argument is furthered by acknowledging that athleticism is needed to succeed in the sport, Jay Fielden (Town and Country’s editor-in-chief) identifies that ‘while it certainly helps to have money and connections for the well-dressed sport’ one also needs ‘guts, athleticism and drive’ (ibid). A similar argument is made here ‘Money helps, but if you have the drive it’s not impossible…Not all kids with a lot of money have the gift or the guts’ (ibid).

This argument is continually made throughout this article, ‘The sport may be overflowing with pretty-young things who have ample money, but Mr Fielden believes the sport isn’t wholly inaccessible to those without an elite family name’ (ibid); here the existing order of social differences proposed by Jarvie (2012) is challenged. However, these statements are conflicted with suggestions that ‘the sport requires much more than chic leather boots, structured blazers, and the six-figure sums needed to campaign and compete on an international circuit’ (ibid). This is supported by research into the Olympic rider’s backgrounds which demonstrate not all are from privileged backgrounds as suspected. Charlotte Dujardin ‘started out as a working pupil’, Carl Hester ‘came from humble beginnings’ (ibid), and when discussing Mary King’s success it is said ‘it is easy to forget where she came from’ because of her success. Although this proves that not all riders come from rich and lavish backgrounds, each of these quotes also unknowingly suggests that now since they have become an equestrian athlete they have joined a higher classed culture. However, there are equally as many riders who have had wealthy upbringings, such as Laura Bechtolshiemer, ‘The billionaire’s granddaughter’ of Karl-Heinz Kipp, (ranked by Forbes as the 154th richest man in the planet in 2010). Laura confesses ‘I’m conscious that people will look at me and think that is what my sport is all about, that you

37 have to have heaps of money’ (Bull, A., 15 December, 2012, online). This relates to the conflict theory where others may resent the more privileged because of class inequalities regarding opportunity (Craig & Beedie, 2010). What is apparent is that there is a clear difference between the perceptions of the sport from those within the equestrian subculture and those not. Equestrians seem to dislike the connotations that come with being involved in the sport and disagree that it’s all about money and only those in the upper classes can be a part of it, yet those not involved seem to think all of these are truths. However, the people outside of the subculture will only gain knowledge of the sport through the media which gives us an indication to how not only the sport is represented but how it is then consumed and perceived as identified by Wenner (1989) who explains that what we understand about sports is shaped by the media.

4.3 Class

Class was another key theme that surfaced from the media’s coverage of equestrianism as an underlying theme of high culture. This theme closely relates and correlates with the previous theme of money and provides a potential explanation of the alienation of equestrian sport within the majority’s realms of experience. ‘The challenge for the new sports media is how to capture that sense of belonging to class and community’ (Jarvie, 2012, p. 229). The findings are representative of these challenges and often portrayed in a negative light. Kristine Oakhurst describes people within the equestrian world as ‘snobs’ and ‘the gobs of money’, who are more concerned with the image and the status than the actual sport, seeing the horse as an accessory not an athlete. (Oakhurst, K., 16 April, 2008, online). This insulting portrayal relates to how people can use sport primarily as device to indicate their social exclusivity and cultural distinctiveness (Howe, 2013).

In the article ‘’Posh’ British team sparks row over class divide’ (Hindustan Times, 7 August, 2012, online), it is recognised that ‘many of the host nation’s team come from privileged families and compete in costly sports’ and ‘allegedly posh disciplines’ (equestrianism was categorised within this). The article goes on to discuss how ‘A disproportionate number of British competitors at London 2012 were educated at fee-paying schools’ (ibid), the dominance of the private schools at the Olympics can be ascribed to partly financial issues but also the working-class perceptions of the sport which may prevent their involvement (Bairner, 2001). This also indicates a relationship with Bourdieu’s concept of how classes have different tastes. It is not only that athletes that derive from private schools, ‘It is also a sport enjoyed frequently by the wealthy and sometimes even by royalty’ (Cooke, S.V.G.,

July 28, 2012, online). Campbell’s findings show that although people may be technically free to participate in sport, they are limited by ‘social divisions of class’ (2004, p. 299) which creates social inequality described as the differences in people’s access to these opportunities. This leads to social stratification, a theory earlier identified by Schreerder (2002) suggesting this encouragement of factors causing social stratification by the subculture will cause reproducing patterns (Horne, 2013).

4.4 A media constructed reality: fighting for respect

The concept of media constructed reality is notion best described in the quote below:

‘The impact of media is especially powerful in that it does not merely reflect reality but even constructs it. One ramification of this is when members of the media select what to broadcast or publish, they then portray to us a reality of their own choice’

(Centre for Gender Equality in Iceland, 2006, p. 8)

In the event guide for equestrian sport on the BBC sport website, equestrian sport is described as ‘One of the most varied and enthralling of sports – form the discipline of dressage to the danger of eventing to the drama of jumping, equestrian is an entertaining and exciting spectacle’ (BBC Sport, 16 January, 2012, online). Regardless of this attempt to lure audiences in with an electrifying description of the sport and irrespective of the improving recognition that equestrian sport is arguably receiving, the sport still fights for respect and equal attention as other mainstream sports. In 2004, Denis Campbell described equestrianism as being at risk for being dropped by the Olympic Games due to its ‘lack of popularity’. He categorised it within the ‘minority specialist sports’ opposed to a ‘guaranteed crowd-puller’ (Campbell, D., 3 October, 2004, online). There seems to be a common reoccurring trend that dressage is the biggest concern in this respect, this is evident in the following quote, ‘Equestrian cross country can best be described as the Olympics’ profuse apology for dressage…Sorry for that horse ballet the other day; now watch’em jump off a grassy cliff’ (WyshynskiJuly, G., 30 July, 2012, online). Fellow sportsman Glenn Le Tissier also said that dressage was ‘for the horses who can’t run’ (De La Rue, S., 8 August, 2012, online). Athletes from other sports were not shy to express their thoughts on the sport, cricketer Jamie Nussbaumer tweeted ‘Dressage is just not a sport’, this thought seemed to be common amongst other cricketers as Ross Kneller stated that dressage was the ‘worst Olympic event’ and that the equestrian athletes were ‘born with silver spoon[s]” in their mouths’ (ibid). It is apparent here that there are underlying

39 reasons for some bitterness towards equestrian sport and its athletes, which could be explained by conflict theory whereby social stratification in society creates conflict due to inequalities. Other reasons also include a general lack of understanding of the sport which leads to this disengagement. This relates to Vidmar (2008) who identifies that it is a challenge to create audience attention from those who are not a specific enthusiast of that particular sport.

4.5 Positive impact of London 2012

An important reason for analysing the media coverage of equestrian at the 2012 London Olympic Games is whether or not it had an impact, positive or negative, on the sport. The Olympic Games provide a platform for sports to be promoted. Although previous themes in this study have reflected on the lack of coverage, negative coverage or misrepresenting coverage that equestrian sport received through the London 2012 Olympic Games, what has actually been identified is that actually there is an interest in equestrian sport, ‘Interest is clearly there: equestrian sport has a huge domestic audience’ (Williams, O., 7 August, 2012, online). The findings show that there has evidently been a positive influence on the sport from the London 2012 Games. An article in ‘Horse and Country’ magazine declares that the ’Olympics boost media coverage of equine sport’, this is apparent due to ‘at any other time, horse fans are lucky if their sport makes it onto the back pages, but during the Olympics articles about equestrianism’s brightest stars appeared in a wide range of publications’ (Ricca-Smith, C., 13 August, 2012, online).

In order to provide evidence that support these findings, data has been collected to show the positive impact equestrian sport has received. “In an effort to ensure the Olympic Games remain relevant to sports fans of all generation the Olympic programme commission systematically reviews every sport following each edition of the games (Olympic.org (n.d., online). From this review a recommendation for the most suited 25 sports to be included as a ‘core sport’ in the next Olympic Games is made. Within this review 39 different factors are taken into consideration, with a heavy weight of importance being placed on television ratings, ticket sales and their popularity. In the London 2012 Olympic review, equestrian was included in the recommended 25 core sports suggesting that the sport was popular in the previous games which ‘absolutely secures the future of the sport’ (Ricca-Smith, C.,14 February, 2013, online).

During the 2008 Olympic Games, Princess Haya (President of the FEI) stated that ‘The popularity of dressage is abnormally low’, yet in the London 2012 Games she reports ‘The 40 amazing standard of dressage on the first day was great for the sport. And we have roped in a whole new audience from outside’ (Green, K., 29 August, 2008, online).This positivity is supported by participation surveys that secure these claims that the London 2012 Games had an uplifting effect on equestrian sport. After the success of the London 2012 Olympics ‘Horse riding is in the top 10 most popular participatory sports in England, according to recent figures released by Sport England’ (Ricca-Smith, C.,23 December, 2012). The Active People Survey’s that took place between October 2012 and October 2013 reviewing the ‘Once a week participation in funded sports amongst people aged 14 years and over’ shows that equestrian was one of the 12 sports where there was an increase in participation compared with the previous results released before the London 2012 Olympics (Sport England, October 2012-October 2013). Funding increases also suggest the success as equestrian sport is set to receive in excess of £21 million in lead up to 2016 Games after it was identified as a ‘priority one’ of the 42 Elite sports who will be receiving an increase in funding (Ricca-Smith, C., 20 December, 2012, online). HRH Princess Haya says that these increased participation and funding statistics are

‘A real milestone for our sport and is worthy of celebration as it confirms that we are really competing with the other top sports on the number of spectators we can pull in. We have made great strides in the past 100 years and we are now looking forward to another 100 years of equestrian sport in the Olympic Games’

(Ricca-Smith, C., 27 February, 2012, online).

4.5.1 The Olympic legacy

In order to support these findings that the London 2012 Olympics have had a positive impact on the sport, regardless of the identified inaccurate and negative representation the sport, a study of an equestrian event after the London 2012 Olympic Games is briefly explored to justify these findings and demonstrate a consistency and an element of validity. Simultaneously, this will provide an opportunity to verify the earlier findings that showjumping is receiving the most media coverage by deciphering the reasons for this. This is achieved through media analysis of London International Horse Show Olympia, December 2013.

The television coverage of the event was covered by ‘BBC1’, at 1.45pm-4.30pm on Saturday 21st December 2013. Before considering any of the content, this in itself is significant as no eventing or dressage (except in the Olympics) attains BBC1 coverage, especially not in this primetime slot. In this programme all of the live coverage was of showjumping, even though dressage is included within the event. The only dressage that is show is a five minute highlight of Charlotte Dujardin’s world record breaking dressage test. The fact that this was included is potentially down to the fact that the people now know who Charlotte Dujardin because of the Olympics media coverage. The programme begins with a brief overview on the background of the riders with a focus on the Olympic riders, suggesting they are now the most popular and well-known as a result of the Olympic coverage, this is confirmed as a montage video of the Olympic wins is played.

Other coverage of the event is provided by Eurosport and there is a clear difference between the coverage on the BBC and the coverage provided by Eurosport, displaying a different representation of the sport to different audiences. For example, the representation to the mass media and to the niche media and broadcasting that addresses the wide demographic of the mass media and narrowcasting that addresses the niche media. On the BBC there are interviews with riders, explanations of classes and technical virtual course walks which suggest they are pitching to a wider audience, this is due to the role that BBC play as a public service broadcaster that must transit a range of programming to suit various audiences. Whereas Eurosport, as a sport specific programme expects a sporting audience, this is evident in the coverage of the class as less explanations of the classes within the competition is given, suggesting they expect the audience to have their own prior knowledge.

Reasons why showjumping is perhaps the most television friendly have been demonstrated in this coverage of this event. The show is described as an ‘extravaganza’ and of ‘high drama’, this relates to how research suggests that best way to portray sports is as stories (Rowe, 1999 & Heistand, 2006). Showjumping allows for a spectacle to be created because of the characteristics of the sport. The big and colourful jumps which are designed making it pleasing to the eye catch the viewers’ attention. The quick running times of classes and the easily structured soring systems make easy to view. For example, viewers can see if a pole falls down or if the horse refuses the jump, in comparison to the aesthetically judged dressage scoring system that is subjective and difficult to understand if viewers are not familiar with. Similarly, eventing isn’t as media friendly due to its complicated scoring systems and its duration (as it is a 3 day-event), whereas in showjumping several classes of different style take place during one day ensuring variety and a constant stream of stories as winners and losers are constantly identified.

There are also other findings that derive from the analysis of this event that support some of the other earlier findings of the study. The sponsorship at this event is of similar taste to sponsors that were identified within the London 2012 Olympic Games that reinforces this concept of the expected target viewing audience, relating to the media constructed imagined communities (Anderson, 1983). Sponsors of this event included: Rolex, Longines, H&M “Fashion and Horses”, Reem Acra New York, Hilton, Champagne Taittinger and Lexus. These sponsors are brands that are either considered fashionable, stylish or expensive which correlates with the money, fashion and class themes that have been established throughout the study. The high prize money revealed and the celebration of the fact ‘There were 12,000 bottles of champagne drank here this week’ also coincides with the findings that money is embedded in the equestrian culture and again accentuates the perceived image of equestrian sport. Throughout the programme a trend of the Olympic legacy is evident. Claire Balding and Tim Stockdale, who present the programme, throughout provide evidence of how the Olympics have had a positive influence on British Showjumping, Claire Balding explains that ‘This is a golden time for British showjumping’. This is constantly reinforced and Tim Stockdale continues to say that “the Olympic Games was a focal point for our sport…it’s really made a massive massive difference to our sport…that’s been a spring board and the sport’s gathered momentum”. Undertaking this brief analysis of this event was valuable as it confirms some findings from the study and provides examples of other claims made throughout the study.

Chapter 5: Conclusion

5. Conclusion

This study has provided a snapshot analysis into how equestrian sport is represented in the media. This reflective analysis of the media coverage of equestrian sport reinforces that the media plays a vital part in structuring the equestrian culture and reproducing its social patterns. The findings of this study are conclusive of the idea that the amount of media coverage of equestrian sport has increased as a result of the London 2012 Olympic Games resulting in more exposure for the sport, particularly in the discipline of showjumping. However, there are also conflicting findings that suggest that the way in which equestrian sport is represented through this coverage is not necessarily a matter to be celebrated. By exploring the most prevalent emerging themes from the media coverage, socio-cultural issues of class and social structures arose. Bourdieu’s ideas of ‘embodiment of class’ (1984), ‘habitus’ (1978), and ‘taste’ (1986), were particularly relevant to my study in identifying how these concepts lead to issues such as social stratification (Horne, 2013) within society that are disclosed within sport. These societal matters are perhaps the underlying causes of the somewhat negative portrayal of equestrian sport displayed surrounding these issues. The patterns of the coverage therefore illustrate how equestrian sport is still detached from the notion of being a ‘people’s’ sport and this perception that ‘you have to be rich to ride’ still exists. Although this study perhaps had tendencies to blame the media for the misrepresentation of equestrian as an Olympic sport, it also must be remembered that as Ping Wu (2010) recognises, we should in fact be thankful to the media, regardless any negative effects it may have, as if nothing else it provides sports with an opportunity to at least engage with an audience.

Considering the nature of this study which undertook a media analysis, limitations of the study were that it was dominantly internet based resulting in a neglection of others mediums that could have perhaps provided the study with more dimensions. This approach was justified by explaining that this was the best space to analyse current perceptions of equestrian sport due to the ever expanding media sport cultural complex (Rowe, 1999), where the media constructs and shapes these understandings (Wenner,1989) by creating media constructed realities. Regardless of this justification, it has still been considered a limitation as the media complex is so big and therefore analysing in detail only one medium can be restrictive as different forms of media present coverage in different ways, depending on their imagined target audience, so consequently we only see a one-dimensional representation of equestrian sport. Mindful of this, the

45 suggested areas for further research are simply developments on this media analysis through different media forms.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

ETHICS STATUS

A-1

A-2

A-3