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Chapter 1

An overview of the geology of the Arctic

ANTHONY M. SPENCER1, ASHTON F. EMBRY2, DONALD L. GAUTIER3, ANTONINA V. STOUPAKOVA4 & KAI SØRENSEN5* 1Statoil, Stavanger, 2Geological Survey of Canada, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 3United States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, USA 4Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia 5Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, Copenhagen, Denmark *Corresponding author (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected])

Abstract: Nine main petroleum provinces containing recoverable resources totalling 61 Bbbl liquids þ 269 Bbbloe of gas are known in the Arctic. The three best known major provinces are: West Siberia–South Kara, Arctic and Timan–Pechora. They have been sourced principally from, respectively, Upper , and marine source rocks and their hydrocarbons are reservoired principally in , Triassic sandstones and Palaeozoic carbonates. The remaining six provinces except for the Upper Cretaceous–Palaeogene petroleum system in the Mackenzie Delta have predominantly Mesozoic sources and Jurassic reservoirs. There are discoveries in 15% of the total area of sedimentary basins (c. 8 106 km2), dry wells in 10% of the area, seismic but no wells in 50% and no seismic in 25%. The United States Geological Survey estimate yet-to-find resources to total 90 Bbbl liquids þ 279 Bbbloe gas, with four regions – South Kara Sea, Alaska, East , East Greenland – dominating. Russian estimates of South Kara Sea and East Barents Sea are equally positive. The large potential reflects primarily the large undrilled areas, thick basins and widespread source rocks.

This book is mainly a product of the 33rd International Geological resources (Meyerhoff 1982). Two special volumes described the Congress (IGC) which took place in Norway, a country with strong oceanic regions and the surrounding continental margins: Nairn Arctic interests. As the Arctic becomes more accessible, interest in et al. (1981) and Grantz et al. (1990), with the latter including its potential resources is increasing, as is public concern for the reviews of the history of investigation and of the resources. The environmental consequences of petroleum exploration and poss- 27th IGC published a report on arctic geology (Gramberg et al. ible production. Additional public awareness has been created by 1984). The last Arctic-wide, petroleum-focussed symposium the ongoing activities of Arctic coastal states as they respond to volume was from Norway (Vorren et al. 1993). the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which has Russian geological studies and hydrocarbon resource assess- been ratified by all Arctic nations except the United States. The ments in the Arctic sedimentary basins are connected with the Convention stipulates conditions for granting coastal states sover- names of N. A. Gedroyts, I. S. Gramberg, V. N. Saks, N. A. eign rights seaward of the Exclusive Economic Zone (see Marcus- Bogdanov, Yu. N. Kulakov, R. M. Demenitskaya, M. L. Verba, sen & Macnab). Text references in bold type and lacking year of Yu. N. Grigorenko, O. I. Suprunenko, V. L. Ivanov, Yu. E. publication refer to papers appearing in the present volume. Pogrebitsky, D. V. Lazurkin, L. I. Rovnin, D. S. Sorokov, V. E. An additional contributing element to this volume is the assess- Khain, B. V. Senin, E. V. Shipilov and A. N. Malishev (Senin ment of the petroleum potential of the 4.2% of the Earth’s surface et al. 1989; Bogdanov & Khain 1996; Rovnin 2004; Verba 2008; that lies north of the Arctic Circle by the United States Geological Grigorenko & Prishepa 2009). The most significant of these inputs Survey (USGS). The initial results of this study, the Circum-Arctic were made by the scientific school of Academician I. S. Gramberg Resource Appraisal (CARA; Gautier et al. 2009), became avail- (Gramberg 1988; Gramberg et al. 1993, 2004; Gramberg & able at the International Geological Congress in Oslo in 2008. A Pogrebitsky 1993; Salmanov et al. 1993; Gramberg & Suprunenko number of papers from studies performed as a part of CARA 2000). (Charpentier & Gautier) are included in this volume, as are a Geological knowledge of the Arctic is built upon studies in the number of studies of the Russian Arctic, in particular its shelf islands and continents surrounding the , many of areas (Grigorenko et al.; Kaminsky et al.; Kontorovich et al.). which have spectacularly well exposed bedrock – vegetation-free, As a result, this book can present a relatively complete view of ice-scoured and exposed in mountains and fjord walls. These Arctic . regions have recently been the subject of many, comprehensive, finely illustrated summaries of their geology. The following is a listing of some of these: Iceland – Sigmundsson et al. (2008); Previous compilations on Arctic geology Greenland – Escher & Watt (1976), Henriksen et al. (2009), Henriksen (2008); Arctic Canada – Trettin (1991), Dixon Symposia dedicated to charting the state of knowledge of Arctic (1996); Alaska – Plafker & Berg (1994), Miller et al. (2002); geology, especially from the point of view of petroleum, were North Pacific realms – Nokleberg et al. (2001); Wrangel Island held in North America at 10 year intervals from 1960 to 1981. – Kos’ko et al. (1993); Franz Josef Land – Dibner (1998); The resulting volumes (Raasch 1961; Pitcher 1973; Embry & Timan–Pechora – Nikonov et al. (2000); – Harland Balkwill 1982) contain a wealth of articles describing the lands (1997), Dallmann (1999); Norway – Spencer et al. (1984), and shelves bordering the Arctic Ocean and the oceanic area Ramberg et al. (2008), Smelror et al. (2009). itself. Review articles summarized the earlier history of geological Advancement of the geological knowledge of the Arctic calls for thought (Eardley 1961) and the knowledge of mineral and pet- international cooperation. Examples of this are the production of roleum resources (Meyerhoff & Meyerhoff 1973) and hydrocarbon comprehensive maps of the Arctic, notably by the Geological

From:Spencer, A. M., Embry, A. F., Gautier, D. L., Stoupakova,A.V.&Sørensen, K. (eds) Arctic Petroleum Geology. Geological Society, London, Memoirs, 35, 1–15. 0435-4052/11/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2011. DOI: 10.1144/M35.1 Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

2 A. M. SPENCER ET AL.

Survey of Canada, which issued a 1:6 million geological map the palaeoenvironments of the present day Arctic land masses (Okulitch et al. 1989) and then a 1:5 million geological map and their borders through Phanerozoic time. Two papers are (Harrison et al. 2008). Most recently, the USGS CARA work based on new Arctic maps of gravimetric and magnetic data result- has been based on another multi-institute compilation, the 1:6.7 ing from international collaborative efforts: Gaina et al. and million map of sedimentary successions in the sedimentary Saltus et al. The latter discusses a topic which will be recurring basins of the Arctic (Grantz et al. 2009; Grantz, Scott et al.). in papers to follow: the tectonic interpretation of the Amerasia The new Arctic bathymetric map (Jakobsson et al. 2008) is the Basin and its shelves which together with the areas covered by basis for the map inside the front cover of this book. It is the major polar ice sheets remain our planet’s ‘white spots’. obvious from these maps that, despite difficult accessibility, the Arctic resources that have already been found are dealt with by onshore geology of the Arctic is now well known, having been Chew & Arbouille. The methods used in evaluating undiscovered furthered by a century of work by government agencies and by resources in CARA by the USGS are described by Charpentier & the fascination of the region to the exploratory mind, in what Gautier and the results are summarized by Gautier, Bird et al. might be termed the ‘Nansen tradition’ (see Kristoffersen). In Despite considerable uncertainty, there is a consensus that the contrast, only select parts of the Arctic marine realm are well majority of resources yet to be found (on an oil equivalent basis) known. Much of the Arctic remains beyond drilling or can be occur within the Russian Exclusive Economic Zone. This drilled only at extreme cost, as demonstrated by the becomes evident from comparison of the USGS CARA assessment three-icebreaker ACEX expedition to the Lomonosov Ridge in with that of the resource potential of the Russian Arctic described the summer of 2006 (Moran et al. 2006), but there are now plans by Kaminsky et al. and by Kontorovich et al. (see Table 1.1). for a dedicated Arctic Ocean drilling vessel (Thiede et al.). The remaining articles are grouped in relation to four geographi- cal regions (Fig. 1.1): , Siberia and its borders, and the Arctic Ocean Basin. The locations of the areas described in these How the book is organized articles are shown on the map inside the front cover of the book. The Baltica-related contributions are concerned with the The memoir starts with several contributions having the Arctic in Barents Sea and the Timan–Pechora Basin. The latter’s economic its entirety as their subject matter. These include the map of significance derives from the Devonian ‘Domanik facies’, the Grantz, Scott et al. of Arctic sedimentary successions and their oldest Phanerozoic petroleum system of the Arctic. The carbonate tectonostratigraphic content, followed by two reconstructions: strata containing both source rocks and reservoirs are described by Lawver et al. of Palaeozoic palaeogeography and Golonka of Bagrintseva et al. and by Klimenko et al. and the resource

Table 1.1. A comparison of the wildcat wells, discoveries, discovered resources and yet-to-find resource estimates for the regions of the Arctic

Region Area Wildcat Discoveries Total discovered recoverable Estimates of mean, Estimates of most probable (106 km6) wells resources (3109 bbloe) unrisked, yet-to-find yet-to-find recoverable recoverable resources of all resources in the basins in Oil Gas of the Assessment Units in the region (3109 bbloe) the region (3109 bbloe) (Kontorovich et al.) (Gautier et al.)

Norwegian Sea 0.1 38 12 0.7 0.7 6 Barents Sea 1.4 4; 5; 2; 34; 54 50; 200 West (Norway) 0.4 80 25 0.5 1.5 East (Russia) 1.0 13 5 0.2 22.5 Svalbard 0.1 15 – – – – Timan–Pechora 0.2 646 142 12.4 3.6 5; 3; 1 15 West Siberia and South Kara 0.7 426 92 22.0 226.3 10; 126 100 Sea North Kara Sea 0.3 – – – – 9 20 Yenisey–Khatanga 0.4 28 16 0.1 3.4 24; 1 Lena–Anabar 0.2 13 4 Negl negl 5 Laptev Sea 0.8 – – – – 15; 9; 3 20 East Siberian Sea 0.3 – – – – 1; 4 5; 35 North Chukchi 0.2 – – – – 5 Siberian 0.2 – – – – 5 Arctic Alaska 0.5 317 61 23.1 6.8 14; 59; 4 Mackenzie Delta 0.1 196 59 1.4 1.8 13 Eagle Plain þ Northern 0.2 114 8 Negl 0.1 Interior Platform Sverdrup Basin 0.3 108 20 0.5 2.5 1; 5 Canada Passive Margin 0.5 – – – – 9 North Greenland 0.1 – – – – 4; 5 West Greenland and Baffin 0.7 12 – – – 11; 22; 14; 14; 6 Bay East Greenland 0.5 – – – – 21; 19; 4; 6; 2 Totals 7.8 2006 444 60.9 269.2

Sources for the information in Table 1.1: wells and discoveries from Chew & Arbouille (table 1); discovered resources from IHS (courtesy of K. Chew); yet-to-find estimates from Gautier, Bird et al. (table 1) and Kontorovich et al. (table 2; converted to recoverable values using assumed recovery factors of 35% for oil and 70% for gas). The probabilities associated with each of the estimates by Gautier, Bird et al. are shown on Figure 1.7. Note that each of the three data sources employs different geographical areas for regions that they discuss. The wells, discoveries and discovered resources are north of 668N, but some of the yet-to-find estimates are for areas that extend somewhat south of the Arctic Circle. Negl, negligible. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 3

Fig. 1.1. The four-fold grouping of the tectonic provinces of the Arctic: continental cores, sedimentary basins, oceanic realms and the North Pacific rim. The numerical values in the legend boxes are the areas of the provinces in 106 km2. Based on Figure 1.2. potential of the Timan–Pechora Basin is covered by Schenk. borders of the Siberian craton. Ivanova et al. deal with the geologi- Regional, deep reflection, seismic lines covering the eastern cal structure of the southern Kara Sea and northern end of the West Barents Sea, the Kara Sea and the intervening Novaya Zemlya Siberia Basin, an area with a huge perceived potential. The lack of fold belt are described by Ivanova et al. and these regions are data over large areas of Arctic Siberia leaves substantial gaps in also assessed geologically by Stoupakova et al. A contribution understanding the regional tectonics of the eastern Arctic. Papers by Werner et al. similarly deals with the crustal structure across on this subject and wider problems of interpreting the tectonics the Arctic parts of both Baltica and West Siberia. The petroleum of the Arctic Ocean region are authored by Pease and systems of the Barents Sea region are comprehensively described Lebedeva-Ivanova et al. by Henriksen, Ryseth et al. Potential Triassic reservoir succes- A section of Laurentia-related papers begins with contributions sions in the NW of the Barents Sea are discussed by Høy & by Creaney & Sullivan, who deal with the Phanerozoic evolution Lundschien who present good quality seismic sections illustrating in relation to petroleum, and Colpron & Nelson, who describe the the increasing uplift of these strata towards the Svalbard–Franz Palaeozoic evolution of Laurentia. Kumar et al. present new deep Josef Land. Uplift in the Barents Sea is also the subject of seismic lines from the Chukchi Sea and Bird & Houseknecht another paper by Henriksen, Bjørnseth et al. Exploration has deal with the most thoroughly studied sector of Arctic petroleum inspired substantial optimism about petroleum potential of the geology: Northern Alaska. These are followed by two chapters eastern Barents Sea as indicated in the contributions by Kontoro- on the Beaufort passive margin by Houseknecht & Bird and vich et al. and Khlebnikov et al. A summary of the USGS assess- Helwig et al. – with the latter paper including new deep seismic ment of undiscovered resources in the east of the Barents Sea is lines. The Sverdrup Basin is the subject of papers by Embry,by presented by Klett & Pitman. Omma et al.byChen & Osadetz and by Dewing & Obermajer. Arctic Siberia covers large areas in which knowledge of the sub- Harrison et al. describe the Baffin fan which constitutes the third surface geology is meagre: no offshore exploratory wells have largest Cenozoic delta of the Arctic after the MacKenzie Delta, been drilled between the Laptev Sea and Wrangel Island and which built into the southeastern part of the Canada Basin, and seismic data are sparse, as noted by Kaminsky et al. The geologi- the Lena Delta, which built into the Eurasia Basin. The petroleum cal character of the islands in this region are therefore of particular potential of the entire region between Canada and Greenland importance, as illustrated in the paper by Drachev, who uses the has been assessed by Schenk as part of the CARA work and the geology of Wrangel Island and the New Siberian Islands, together petroleum exploration history of Greenland is described by with that of the adjacent mainland areas, to paint a picture of the Christiansen. The final Laurentian papers cover the most in- offshore geology and likely petroleum systems in this little-known accessible parts of offshore Greenland: the NE Greenland shelf region. Supplementary views concerning this part of Russia are to is discussed by Gautier, Stemmerik et al. and the Lincoln Sea be found in Stoupokava et al. and in Grigorenko et al. The pet- by Sørensen et al. roleum potential of the Laptev Sea region, with its impressive, The last group of papers addresses the Arctic Ocean basin. active system, is the subject of the contribution by Kirilova- Historical views of the scientific exploration of the Arctic Ocean Pokrovskaya et al. while the chapter by Klett et al. presents the are presented by Kristoffersen and by Thiede et al., Marcussen USGS appraisal of the arctic parts of the onshore north and east & Macnab review current work by coastal states to extend their Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

4 A. M. SPENCER ET AL.

Fig. 1.2. A simplified map of the tectonic provinces of the Arctic. Compiled mostly following Grantz et al. (2009) and Harrison et al. (2008). The outline of the in the Canada Basin follows Alvey et al. (2008, fig. 6b). Sedimentary thicknesses in Siberia are from Petrov et al. (2008) and Milanovsky (2007). Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 5

Fig. 1.2. Continued. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

6 A. M. SPENCER ET AL.

offshore boundaries. Moore et al. assess the petroleum geology 60° N and resource potential of the Lomonosov Ridge, a sliver of conti- nental crust that was split from Baltica and Siberia by the Cenozoic seafloor spreading that led to the formation of the Eurasia Basin. C Moore & Pitman contemplate the petroleum potential of the 60° N C A Amundsen Basin itself. The last paper of the book, like the first, A T ? ? ? has Arthur Grantz, whose scientific endeavours in the Arctic ? ? span more than four decades, as the first author. It is concerned with the evolution of the Amerasia Basin. This basin and its bor- dering shelves remain the main challenge to our understanding of Arctic tectonics and geology.

Middle Palaeogene Late Jurassic Structure of the Arctic

30° N The structure of the Arctic may be portrayed, as shown in 50° N Figures 1.1 and 1.2, in terms of four elements: T † North Pacific accretionary collage and its successor C C basins; A A † oceanic basins and sedimentary prisms prograding onto these 0° N basins; † long-lived sedimentary basins established on Phanerozoic sutures; † continental cores with mainly and Lower

Palaeozoic platform cover and their sutured margins. Late Devonian Middle Triassic A main theme of Arctic geology is the assembly and disassembly Baltica A Arctic Alaska of the Pangea through Caledonian–Hercynian– Plate boundary Uralian suturing events and subsequent rifting and seafloor Siberia C Chukotka Laurentia Thrust faulting T Tajmyr spreading in the Arctic and Atlantic beginning about 200 Ma Marine shelf and slope sedimentation Petroliferous basin with this age source (Fig. 1.3). One might term this the Atlantic theme of Arctic Ocean crust geology. A second theme is the long-lasting tectonic activity, Sutured margin North Pole going back at least to the late Palaeozoic, in the areas bordering Accreted/accreting terrane the northern Pacific rim, which have brought about the to present day northeastern Siberia and northwestern North Fig. 1.3. Maps of palaeogeography of the Arctic based on Golonka’s maps for America of a multitude of with interleaved sedimentary the Late Devonian, the Middle Triassic, the Late Jurassic and the Middle and magmatic rocks. Nokleberg et al. (2001) described this as a Palaeogene, representing the times of deposition of some of the major Arctic ‘collage of accreted terranes’; their complexity is illustrated by source rocks, and inspired by the work of Ulmishek & Klemme (1990). Jan Colpron & Nelson. While accretion is mainly a destructive Golonka kindly supplied extended versions of some of the maps appearing in Golonka. process in relation to petroleum geology, the processes involved in the dismembering of Pangea are mainly constructive in relation to the formation of hydrocarbon deposits. In other words, from a petroleum geology point of view, the main dividing lines in the mid-Early Cretaceous (Grantz, Hart & Childers). Bordering structure of the Arctic are not the present day plate boundaries the oceanic basins are progradational sedimentary wedges, but the distinction between the North Pacific accretionary which overlie long-lived basins on their continental side and collage (NPAC) and the rifted parts of the North American and oceanic crust on the other and thus represent a transition zone Eurasian plates. between the prospective shelf and the less prospective oceanic The Caledonian, Ellesmerian and Uralian sutured basin. Three thick Cenozoic deltas – from the Lena and Mackenzie the Laurentian, Baltic and Siberian shields in through rivers and in northern Baffin Bay – are in this zone. Other basins late Palaeozoic time but the three shields persist as the cratonic in the zone can be glimpsed from the thickness contours on cores of the Arctic continents to the present day. Basins bordering Figure 1.2 – north of Alaska and Siberia and west of the Barents these continental cores are, in general, prospective for hydro- Sea: these are the passive margin basins of Grantz et al. (2009). carbons. By contrast, in the NPAC region, compressional tectonics led to the formation of later orogenic belts: thus the Brooks Ranges in Stratigraphy and geological history of the Alaska and the Verkhoyansk Fold Belt in NE Siberia formed due sedimentary basins to accretion of Chukotka and the Kolyma–Omolon superterrane in Jurassic–Early Cretaceous times (Lawver et al.&Golonka). The continental blocks projecting north of today’s Arctic Circle Young sedimentary basins occur in the NPAC region but are con- travelled far during the Phanerozoic under the names of Laurentia, sidered relatively unprospective (Haimila et al. 1990). The uncer- Baltica and Siberia, as detailed by Lawver et al. and Golonka tainty (Fig. 1.1) about the position of the boundary of the NPAC (Fig. 1.3). At the start of Phanerozoic time all lay south of the region between the Laptev Sea and Wrangel Island is a key equator and all travelled northward throughout the Phanerozoic. reason for uncertainty about the petroleum potential of the East The suturing of these initially independent blocks led first to Siberian offshore. the merging of Laurentia and Baltica during Silurian continent– Ocean-floor formation is well dated as spanning most of the continent collision in the Caledonian , lasting into the Cenozoic in the North Atlantic and the Eurasian part of the Devonian. The Ellesmerian Orogeny is currently interpreted to Arctic Ocean. In the Amerasian part of the Arctic, rifting as a pre- reflect terrane collision on northern Laurentia from Late Silurian cursor to ocean-floor spreading is inferred to have occurred during to earliest (Lawver et al.; Colpron & Nelson), the earliest Jurassic, followed by ocean-floor spreading in the although the origin and nature of the colliding terranes is still Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 7 speculative. During the Siberia and Kazakhstan collided high during this time. Following another episode of uplift and col- with Baltica, completing the assembly of Pangea. An outpouring lapse at the close of the Early Triassic, siliciclastic sediment input of vast volumes of basalt (the Tunguska flood basalts) took place was significantly reduced and the Middle Triassic is characterized near the Permian to Triassic boundary, covering the northern by the widespread development of phosphatic, organic-rich shales Siberian shield (Tunguska flood basalts) and areas now beneath from the Alaskan basins on the west to the Barents Sea area in the adjacent basins (Nikishin et al. 2002). east (Leith et al. 1993). Siliciclastic sedimentation increased in Large sedimentary basins, of prime significance to petroleum many areas in the Late Triassic and the organic-rich facies exploration, developed on these intercontinental sutures through became much more limited in geographic extent (mainly western extension and collapse of the former orogenic highlands that had Sverdrup and northern Alaska). developed within the sutures. Thus, economic basement beneath The extensional basins established during Late Palaeozoic and these basins is of Caledonian, Ellesmerian and Uralian ‘ages’. the Triassic continued to receive variable amounts of siliciclastics Simplified stratigraphies of the basins, where drilled, appear in throughout the Jurassic and alternating -dominated and Figures 1.4 and 1.5. From these sedimentary columns, a first con- shale-siltstone sequences characterize the stratigraphy in all clusion must be their general similarity. The Upper Palaeozoic basins across the Arctic. Organic-rich facies were restricted to successions consist of intermixed carbonates and siliciclastics times and areas of low sediment input and occur mainly in with sporadic occurrences of evaporites. In contrast, the Mesozoic Alaska and Siberia. Major transgressions occurred during the and Cenozoic successions consist almost entirely of siliciclastics, early Toarcian, early Bajocian, early Oxfordian and early Titho- which locally include intervals of coal-bearing strata. Although nian and shale units of these ages are present in all Arctic basins not shown on Figures 1.4 and 1.5, the Lower Palaeozoic succes- (Embry) and are often organic-rich and petroleum source rocks. sions in Laurentia, Baltica and Siberia (Golonka) are also quite Also during the Jurassic, as the continental blocks migrated similar. We consider this similarity surprising, since the Phanero- further north, a distinct boreal fauna developed which had little zoic is a time span long enough for a continental block to travel in common with the contemporary Tethyan fauna. widely over the surface of the globe. Three blocks might therefore One of the more notable tectonic developments of the Jurassic be expected to exhibit both internally varying lithologies and was the initiation and subsequent development of the Amerasia strong differences among them. Neither is realized. All three Rift Basin between what is now northern Alaska and Chukotka display stratigraphic developments, namely warm water carbon- (Arctic Alaska plate) and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago ates overlain by clastics deposited in temperate climates that (Lawver et al.). Little is known about these rift basins because reflect simple travel paths from tropical to polar latitudes. The con- they now lie beneath the thick continental terrace wedges on the tribution of Golonka contains a remarkable set of facies maps that shelves and slopes of the Amerasia ocean basin. Current data indi- detail this depositional history for the Arctic continents through cate that rifting began possibly as early as Sinemurian and no later Phanerozoic time. than latest Aalenian, and continued until the start of seafloor The transition from carbonate to clastic deposition, caused by spreading during the Hauterivian (Embry & Dixon 1994; Mickey the Phanerozoic drift of Laurentia, Baltica and Siberia away et al. 2002). from equatorial to high latitudes, occurred during the Permian. During the Cretaceous siliciclastic sediment delivery to the Passage through intermediate latitudes is witnessed by the depo- Arctic basins intensified and was highest during the Early Cretac- sition of thick and widespread evaporites on the margins of both eous. New basins were formed in both extensional and compres- Laurentia and Baltica during the Carboniferous and Permian. sional regimes. Foreland basins developed in front of rising Deposition of warm-water carbonates with stacked organic build- orogenic mountain ranges in the North Pacific accretionary ups in Late Carboniferous–Early Permian was replaced by more region (e.g. the Colville Trough in front of the Brooks Range of extensive siliciclastic sedimentation in both shallow- and deep- northern Alaska) and rift and ocean basins formed and/or contin- marine depositional environments on extensive marine ramps ued to develop in the Amerasia region as well as in Baffin Bay during the Mid and Late Permian and Triassic. This effect was pro- between Canada and Greenland. Significant transgressions which nounced in the areas surrounding the Uralian suture, which became followed widespread uplift events occurred in the early Valangi- a major source of siliciclastics to northern Siberia and Baltica. nian, early Barremian, late Aptian and in earliest Late Cretaceous. Conditions shifted towards a cold temperate climate during the Early Cretaceous deltaic deposits dominate most of the Amerasia Mid–Late Permian as a result of which sponges dominated basins and alternations of sand-rich delta plain and delta front the shallow water biota, leading to widespread chert deposition deposits and shale-dominant prodelta and shelf strata are (Beauchamp & Baud 2002). widespread. The end of the Permian was characterized by widespread uplift The second phase of seafloor spreading in the Amerasia Basin, followed by tectonic collapse which was responsible for a massive which followed the creation of continent–ocean transitional outpouring of flood basalts in northern Siberia and a rapid, marine crust during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, was the intrusion transgression beyond the former limits of the sedimentary basins in of a northerly trending belt of mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) this area (Metcalfe & Isozaki 2009). These catastrophic events and into the central part of the Amerasia Basin in mid-Early Cretaceous related environmental effects led to the major P–T (Permian– (Hauterivian and Barremian) time (Grantz et al.). Intrusion of the Triassic) faunal extinction events and ushered in a Mesozoic MORB was followed by a huge outpouring of basalt related to the world with new tectonic, depositional and climatic environments. Alpha Plume and resulted in the formation of the 30 km thick Siliciclastic deposition was established in sedimentary basins Alpha and Mendeleyev ridges of the Amerasia Basin, as well as throughout the Arctic at the start of the Triassic and continued widespread diabase dyke and sill emplacement in adjacent conti- throughout the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, providing rich sources nental areas (eastern Sverdrup Basin and northern Barents Sea, of hydrocarbons (Fig. 1.3), as well as thick sandstone reservoirs Buchan & Ernst 2006). to hold them. A brief interval of widespread uplift occurred at the Early to Triassic geological evolution in the Arctic was strongly influ- Late Cretaceous juncture and, following this tectonic episode, enced by tectonic events in the adjacent fold belts. From Late sediment supply was greatly reduced to both the extensional and Permian to Early Triassic time, the final phase of the Uralian foreland basins that surround the Arctic Basin. By Turonian Orogeny provided a vast supply of sediments which are as much time the sea covered most of the Arctic and bituminous muds as 5–7 km thick in the extensional basins and consist of nonmar- were deposited in starved basins from Alaska to Siberia ine, near-shore and shallow marine environments. An Early (Golonka). Sedimentation rates gradually recovered and most Triassic rift episode is recorded in many parts of the Arctic and basins were receiving deltaic to basinal siliciclastics from Santo- North-Atlantic regions and sediment supply in the Arctic was nian through Maastrichtian time. Widespread uplift and associated Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

8 A. M. SPENCER ET AL.

Fig. 1.4. Stratigraphy of the well-known basins of the western Arctic. Principal sources: (a) Sherwood et al. (2002); (b) Moore et al. (1994) and Magoon et al. (2003); (c) Norris & Hughes (1997) and Dixon (1982); (d) papers in Trettin (1991); (e) Stemmerik & Ha˚kansson (1991) and Ha˚kansson et al. (1991); (f) Birkelund & Perch-Nielsen (1976); (g) Gregersen et al. (2007). For locations see Figure 1.2. The arrows on the left of some columns link source rocks to reservoirs to indicate proposed petroleum systems. prominent regression brought the Mesozoic era to a close through- alternating glacial/inter-glacial conditions which now character- out the Arctic. ize the Arctic. The Cenozoic saw a new tectonic regime over most of the Arctic. Rifting and subsequent seafloor spreading took place in the North Atlantic and extended into the Arctic, where it created Petroleum geology both the Eurasian and Baffin Bay basins. Sedimentation rates became high and large volumes of siliciclastic sediments were Exploration funnelled into these Cenozoic extensional basins and also into the Amerasia Basin. Exceptional thicknesses, perhaps exceeding The first exploratory drilling in the Arctic was government- 15 km, are associated with the Mackenzie and Lena Deltas and sponsored and carried out for strategic reasons – on the south thicknesses up to 10 km are common along the margins of most shore of the Laptev Sea in the 1930s and in northern Alaska in of the oceanic basins (Grantz, Scott et al.). Compression and 1944 (Chew & Arbouille). The first significant petroleum deformation continued in the north-vergent North Pacific accre- discoveries in onshore Arctic basins were made in the decade tionary collage region. Mountainous uplift and associated foreland from 1960 to 1970: in the Eagle Plain, Sverdrup Basin and Mack- basins developed in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (Eurekan enzie Delta regions of Canada, in West Siberia, in Timan–Pechora Orogeny) and in the western Barents Sea (West Spitsbergen) and in Arctic Alaska. The finds in West Siberia and Timan– areas in the Palaeogene due to compression and transpression Pechora extended existing prolific provinces northwards, but in related to seafloor spreading in nearby areas (Fig. 1.2). These Alaska the 1968 discovery of the supergiant Prudhoe Bay field areas became uplifted by a kilometre or more in latest Palaeogene opened a major new petroleum province. to early Neogene time as compression continued (Henriksen, Offshore drilling started later: in the in 1973, West Bjørnseth et al.). Greenland in 1976, the Barents Sea in 1980, the Pechora Sea in Major transgressions occurred in early , early Eocene, 1982 and the Kara Sea in 1987. Discoveries in the Beaufort, late Eocene, earliest Oligocene, late Oligocene and earliest Pechora and Kara seas extended proven petroleum provinces to Pliocene in the Beaufort–Mackenzie Basin in the SE corner of the north. In the Barents Sea new petroleum provinces were dis- the Canada Basin (Dixon 1996). Most of these events followed covered: in the Norwegian sector, in the SW, in 1981 and in the episodes of tectonic uplift and in some cases folding and faulting Russian sector, where the super-giant Shtokman gas field was and they probably reflect tectonic extension and collapse of the found in 1988. As a result of this exploration, there are now nine basin floors. The climate remained warm during much of the main petroleum provinces containing a total of 444 discoveries Paleocene and Eocene but started to cool in Oligocene times and in the Arctic with total discovered recoverable resources of continued to deteriorate throughout the Neogene, leading to the 61 Bbbl of liquids and 269 Bbbloe of gas. Four provinces Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 9

Fig. 1.5. Stratigraphy of the well known basins of the eastern Arctic. Principal sources: (h) Nøttvedt et al. (1993); (i) Henriksen et al.; (j) Gramberg (1988); (k) Timonin (1998), Schenk;(l) Gurari et al. (2005), Skorobogatov et al. (2003); (m) Pogrebitskiy (1971). For locations see Figure 1.2, and for explanations of symbols and patterns see Figure 1.4. The arrows on the left of some columns link source rocks to reservoirs to indicate proposed petroleum systems. dominate the resource picture: West Siberia – South Kara Piasecki et al. 1990). In eastern North Greenland, the Upper (22 Bbbl þ 226 Bbbloe), arctic Alaska (23 Bbbl þ 7 Bbbloe), Carboniferous and Permian succession is fully marine with the Barents Sea East (0.2 Bbbl þ 23 Bbbloe), and Timan–Pechora older units consisting of carbonates and evaporites (Stemmerik (12 Bbbl þ 4 Bbbloe) (Table 1.1). 2000). During the later Permian, however, marine shales accumu- lated widely in East Greenland (Surlyk et al. 1986; Christiansen et al. 1993) and may serve as source rocks in the adjacent basins Source rocks offshore. Late Permian marine black shales occur in several wells in the western Barents Sea (Henriksen, Ryseth et al.). Although a wide variety of potential source rocks, ranging in age Triassic source rocks are the most widespread in the Arctic. from to Cenozoic, have been identified in the Arctic, Middle and Late Triassic (Anisian–Carnian) marine shales with most of the petroleum discovered to date – the proven petroleum good to excellent source potential and proven productivity occur systems – is derived from a few narrowly defined stratigraphic along the northern rim of Laurussia from Alaska to the Barents intervals in the Devonian, Triassic and, especially, Jurassic. Sea (Leith et al. 1993). They were deposited at intermediate On the Siberian craton, south of the Arctic Circle, giant oil fields latitudes within a huge back-arc embayment (Fig. 1.3), located have been sourced from Proterozoic strata. Chemometric analysis between the landmasses of North America and Eurasia. The Trias- of biomarker and isotopic data (Peters et al. 2007) suggests that at sic Shublik formation has generated most of the discovered oil in least four genetic families of oils are present; Upper Riphean northern Alaska (Peters et al. 2006), including most of the oil in source rocks, particularly those of the Iremken Formation the geochemically mixed, supergiant, Prudhoe Bay Field, the account for most of the known oil (Ulmishek 2001), including largest oil field north of the Arctic Circle. In the Sverdrup Basin, accumulations on the Baykit High. most if not all of the known petroleum accumulations are believed Organic-rich, marine rocks of Devonian age were deposited on to be sourced from Middle to Late Triassic strata (Schei Point the east margin of Baltica and the west margin of Laurentia, where Group), with lesser sources in rocks of Early and Late Jurassic they have sourced important oil-prone basins in front of the west age (Brooks et al. 1992). In the Barents Sea region, the side of the Urals and in western Canada. Oils in the Timan– TOC-rich, phosphatic, Middle Triassic Botneheia Formation Pechora Basin were probably sourced from the Late Devonian to crops out on Spitsbergen and is believed to have sourced at least Early Carboniferous marine Domanik Formation (Ulmishek some oils in the Norwegian sector of the Barents Sea. In the 1982). In northern Laurentia the Ellesmerian orogeny has prob- Russian sector, equivalent rocks have been buried to great ably destroyed most Devonian sources. Lacustrine shales with depths, which may explain the gas-prone quality of most discov- high TOC occur in Devonian strata onshore in northeastern ered hydrocarbons in that area, outstanding among which is the Greenland (Christiansen et al. 1990) and the Upper Carboniferous supergiant Shtokman gas field. strata in central East Greenland and the Sverdrup Basin Upper Jurassic source rocks were deposited at higher latitudes contains organic-rich lacustrine shales (Christiansen et al. 1990; than the Triassic source rocks and in shallow basins far removed Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

10 A. M. SPENCER ET AL. from the North America/Eurasia embayment (Fig. 1.3). Upper Jur- their source . In the Arctic, however, source rocks occur in assic marine shales are the principal source rocks for most of the abundance, being present in almost all systems from the Protero- oil and much gas in the main West Siberian Basin (Kontorovich zoic to the Palaeogene, which often creates uncertainty in deter- et al. 1997). Seven oil families have been identified in these depos- mining the petroleum system responsible for specific oil and its on the basis of geochemical signatures. More than 80% of the gas deposits. identified oil was sourced from the Bazhenov Formation, an A Proterozoic petroleum system has resulted in giant oil and gas organic-rich, siliceous and calcareous shale of Volgian to Berria- finds in the Tunguska region of east Siberia (Klett et al.), but these sian age, but the Middle Jurassic Tyumen Formation also contrib- lie about 1000 km south of the Arctic Circle. Major bitumen belts, uted (Kontorovich et al. 1991; Peters et al. 1993, 1994; Petrov however, probably from the same source rocks, also occur north of 1994). Upper Jurassic strata may also have been the source for the Arctic Circle. These lie in Proterozoic and Palaeozoic rocks on hydrocarbons in other Siberian Basins, including the Yenisey– the margins of the Anabar Shield (Meyerhoff & Meyer 1987; Khatanga Basin and as far east as the Laptev Sea. Significant Fig. 2). oil and gas volumes in northern Alaska, including part of the The oldest petroleum system with conventional fields in the mixed petroleum deposits in the Prudhoe Bay Field were derived Arctic, both in terms of the age of the sources and the timing of from Upper Jurassic marine strata of the Kingak Shale (Peters generation, is in the Timan–Pechora province. There, 16 Bbbloe et al. 2006). resources – principally oil – occur in 142 finds that include nine Marine shales of Upper Jurassic age are also thought to have giant fields (.0.5 Bbbloe). Reservoirs are Silurian to Permian sourced most of the known petroleum in the Norwegian Sea. shallow marine carbonates, sometimes reefal, and often fractured TOC-rich Upper Jurassic strata are also present throughout (Bagrintseva et al.) and Devonian and Permian sandstones. The much of the Barents Shelf, although they are only mature in fields occur in belts of gentle and commonly consist restricted areas. These beds sourced some of the oil and gas in of multiple, stacked hydrocarbon pools at depths ranging from 1 the Hammerfest Basin. Source rocks occuring in Upper Jurassic to 4 km. The principal source is in Late Devonian strata but marine shales in the Kimmeridge-clay equivalent Hareelv other source rocks range from the to the Permian. Formation of northeastern Greenland, are postulated to extend Maturity was achieved by Carboniferous time (Klimenko et al., offshore and could provide a world-class source interval on the Fig. 13.12). The anticlinal traps formed in the Permo-Triassic in continental shelf. response to to the east. The stacked hydrocarbon Cretaceous and Cenozoic marine shales are known to have pools indicate kilometre-scale vertical migration, allowing the sourced petroleum systems in northern Alaska (Peters et al. mixing of hydrocarbons from different sources. 2006) and source rocks of Palaeogene and Cretaceous ages gener- Arctic Alaska with resources of 30 Bbbloe is the most ated the oil and gas accumulations in the Mackenzie Delta. Marine prolific province sourced from Triassic rocks, but it also had strata of Cretaceous age are postulated to be important, but as yet important source rocks of Jurassic and Cretaceous age (Bird & untested, source rocks in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. In Baffin Bay, Houseknecht, Fig. 34.4). The resources occur in 61 discoveries; Davis Strait and West Greenland, several potential petroleum the largest is the supergiant Prudhoe Bay oil field (16 Bbbloe) source rocks, including Palaeogene, Lower and Upper Cretaceous but there are also seven other giant fields. The principal reservoirs and Ordovician, have been suggested from geochemical data and are sandstones in the Triassic (200 m thick in the Prudhoe Bay geological evidence. Oil seeps described from onshore west Field) and the Lower Cretaceous. The fields occur in truncated Greenland provide evidence that a petroleum system is or was anticlines with gently sloping limbs on the Barrow Arch at active in that area (Christiansen & Pulvertaft 1994; Christiansen depths from 1 to 3 km. The arch is part of the Beaufort Rift et al. 1996; Bojesen-Koefoed et al. 1999; Gregersen & Bidstrup Shoulder, formed in Jurassic to early Cretaceous times in response 2008). An oil seep offshore of Scott Inlet on Baffin Island to the opening of the Canada Basin. Maturity of the Mesozoic (Balkwill et al. 1990) has been interpreted as most likely having sources was achieved in the foreland trough of the Brooks Range a marine shale source (Fowler et al. 2005) and the oil is interpreted orogen as a result of sedimentary loading in Cretaceous to Palaeo- to have been sourced from shales similar to the TOC-rich Upper gene times. Long-distance northward migration of as much as Cretaceous Kanguk Formation exposed on Ellesmere Island. In 200 km filled the traps on the Barrow Arch and allowed the the western Barents Sea, Barremian organic-rich shales have mixing of oils from the different sources. been drilled (Henriksen, Ryseth et al.). The Sverdup Basin in the Canadian Arctic archipelago contains Finally we should mention the Azolla event. Drilling near the 20 discoveries concentrated in the western part of the basin, with North Pole on the Lomonosov Ridge near the North Pole has resources totalling 3 Bbbloe, predominantly gas. The sandstone demonstrated the existence of an organic-rich interval (Moran reservoirs range from the Lower Triassic to the Cretaceous with et al. 2006) within the Eocene section. The interval was created the most important being Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic by freshwater algal blooms during the warmest part of the (Embry). Some fields have stacked pools (e.g. Hecla, with Palaeogene, at a time when occasional isolation of the Arctic depths that range from 500 to 1000 m and Whitefish with depths Ocean is likely to have occurred before the tectonic opening of that range from 900 to 2000 m). The fields occur in anticlines the Fram Strait. with gently dipping limbs which were present by Eocene times. Maximum burial was in Paleocene times, after which there has been kilometre scale uplift. Middle to Upper Triassic strata are Discovered petroleum systems commonly considered the main source rock, but an analysis by Dewing & Obermajer suggests they are not gas-mature in the Nine main petroleum provinces are now known in the Arctic: area of the gas fields, implying a deeper source rock. the West Siberia–South Kara, Arctic Alaska, the East Barents In the East Barents Sea five discoveries have total resources of Sea, Timan–Pechora, Yenisey–Khatanga, the Mackenzie Delta, 23 Bbbloe, almost all gas. There is one supergiant field (Shtokma- Sverdrup Basin, the West Barents Sea and the Norwegian novskoye, 21 Bbbloe) and two giant fields. The sandstone reser- Sea (Table 1.1). Together these contain 432 discoveries with reco- voirs are mainly Upper to Middle Jurassic, but gas also occurs in verable resources totalling 61 Bbbl liquids þ 269 Bbbloe gas. Four Triassic reservoirs. The traps are gentle domes with a field area of these provinces dominate: West Siberia–South Kara, Arctic of 1200 km2 at Shtokmanovskoye, where the approximately Alaska, East Barents Sea and Timan–Pechora. The following 50 m-thick Middle Jurassic main reservoir contains a gas column paragraphs summarize the petroleum systems, reservoirs and of approximately 150 m at a depth of 2100 m. This field is in the plays of these nine provinces. According to Magoon & Dow centre of the basin where the total sedimentary column is 15 km (1994), petroleum systems should be linked to and named from thick. Presumed Triassic marine source rocks have achieved gas Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 11 maturity over wide areas and are the most likely sourcing candi- of these vast amounts of gas remains a matter of dispute (Fjellanger date. Neogene uplift in the east Barents Sea amounted to et al. 2010). Contributions from different sources are likely: 0.5–1 km (Henriksen, Bjørnseth et al., Fig. 17.10). In the West especially from coaly Cretaceous strata and coaly Lower– Barents Sea, the Goliat Field has some oil in a Triassic sandstone Middle Jurassic strata; possibly from Upper Jurassic marine reservoir that is considered to have been sourced from Triassic shales; and some gas may be of biogenic origin. The traps are anti- marine strata (Ohm et al. 2008) and a Triassic-sourced petroleum clines with gently dipping limbs and huge extent. The largest field system may be widespread there also (Henriksen, Ryseth et al. (Urengoy, 68 Bbbloe) extends over 2400 km2. Also, the fields Fig. 10.30). contain many stacked pools from depths of 1000 to 4000 m, in In the West Barents Sea the total discovered resources amount to sandstone reservoirs ranging from Turonian to Lower Jurassic. 2 Bbbloe, mostly as gas in the Hammerfest Basin, probably The most important reservoirs are thick fluvial–deltaic sandstones sourced from both Upper Jurassic and Middle Triassic marine of the Albian–Cenomanian Pokur Formation. The combination of shales. The largest gas field in the basin, Snøhvit (0.7 Bbbloe), is multiple sources with multiple, thick reservoirs and anticlines with reservoired in Lower–Middle Jurassic sandstones at a depth of extensive, gentle closures created the most prolific hydrocarbon 2300 m, but are low (12–18%). The trap is a late Juras- province in the Arctic (Table 1.1). sic fault block and oil staining extends for 100 m below the thin oil The youngest proven petroleum system in the Arctic occurs leg. The widespread Neogene uplift of the western Barents Sea in the Mackenzie Delta. In the south, onshore, hydrocarbons region, amounting to 1–2 km has had an important effect upon occur in Cretaceous and Jurassic sandstones that were sourced the petroleum geology (Henriksen et al.) by giving low reservoir from Jurassic strata (Parsons Lake Field). Off-shore, to the north porosities at shallow depths, terminating generation from source most fields are reservoired in Upper Cretaceous or Palaeogene rocks and leading to the re-distribution of hydrocarbons, as evi- sandstones and their hydrocarbons were sourced in Upper Cretac- denced by the numerous residual oil columns encountered. eous or Palaeogene rocks. The total discovered resources in the The Norwegian Sea north of 668N contains 12 discoveries with 59 discoveries amount to 3.2 Bbbloe, a little more than half of resources totalling 1.4 Bbbloe. The one giant field – the Norne which is gas. There are no giant fields in the Mackenzie Delta. oilfield (0.7 Bbbloe) – is reservoired in Lower and Middle The largest is the Taglu gas field with resources of 0.4 Bbbloe. Jurassic sandstones in a Late Jurassic fault trap at 2500 m depth Fields have stacked pools and occur in closures associated with and was sourced from the Upper Jurassic marine shale. This growth faults. shale is the predominant source rock for this mid-Norwegian petroleum province. To the west and NW scattered gas finds in Cretaceous reservoirs occur in a region where the Upper Jurassic Future petroleum provinces source is so deep that either re-migration or a shallower source rock is implied. The area of the Arctic north of the Polar Circle totals In West Siberia and the South Kara Sea, north of 668N, nine c.21 106 km2 and sedimentary basins underlie almost 40% of supergiant fields, 31 giants and 52 other discoveries contain total this area (Fig. 1.1). Of the total area of sedimentary basins resources of almost 250 Bbbloe, 90% of which is gas. Sourcing (c.8 106 km2) there are discoveries in 15%, dry wells in 10%,

180 160 64 160 Arctic Circle

140 140 70

Oil & gas fields

120 120 0.7 Many discoveries

80 25% 0.4 Few discoveries 0.8 Wells, no discoveries

100 100 Seismic grids, 3.3 no wells 50% 0.4 Sparse seismic lines

25% 2.2 No seismic 80 80

80 0.4 Cumulative area, 106 km2 60 60

70 40 40

0 1000 km 20 64 20 0

Fig. 1.6. An outline of the intensity of petroleum exploration in the Arctic. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

12 A. M. SPENCER ET AL.

180 180

Arctic Circle Arctic Circle

14 / 1 1 / 0,5 30 59 / 1 5 4 / 0,54 5 / 0,24 3 1 / 0,22 13 / 1 4 / 0,29 35

2 / 0,4

5 / 0,42 3 / 0,43 15 / 0,54 5 / 0,46 20 9 / 0,54 9 / 0,43 1 / 0,5 1 / 1 2 / 0,14 3 / 0,4

3 5 / 0,22 3 24 / 1 20 9 / 0,5 5 / 0,25 248 11 / 0,25 4 / 0,5 10 / 1 100 54 / 0,5 126 / 1 14 / 0,28 22 / 0,5 200 5 / 0,22

6 / 0,5 21 / 0,65 3 / 0,54 4 / 0,36 23 14 / 0,3 5 / 1 50 15 19 / 0,72 4 / 0,49 34 / 1 1 / 1 2 / 0,49 6 / 0,26 2 5 / 1 16

2 / 0,29

1.4 6 / 1 0 1000 km

0 0

DISCOVERED RESOURCES YET-TO-FIND RESOURCES Gautier, Bird et al. 2011 Kontorovich et al. 2011 Total discovered Oil & Gas Fields 16 recoverable resources 126 / 0.50 Mean unrisked recoverable 20 Unrisked recoverable in petroleum province resources in assement unit resources in basin (Bbbloe) (Bbbloe)/Estimated probability (Bbbloe)

Fig. 1.7. Discovered and yet-to-find petroleum resources of the Arctic (sources in Table 1.1). The left map shows the Assessment Units of Gautier, Bird et al. (yellow regions outlined in red). The right map shows the regions assessed by Kontorovich et al. Bbbloe, billion barrels oil equivalent.

seismic coverage but no wells in 50% and no seismic data in 25% new potential. Undiscovered Cretaceous and Cenozoic petroleum (Fig. 1.6). Much of the Arctic is unexplored. systems could be present in many areas. The USGS CARA project (Gautier, Bird et al.) estimated that for the Arctic as a whole the yet-to-find resources (mean, risked, recoverable) in the 48 (of 69) evaluated assessment units (AU) State of knowledge will total 90 Bbbl oil þ 279 Bbbloe gas. Eleven regions, contain- ing 30 AUs, have large mean, risked resources (Bbbloe): West When in 2004 the three-icebreaker expedition ACEX set out to Siberia–South Kara, 136; Arctic Alaska, 73; East Barents Sea, drill the Lomonosov Ridge near the North Pole, it had a strong c. 61; East Greenland, c. 34; Yenisei–Khatanga, 25; West scientific rationale, as expressed in the mission proposal Greenland, c. 25; Laptev Sea, c. 15; Mackenzie Delta, 13; (Backman et al. 2002) abstract: Timan–Pechora, c. 8; West Barents Sea, c. 8; and the Norwegian The ridge was rifted from the Kara/Barents shelves during early Palaeogene Sea, 6 (Fig. 1.7). Note that eight of these 11 regions are proven time and subsequently subsided to its present water depth. Since that time hydrocarbon provinces; the three ‘new’ provinces are East and sediments of biogenic origin, eolian and ice-rafted origin have accumulated West Greenland and the Laptev Sea. The remaining 18 evaluated on the ridge crest. In our primary target area between 878N and 888N these AUs are almost all ‘new’ provinces and all of them have mean sediments are about 450 m thick, indicating an average rate of sedimentation risked yet-to-find resources smaller than 5 Bbbloe. The least of c.10m/m.y. throughout the course of the Cenozoic. understood of the 48 evaluated AU’s in the Arctic are the six pro- Disappointingly, for reasons yet to be understood, the sequence graded continental margin wedges that lie west and north of the turned out to lack sediments of Middle Eocene to Early Miocene Barents Sea and north of Siberia, Alaska and Canada. age representing a lacuna of c. 25 Ma, thus illustrating lucidly The estimates by Kontorovich et al. are similar in ranking the what is the main challenge to the bringing forward understanding yet-to-find resources of the South Kara Sea and East Barents Sea of the petroleum geology of the Arctic, namely insufficient strati- high, but they are more optimistic about the offshore regions graphic information. north of Siberia than the USGS CARA estimates (Fig. 1.7). Further adventure into the Arctic along the track pioneered by The thick and complete sedimentary columns present in many the ACEX expedition (Moran et al. 2006) might be realization basins in the Arctic, plus widespread presence of Palaeozoic and of the vision of Thiede et al. of a dedicated Arctic drillship and multiple Mesozoic source rocks suggest that numerous petroleum innovative geophysical exploration techniques, as described for systems remain undiscovered. Figure 1.8 attempts to portray this in example by Kristoffersen. Exploration by energy companies stratigraphic form. Proven Triassic- and Jurassic-sourced pet- beyond the shore and near-shore Arctic environment is not likely roleum systems are the most prolific, but several areas may have to expand our basic knowledge of Arctic geology at an appreciable Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 13

Fig. 1.8. A stratigraphic diagram to illustrate the proven and possible petroleum systems of selected Stratigraphy regions of the Arctic. Solid columns (yellow, Known Cenozoic green) show the known or likely extent of the ? Possible stratigraphic columns. Black question marks indicate that occurrence of strata of those ages is ?? possible. The stratigraphic intervals coloured dark

Cretaceous green (in five intervals) or light green (in 10 ? ? ? Petroleum Systems intervals) are known to have sourced proven ? ? ? Proven: major petroleum systems. Green question marks (six ? (>10 Bbbloe discovered) intervals) indicate possible source rock ages for Jurassic known discoveries. Many of the yellow intervals could contain source rocks which, if mature, could ? Proven: minor (<10 Bbbloe have given rise to petroleum systems that have not ? ? discovered) yet been discovered, especially in those regions Triassic where there are no exploration wells (North Baffin ? Some evidence ? Bay, NE Greenland, North Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea, North Chukchi Basin) or ? ? ? only few exploration wells (US Chukchi Sea, West

Palaeozoic Greenland, East Barents Sea). In these undrilled, or little drilled, regions there is thus the potential for Palaeozoic petroleum systems in five regions; for Triassic petroleum systems in three regions; for Mid Norway S. Kara SeaN. Kara Sea Laptev Sea N. Baffin Bay W. GreenlandNE Greenland Jurassic petroleum systems in six regions; for Sverdrup Basin E. Siberian Sea US Chukchi Sea Mackenzie Delta SW BarentsSE Sea BarentsTiman Sea - Pechora N. Chukchi Basin Yenisei -Khatanga Cretaceous petroleum systems in nine regions; and for Cenozoic petroleum systems in seven regions.

rate because much of the data thus obtained may not be shared of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Scale 1:2.5 mio; 2 sheets. with the scientific community. Energy companies and the Arctic Moscow. nations should therefore consider joining efforts with the scientific Bojesen-Koefoed, J. A., Christiansen, F. G., Nytoft,H.P.&Peder- community in exploring the Arctic and extending basic data sen, A. K. 1999. Oil seepage onshore West Greenland: evidence of acquisition into areas of which we presently know very little. As multiple source rocks and oil mixing. In: Fleet,A.J.&Boldy, demonstrated by the ACEX expedition, seismic acquisition S. A. R. (eds) Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe: Proceedings of the 5’th Conference. Geological Society, London, 305–314. cannot stand alone: stratigraphic information is needed to ground- Brooks Embry Goodarzi Stewart truth seismic data. , P. W., , A. F., ,F.& , R. 1992. Organic geochemistry and biological marker geochemistry of Schei Point Group (Triassic) and recovered oils from the Sverdrup Basin This introduction benefited from reviews by A. Grantz, G. Ulmishek, K. Chew, (Arctic Islands, Canada). Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, E. Henriksen, G. B. Larssen, E. Johannessen, E. Bjerkebæk and C. Cooper. The 40, 173–187. drawings were prepared by A. Hanssen, N. Ringset and E. Tjetland in Statoil Buchan,K.&Ernst, R. 2006. Giant dyke swarms and the reconstruction and by E. Melskens, H. K. Petersen and W. Weng in GEUS. Spencer wishes to of the Canadian Arctic islands, Greenland, Svalbard and Franz Josef thank Statoil for permission to publish. Sørensen publishes with permission by Land. In: Hanski, E., Mertanen, S., Ramo,T.&Vuollo, J. (eds) the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS). Embry publishes Dyke Swarms – Time Markers of Crustal Evolution. Taylor & with permission by the Geological Survey of Canada. We all thank our host insti- Francis, London, 27–42. tutions for their support of this work. Christiansen,F.G.&Pulvertaft, T. C. R. 1994. Petroleum-geological activities in 1993: oil source rocks the dominant theme of the season’s field programme. Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse, 160, References 52–56. Christiansen, F. G., Olsen, H., Piasecki,S.&Stemmerik, L. 1990. Alvey, A., Gaina, C., Kuznir,N.J.&Torsvik, T. H. 2008. Integrated Organic geochemistry of Late Palaeozoic lacustrine shales in East crustal thickness mapping and plate reconstruction for the high Greenland. Organic Geochemistry, 16, 287–294. Arctic. Earth & Planetary Science Letters, 274, 310–321. Christiansen, F. G., Piasecki, S., Stemmerik,L.&Telnæs, N. 1993. Backman, J., Bogdanov,N.et al. 2002. Paleoceanographic and Tec- Depositional environment and organic geochemistry of the Upper tonic Evolution of the Central Arctic Ocean. An iSAS/IODP Propo- Permian Ravnefjeld Formation source rock in East Greenland. sal. http://www.eso.ecord.org/expeditions/302. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 77, Balkwill, H. R., McMillan, N. J., MacLean, B., Williams,G.L.& 1519–1537. Srivastava, S. P. 1990. Geology of the Labrador Shelf, Baffin Bay, Christiansen, F. G., Bojesen-Kofoed,J.et al. 1996. The Marraat oil and Davis Strait. In: Keen,M.J.&Williams, G. L. (eds) Geology discovery on Nuussuaq, West Greenland: evidence for a latest of the Continental Margins of Eastern Canada. Geology of Canada. Cretaceous – earliest Tertiary oil source rock in the Labrador Sea– Geological Survey of Canada, Alberta, 2, 293–348. Melville Bay region. Bulletin Canadian Society of Petroleum Beauchamp,B.&Baud, A. 2002. Growth and demise of Permian Geology, 44, 39–54. biogenic chert along northwest Pangea: evidence for end-Permian Dallmann, W. K. (ed.) 1999. Lithostratigraphic Lexicon of Svalbard. collapse of thermohaline circulation. Palaeogeography, Palaeo- Norsk Polarinstitutt, Tromsø. climatology, Palaeoecology, 184, 37–63. Dibner, V. D. 1998. Geology of Franz Josef Land. Norsk Polarinstitutt, Birkelund,T.&Perch-Nielsen, K. 1976. Late –Mesozoic 146, 190. evolution of central East Greenland. In: Escher,A.&Watt,W.S. Dixon, J. 1982. Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous subsurface Stratigraphy (eds) Geology of Greenland. Geological Survey of Greenland, of the Mackenzie Delta–Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula, N.W.T. Geological Copenhagen, 305–339. Survey of Canada, Alberta, Bulletins, 349. Bogdanov,N.A.&Khain, V. E. (eds) 1996. Tectonic Map of the Barents Dixon, J. (ed.) 1996. Geological Atlas of the Beaufort–MacKenzie Area. Sea and Northern Part of European Russia. Institute of Lithosphere Geological Survey of Canada, Alberta, Miscellaneous Reports, 59. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 15

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Map. The Arctic Ocean and surrounding land masses.