n Greek mythology, PROMETHEUS brought a the Hephaistia, but also in honour of ARTEMIS spark of heavenly fire to earth for man, his BENDIS. The variation of a torch ride can be traced Icreation, thus making him the ruler of the back to Thracian influences.4 JÜTHNER describes elements. He was punished by being chained to the torch relays as "essentially a matter of cult, only the Caucasian mountains. However, the great secondarily a matter of sport."5 This ambivalence also step forward into civilization had been taken by marks the modern re-enactments and probably means of the glowing pith of a torch, made from has a direct effect on their power of fascination. It a giant fennel stalk, which had been lighted at serves, moreover, to reinforce the separate nature the fiery chariot of the sun. Following on from of the Olympic Festival as a whole. these mythical conceptions of ancient days, the fire that was brought down from heaven became "The opening ceremonies, including the lighting a representation of reason and enlightenment, of of the sacred flame at Archaia Olympia and its freedom and the creative ability of the human relay to the 'New Olympia' are rites of separation race as a whole. In this case, too, Greek mythology from ordinary lire, initiating the period of public 1 has created an effect which can hardly be liminality."6 encompassed and whose influence can be seen in the Olympic ceremonies. The torch as a symbol and personification in At the ancient festivals held in honour of ancient and Christian mythology and art can PROMETHEUS in Athens, the craftsmen, particularly merely be mentioned here. Its widespread use and the potters, honoured their patron with a torch relay its ambiguity are signs of a universal semiotics of 7 for which new fire from the altar of PROMETHEUS was fire. Like the PROMETHEUS myth as a whole, the brought into the City.2 This custom was "somewhere ancient torch relays - the lampadedromia - have between a procession and an athletic competition"3 and become a metaphor with a power that is all- was held, too, in connection with the Panathenaia, embracing and is still active today.
* Introduction from BORGERS, Walter, Olympic Torch Relays 1936-1994, Kassel 1996, pp. 7-42
28 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 Prometheus bound, beside him the torch as symbol of his sacrilege
The Chain of European Humanism by the seventy-year-old CURTIUS which his pupil, Examples of this metaphoric tradition can be Alfred SCHIFF11, quoted in 1895 at the unveiling of found in the use of emblems in the Renaissance the bust dedicated to the excavator of Olympia in and Baroque periods which show the struggle of the museum of Olympia, the image of the torch life, based on ancient models, as a face along a that is passed on is used. race-course. The torch, which is passed on or taken over, appeals in the early humanist writings as a "My work does not end with that which (I representation of the chain of life and death and of modestly felt), the succession of the generations which carry the I began so timidly when I spread the seed. light of the spirit further.8 In the poetry and art of See how hand joins hand in a row as links in a European classicism the ancient models are taken chain up again, whereby "Philhellenism [...] produces the Which brings up pure water from the depths of same results in France and England as in Germany."9 the spring, The programmatic words of Andre CHENIER in And the torch of light is handed, burning, from his didactic poem "L'invention", in which the neighbour to neighbour, "Greek author of the French nation" formulated a The gleam is as bright as day. th law of classicism at the end of the 18 Century, You could not wreath your friend's forehead in are famous: a lovelier way, Could not better revive failing courage. "Allumons nos flambeaux a leurfeux poetiques; The younger ones thus step in chorus up to the Sur des penseurs nouveaux faisons des vers side of old age; antiques."10 A life is fulfilled by transitoriness, Immortal life blooms where the power of Death Ernst CURTIUS, the excavator of Olympia, also normally reigns, saw himself as a link in a chain reaching back into And each solitary thing joins up to form a never- ancient times. In a poetical review of his life's work ending ring."12
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 29 Handing over of the torch, antique vase (Musee du Louvre, Paris); Victor of an antique torch relay receiving the trophy, vase from the Necropolis of Spina (Museo Nazionale di Ferrara)
At the beginning of the 20th Century a 'Third DIEM in the theory and practice of sport and of the Humanism" was developed in the European arts. Olympic idea.20 In connection with statements about Hellenism as Olympic Humanism a "basic fibre" in the German character, Werner Pierre de COUBERTIN can be cited with reference JAEGER, one of the leading exponents of this newly to sport pedagogy and Olympic philosophy idealistic movement, uses the torch relay as an understood in this way. His works contain the image to illustrate the never-ending chain of the metaphorical use of the ancient torch theme in human spirit: various places, among others in the ceremonious words spoken at the banquet at the end of the "The generations hurrying past one another Stockholm Olympic Games on 27 June 1912, when throw the burning torch back and forth and he he looked forward to the 1916 Berlin Games and who catches the torch with his lithe fist swings explained: it high above him and carries it forward a little way until he hands it over to the next man. Let "And now, Gentlemen, through our mediation us differentiate between the essence and the a great people has received the torch of the appearance of this sacred competition. Only Olympiads from your bands, and has thereby seemingly is it a constant 'passing on' from hand undertaken to preserve and if possible to quicken 21 to hand. The meaning of the run is the keeping its precious flame." alive of the sacred flame of the spirit which was brought down from heaven to the dark Instead of stressing the succession of the earth by the Titan Prometheus as generations, COUBERTIN stresses the the original spark of all the arts for changing of the nations who pass his favourites, the on-day race of on the Olympic Flame: mankind."13 Torch rider, coin "Lest our youth should from Tarent 3rd century B.C. The torch metaphor is extended temporarily let the Olympic by JAEGER to illustrate the cultural Torch fall from their hands, other tradition "of the chain of the revivals young people on the other side of the experiences of ancient times."14 of the world would be prepared to His "Hellenocentric"15 approach, pick it up again."22 which allocates a considerable educational and political task to the COUBERTIN'S maxim, "May the Olympic "coming Third Humanism "16, was not without Torch follow its course throughout the ages for influence on DIEM, who reports that he "listened the good of a humanity ever more ardent, courageous diligently"17 to JAEGER at the Berlin University. A and pure,"23 was written on the Scoreboard as a poem (see next page) in DIEM'S Poesie des Sports final tableau in Los Angeles in 1932, thus looking (The Poetry of Sport) also shows this connection.18 back to Athens and forward to Berlin. DIEM'S contributions to the design of the Olympic In a transferred sense, COUBERTIN can be called festival, too, should be considered against the the "re-igniter" of the Olympic Fire. It has not background of Third Humanism as propagated been possible, however, to identify whose idea it by JAEGER. The concept itself, however, comes was to have an Olympic Fire burning during the from the circle surrounding Stefan GEORGE with Games.24 For the first time in the history of the whom JAEGER is connected by the "Hellenistically modern Olympic Games the fire burned at the oriented will to reform coming from a conservative Amsterdam Stadium in 1928 as a symbol of moral 19 mind." JAEGER'S concept of forming is used by purity just as it had in ancient Olympia on the
30 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 Stadium with torch runners, 16th century emblem
altar of HESTIA in the Prytaneion. The architect of however, was lit at the opening ceremony without the trend-setting Amsterdam Olympic Stadium, any special ritual. Symbolising the Olympic Fire, Jan WILS, bad been given the building contract and the reverse side of the commemorative medal of an Olympic Gold Medal for Architecture partly the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam shows a "because his idea of constructing a tower on which the man and a woman holding a torch over a burning Olympic Fire burned won over the jury".25 The fire, tripod.
Poem by an anonymous member of the Stefan George Circle, reprinted several times by Carl Diem in his Olym- pic writings
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 31 of which cannot simply be reduced to rituals of sacrifice and subjugation under a totalitarian claim to power.29 A study of the effects of this neo- classicism in the fields of sport and its culture in a European context, at the end of the 19th and in the first half of the 20th Century, would surely be worthwhile. In DIEM'S representation of the cultic origins of sport, the interpretation of the cult of fire at the ancient Olympic Games appears as 'pars pro toto' of these 'professions of belief in live' evolving from memorial services. The "celebrations dedicated to immortal youth" pass on the fire, as a symbol of purity and strength, to the following generations in a 'never-ending chain'.30 As the successor to the Phil-Hellenist COUBERTIN, who helped to create an Olympic festival in the 'Spree Athens' of Berlin - characterized by Karl Friedrich SCHINKEL'S buildings - DIEM put his idea of an Olympic Torch Relay from Olympia to Berlin into practice, based on a cultural tradition which also constitutes the crucial motive behind his practical-educational and his scientific activity. The combination of individual sporting performances, national representation in an international context and a Pierre de Coubertin symbolic presentation of an ancient myth in the torch relay is connected with a general concept In the Steps of Coubertin which MENZE characterized as being the "attempt COUBERTIN found in Carl DIEM a congenial fellow at a productive appropriation and transfer of original on behalf of his efforts to combine the Olympic German Humanism to physical education and sport Games with art and literature, as he had first in his time".31 With the fire a symbol of universal attempted at the 'Conference Consultative' in effectiveness was introduced into the Olympic Paris (23-25 May 1906). He, himself, had drawn ceremonies in 1928 and then developed into a attention to the possibility of heightening the effect ceremonial prologue in 1936, which - as shown of sporting festivals by means of "pyrotechnics", in 1968 by the connection with elements of the the use of fire and torches.26 Even before the Aztec cult of the sun in Mexiko and as proved by rebirth of the Olympic Games, on the occasion MACALOON in detail using the example of Korea32 of the "Congres International de Paris pour le - can also be applied to non-European cultures Retablissement des Jeux Olympiques" on 17 June or can be transformed into new, particular forms 1894, a "Fete de Nuit" staged "Courses a pied of other cultures. DIEM'S achievement was that, aux flambeaux" (150 m, 500 m, 200 m, steeple), with the torch relay, he created, a symbol of the 27 possibly as copies of ancient models. Olympic spirit which brings home to world Thirty years later, in formulations for a closing opinion the connection between classical antiquity speech at the Berlin Olympic Games, he drew and modern times, particularly the closeness of the connecting line between his early efforts, the the nations in the Olympic community. Just like Berlin opening ceremony and the "Course of the COUBERTIN, Diem dared to make the decisive leap sacred torch [...] works conceived by my brilliant and "from the museum path to the creative act".33 enthusiastic friend, Carl Diem".28 In DIEM'S hands Since the French Revolution and its huge the flame turned into "wildfire". It is due to his spectacles (fetes)34 the symbolism of fire has become Olympic vision and organisational talent that an an element of the national festivals that developed ancient myth was brought back to live by means of throughout Europe and also in Germany. JAHN the torch relay. In his "Olympische Verknupfung", already took up the idea in his plans for national DIEM used formulations, in 1936, which are very festivals commemorating the Battle of the Nations similar to those of the neo-humanist JAEGER. Here (Volkerschlacht) near Leipzig that was staged by the torch relay appears as the connection between the Berliner Turngesellschaft 18 to 19 October 1814: Hellenism and Germanism (Athens and Berlin), between the old and the new world. Like JAEGER'S "On top of a climbing tower of 65 feet a signal Third Humanism and the tendency to imitate fire was burning; on the ground additional classical forms in art and architecture, DIEM'S fires were lit, 'to its highly mounting glow' the plans for the Berlin Olympic Games were also Turners stroke up patriotic songs and finally part of a neo-classical trend, the effectiveness of started a foot-face up the hills (Rollberge)."35 which was not confined to Germany and the effect
32 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 International Olympic Committee on 18 May, 1934 in Athens. DIEM personally informed COUBERTIN of the results of the Athens meeting.39 In December 1933, DIEM had already heard about a torch relay in Bulgaria, as he wrote in his diary on 3 December 1933:
"We have been told of a pleasant relay that was run for patriotic reasons:
for the 1,000th anniversary of its greatness, fire was brought from the former capital city, Prjeslaw, to the present capital, Sofia, by three routes and used to light a sacred flame in the castle chapel which is still burning today."40
In the Official Report on the Berlin Olympic Games there is the following unclear presentation of the discussion of the torch relay plan during a meeting of the propaganda committee under the chairmanship of Ministerialrat HAEGERT on 8 February 1934: Programme of the Congres International "From Ministerialrat Haegert's de Paris pour le proposal to organize an Olympic Retablissement Relay, the Secretary-General's plan des Jeux to have a torch relay from Olympia Olympiques Torch relays have been found in very few cases to Berlin was developed, based on the within the frame of festivals in modern times. recollection of an ancient relief in the Palazzo With the expansion of the symbolic Olympic Colonna in Rome which shows the torch relay of Fire to the ritual of the Olympic Torch Relay the Eros figures."41 ambiguity and overdetermination of symbols that are "reality themselves or part of the reality, which is While disregarding other sources, this passage expressed by them"36 has also been transferred to has served several sport historians as proof this spectacular event that leads the public of the that the torch relay was a production of the 42 world to the Olympic arenas. Propaganda Ministry. This is contradicted not only by the aforementioned documents, but also Idea and Planning by the reception given to the event by the press The first torch relay to be found in connection as DIEM'S achievement and by many of DIEM'S 43 with Carl DIEM was staged by students of the correspondences referring to his authorship. Deutsche Hochschule fur Leibesubungen in 1922 to In correspondence shortly before the Olympic th commemorate his 40 birthday and simultaneously Games between the President of the Organising the beginning of the Deutsche Kampfspiele which Committee, Theodor LEWALD, and COUBERTIN there were a kind of national Olympics.37 In DIEM'S was some discussion about the authorship, among estate there are various documents relating to the other things, in connection with COUBERTIN'S beginning of the planning for an Olympia-Berlin message to the torch relay runners. On 30 June, torch relay. The earliest date can be found in the LEWALD complains to COUBERTIN that his planned guest book of his friend, Walther F. KLEFFEL, in message does not refer to the German origin of the which the comment is written: "On the birthday of a idea ("I am obliged to object to that") and he insists: new plan"38 on 25 August 1931, and which is signed by Carl DIEM. In a text of Carl DIEM'S from 1956 "I am pleased that you want to present this the idea is connected with the 1932 Los Angeles German idea and organization to the participants Olympic Games and historical studies are referred with all the authority and admiration which you to. The references to COUBERTIN'S "full approval" possess, but it is necessary to say emphatically in a conversation on 31 July 1933 and BAILLET- that the idea and the organization are LATOUR'S "warm approval" can also be found German"44 here and are designated as the basis on which the proposal was introduced at the meeting of the
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 33 "I tell you frankly that I find it incomprehensible that the plan of your message should have been found too pro-German; for Germany is not mentioned at all."46
On the eve of the Games all differences had clearly been sorted out and LEWALD gent COUBERTIN a torch-holder, but not without referring once more to DIEM'S idea and the magnificent way in which it was being put into effect, which "the great film director Leni Riefenstahl" had also told him about on her return from Athens.47 Exactly what happened at the passing of the resolution by the IOC has become, in retrospect, the subject of a discussion which was sparked off by a commemorative plaque in Tegea. This plaque had been set up on 17 August 1936 by the circle of the people of Tegea to commemorate the founding of the torch relay and had later fallen into oblivion. DIEM had already heard about the setting up of the plaque train the archaeologist WREDE in a letter dated 16 August 1936:
"I have thought about you a lot recently, especially when I, with the film expedition, accompanied the torch relay tram Olympia to Delphi. What we experienced there, in the Arcadian mountains and at Parnassus, among the peasants and shepherds was simply touching. Text by Carl Tomorrow a commemorative plaque Diem from the Olympia- is to be set up at the birthplace of the Pressedienst, idea, at Tegea. The secretary has been 30 May 1934 invited to it."48
On 5 July COUBERTIN reacted to this and to the On 8 October 1936 DIEM visited Tegea while on his information concerning DIEM'S authorship with a journey through Greece following the Olympic rather surprising query: Games. In his diary he describes the plaque there, which "carries the five rings with a torch passed "You reproach me with not having designated through", and he repeats the text. His commentary Diem as the author of the idea; but how could gives information on how the setting up of the I know this when an Athenian newspaper has commemorative plaque came about: announced that the author of the idea was the Greek archaeologist Philadelpheus"45 "On 22 May 1934 the IOC ate lunch here, in the shade of old plane-trees, with lots of good wine. COUBERTIN had clearly omitted, in the first version In festive mood they also talked about the torch of his message, to draw attention to the origin relay. The people of Tegea now thought that the of the idea, as he felt open to the criticism of torch relay was first thought up here and so, on acting in a manner that was "too pro-German" 17 August, they set up a marble plaque on the ("trop pro- allemand"). LEWALD reacted to a wall of the very grotto where we ate [...]. I was communication which related to this with a lack extremely pleased, in peace and unrecognized, of understanding: to see the plaque of my work there and to take a photo of it"49
34 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 In 1961, the chancellor of the IOC heard about the "commemorative plaque" from Jean KETSEAS and published the supposed new discovery in the Official Bulletin of the IOC.50 With the help of DIEM and of the IOC member Karl RITTER von HALT, the exact details were then cleared up by means of correspondence. They appear to have been as follows: the actual approval of the proposal took place at the meeting in Athens on 18 May 1934, when questions concerning the dedication ceremonies as a means of regulating the time were discussed, too. On 22 May, in Tegea, the enthusiastic Olympic Committee talked over the plan and on 23 May at the banquet at Olympia, details of its implementation were resolved, especially with the Hellenic Olympic Committee.51 The course of events as presented here was also published by Henri POURET in 1974 in the Revue Olympique, using the documents that were available to him.52 At the evening banquet of the IOC members in Olympia the approval of the Greeks was also certain. The IOC President handed over an olive branch with a blue and white ribbon to the mayor of Olympia, which was to be sent with a relay to Berlin in 1936 "as a dedication of these Games tram 53 their home country" According to the first edition of the 1934 announcement, the olive branch was to be transported in a "specially adapted case [...] Text by Carl to be carried on the back and passed on from man to Diem, written man."54 This plan was changed and the branch was 1956 commen- ting on the his- transported by a Lufthansa aeroplane. Spiridon tory of the torch Louis, the legendary winner of the 1896 Athens relay including marathon who, according to an early plan55, should an excerpt from also have been the first torch-bearer to receive the the protocol of the IOC-Session Olympic Flame from the bands of COUBERTIN, Athens 1934 handed the branch to the "Fuhrer" in Berlin on 1 August 1936 at 17:25.56
The Liturgy of the Olympic Fire The method of initial ignition of the fire, based on an ancient model, was imported by Jean KETSEAS, DIEM'S friend and ally in the creation of the Olympic Academy, on the basis of studies of PLUTARCH:
"The method of lighting the Olympic Flame was fixed after I wrote to my friend, Dr. Diem, that while reading Plutarch's verses (The Life of Numa Pompilius) I had found the description of the way in which the Ancient Greeks re-ignited the sacred fire (when it chanced to go out), by putting a piece of wood into the focus of a concave mirror that was exposed to the rays of the sun."57
The ancient model, therefore, also remained effective as far as lighting the fire was concerned and established an Olympic tradition which is still followed today The concave mirror was supplied by the firm of Zeiss (see below) in 1936. Ancient models were also studied in order to find a design for the torch-holder, both during the
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 35 Carl Diem (centre) together with his colleagues from the Organizing Committee (f.l.t.r.) Heinrich Meusel, Werner Klinge- berg, Gerhard Krause and Bill Henry, the Secretary General of the 1932 Olympic Games in Los Angeles
Diary of Carl Diem, May 1934
36 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 him to do smaller jobs for the Organizing Committee until August 1936 and was thus able to fall back on his knowledge. In SCHIFF'S written documents there are many records of ancient torch relays. SCHIFF can almost be considered DIEM'S personal adviser on questions concerning ancient sport. Among other things, he also looked through and corrected DIEM'S diary references to this. The preparation of the lighting ceremony was in the hands of the Plaque after the Hellenic Olympic Committee (HOC), relief in the Pa- that is of a preparation team in lazzo Colonna Olympia. The gymnastic teacher and that was used as letterhead for LAXENBURG pupil, PRATSIKE, with whom the torch relay DIEM discussed the celebration in 1936, stationary was involved in the arrangements for the tour of Greece following the Athens meeting and festival in Olympia. at other times. In the museum at Eleusis, DIEM and LEWALD found columns in the shape of torches Large-scale Relays as Models which LEWALD suggested should be used as models Relays, which bad also been known towards for the torch-holder.58 In the Palazzo Colonna in the end of the 19th century as special messenger Rome, the two 'torch explorers', following a hint runs61, especially in the domain of the Deutsche from the archaeologist Alfred SCHIFF, searched for Turnerschaft, had served early on to support the a small, Attic relief showing Eros figures running effectiveness of nationally important events and a torch relay and a stadium column.59 The relief, celebrations by providing a symbolic connection in a scaled-down form, was used in the letter- between the countryside or provinces and the heading of correspondence relating to the torch place of celebration. At the dedication of the relay after the sculptor Walter LEMCKE had made "Volkerschlacht" (Battle of the Nations) monument a completed imprint of it. For the preparation of in 1913, for example, the Deutsche Turnerschaft the exhibition entitled "Sport of the Hellenes" in organized a run in which the participants converged the supporting programme of the Berlin Games, from six starting-points, including Strasbourg the former administrative director of the College of (Alsace) and Metz (Lorraine). According to Physical Education, Alfred SCHIFF, had collected an GROH the relay was staged in "remembrance of the enormous amount of material60 before the work 'Volkerschlacht' with competitions and gymnastic was taken out of his hands on account of his being games, similar to the Olympic Games at the time of the 62 a Jew. Nevertheless, DIEM continued to employ full flowering of Greece [...]"
Torch bearers offering a torch to Artemis Bendis, votive relief, 4th cent. B.C., British Museum
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 37 Plan for the Hindenburg- Relay 1932 This run had an international quality because German Reich".68 In the main, these runs involved the there were relays of German athletes abroad, delivery of messages of greeting or congratulation, among others from the Capitol in Washington as had at first been planned for the first Olympic to New York63, and also in South America. In Torch Relay. Even at the federal celebrations after 1925, the Deutsche Turnerschaft organized the the setting up of the Federal Republic of Germany, "Hermannslauf" in celebration of the 100th messages of greeting were sent by relay to Bonn 69 anniversary of the birth of Ferdinand GOETZ, its from six different places on 25 September 1949. former leader. In all, 137,197 male and female As DIEM was involved in the preparations of gymnasts from more than 6,000 clubs took the "Bundesfeier" it is not surprising that the part in this.64 Carl DIEM had also drawn badge commemorating this event shows up a plan for a large-scale relay of a a torch bearer. competitive nature, to be run from Commemora- Potsdam to Berlin in 1908. Preparation of and Response to tive medal of the First Torch Relay the Bundes- "While under the influence of the The first torch relay in the history feier in Bonn 1949, showing marathon at the 1906 Olympic of the modern Olympic Games a torch runner, Games in Athens, I hit upon the was planned meticulously by Diem-Archives, plan of risking a major run, but of the Organising Committee of the Cologne cheating the public by letting them 1936 Berlin Olympic Games. The see only fresh men."65 head of the sport section, Werner KLINGEBERG, drove the whole length of A revival of this famous running event the course together with Pay CARSTENSEN, was decided on after the fall of the Berlin a representative of the Propaganda Committee, Wall.66 and negotiated on the spot with the respective For the 'Verfassungstag' (Constitution Day) national organizers. He had at his disposal a car 1931, the Deutsche Reichsausschufl under DIEM'S provided by the firm Daimler-Benz, as well as the overall control, planned an "Olympia large-scale assistance of the Daimler-Benz agencies abroad. 70 relay run" as an advertising and 'fund-raising' His report on the preparations describes the event for the participation at the 1932 Los Angeles enthusiastic reception of the plan, but also the Games.67 Not least is this event proof that DIEM, as difficulties involved in crossing almost impassable Secretary-General of the Organizing Committee in countryside. Near Olympia roads were built and 1934, was not reliant on the Propaganda Ministry paths smoothed out especially for the run. for suggestions relating to an Olympic Relay In support of regional and national effectiveness, To mark the end of HINDENBURG'S presidency of dedication ceremonies were planned at Olympia Germany, a plan for a "Hindenburg Relay" was and at important stopovers, which were to help announced which "in the shape of a star should lead bridge eventual delays, as well. In the application from the borders of the Fatherland to the capital of the announcement, Carl DIEM put forward, as well as
38 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 (Fackel-Staffel-Lauf)", reveal, in several places, the political difficulties in which the preparations were involved, e. g. in Austria where, on the journey en route to Greece, the swastika pennant on the car was removed to avoid "bad blood". However, the "talks that were carried on in an atmosphere of tension" were successful, in spite of Austrian reservations.74 In Czechoslovakia, "no co-operation with the Sokols, no government support" could be reached.75 The planning of the national stages of the run was in the hands of the respective Olympic Committees. The Organizing Committee in Berlin was "basically only concerned with the observance of the border handovers"76 National monuments and representatives of national associations played an important role in the planning, especially where celebrations in capital cities were concerned. In Yugoslavia, for example, the relay was run via Oplenac, where the lighting of a flame at the Mausoleum of the Serbian kings by "the young king, as a member of Start of the first the Sokol association" was planned.77 In Budapest torch relay in Olympia, non- there was a celebration at the Tomb of the Unknown documentary Soldier and in Vienna the celebration took place version from at the Heldenplatz. In Berlin the Olympic Torch the Riefenstahl film, advertising was welcomed with a huge youth manifestation note for a book ("Jugendkundgebung") in the Lustgarten. 28,600 by Carl Diem
a specimen speech, a design for The Olympic altars on which the fire could Flame welco- be kept going at the stopping med by Nazi leaders in the places, even until the following Berlin Lustgar- 71 morning, if necessary. The ten burning-mirror for the initial ignition was to be provided, at the suggestion of the Hellenic Olympic Committee, by "Zeiss, the dominating firm in the Greek optical market".72 The first torch was carried by the young Greek, Konstantin KONDYLIS. The run began on 21 July and was an overwhelming success, receiving worldwide attention. The torch- bearers were accompanied by a retinue of journalists and by Leni RIEFENSTAHL'S camera-team for the Olympia film. On the route of the Flame via Greece, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria and Czechoslovakia many sports veterans, prominent people and even royalty (Serbia) thronged to the torch. Political groups also wanted to bask in its reflected light. Thus, the Hungarian "Levente", a sort of Hitler-Youth, was to do the run instead of active athletes.73 The report on the preparations, as well as KLINGEBERG'S personal diary "Reise Griechenland
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 39 members of the "Hitlerjugend" and participants of were carried in the talons of the Imperial Eagle. the International Youth Camp took part. Speeches To prevent cheap imitations being made, Krupp by prominent members of the Nazi Government - applied for a registration of the design in response Joseph GOEBBELS, Baldur von SCHIRACH, Bernhard to the wishes of the Organizing Committee. The RUST and Hans von TSCHAMMER UND OSTEN clearly delivery of the torch-holders to the NOCs involved show the demand for Olympic publicity which was carried out directly from Essen. The torch- could only be met outside the Olympic arenas. holders were dedicated to the runners by the Organizing Committee with the inscription, "Als Olympic Torches Made of Krupp Steel78 Dank dem Träger" ("Thank you to the bearer"), and Alongside the internationally-known firms they were donated by the Krupp company. In a Daimler-Benz AG and Zeiss, there was a third major letter to Pierre de COUBERTIN, Theodor LEWALD, the German company involved as a sponsor of the President of the Organizing Committee, estimated relay and, thus, of the Olympic Games: the Fried. this donation to be worth 40,000 Reichsmark.81 Krupp AG. The company report of 1935/36 of the The use of the Olympic Torches for any other Fried. Krupp AG comments succinctly: purpose was only permissible for the donor. On 1 August, the first day of the Berlin Games, the new "The Olympic torch holders, known throughout "Olympia Hochofen" (blast-furnace) was blown the world, were manufactured in our in at Krupp's using the Olympic Torch which had Department for the Design and Manufacture of been lit at the fires of the Friedrich-Alfred works. Apparatus."79 An iron plaque showing a steel worker below the Olympic Rings commemorates this event.82 The three intertwined rings in the Fried. Krupp AG trademark, which supported the Olympic Rings in 1936, have remained connected with the Olympic movement up till today. In 1972, Krupp donated 6,000 torch-holders for the torch relay to Munich and Berthold BEITZ, the former Krupp general manager and later chairman of the board of directors, has contributed since 1972, finally as vice-president of the IOC, to the upholding of the Iron plaque Olympic Flame. Today he is active, as an honorary commemorating member, on behalf of the cultural tradition of the the blowing in Olympic movement. of the "Olym- pia-Hochofen" As files in the historical archives of the Fried. at Krupp's by Krupp AG Show,83 the 1936 torch relay was a means of an "journalistic hit" even before the Games. The Olympic torch- broadcasting station of the Reich in Cologne made holder, 1 August 1936 a report on the production of the torches and the torches were shown in the Olympia Train, a mobile publicity exhibition. The 'Olympiade' Film Company obtained torches for its shooting, the results of which can be found in the particularly impressive opening sequence of Leni RIEFENSTAHL'S film of the Olympic festival. Some of the pictures of the torch relay, however, are not a documentary record as they were, in part, "enforced"84 in the temple of Hera at the instigation of Leni RIEFENSTAHL, or they were filmed later on the Kurische Nehrung.85 As an up-to-date addition to The design of the torches, based on the ideas of the "work of art of the month", the torch-holder DIEM and LEWALD and on preliminary designs was presented in 1936, in the Suermondt-Museum done by the Berlin sculptor and designer of the in Aachen. It was exhibited along with an antique Olympic Bell, Walter LEMCKE, came from Peter vase which showed "the finish of the classical WOLF, the manager of Krupp's Department for Olympic [sic!] Torch Relay, the reception of the final the Design and Manufacture of Apparatus and runner by the goddess of victory." 86 This crater by the later the chairman, for many years, of the Essen Suessula-painter87 disappeared during the war.88 Gymnastics and Sports Club of 1859. WOLF had gone to the Organizing Committee in Berlin, specially, Flame and Torch, Protected by Law 80 in October 1935, to discuss the designs. As can In 1946 the IOC decided to follow the torch relay be seen by the reference under the protective tradition as it had already done in 1939 in London disc, the torch-holders were made of Krupp V2A- for the Helsinki Games. The Circular Letter, 16 Nirosta Steel. The route of the flame was etched September 1946, by J. Sigfrid EDSTRÖM reports: on the shaft, below the Olympic Rings which
40 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 "69, Bye Law 1.11 The Olympic Torch is brought into the stadium by runners relaying each other. The last runner circles the track before lighting the Olympic Flame, which shall not be extinguished until the closing of the Reception of the Olympic Games. The lighting of the final torchrun- Olympic Flame shall be followed by a ner by the god- symbolic release of pigeons." 91 dess of victory, crater by the Suessula-pain- By means of these regulations the ter, previously Olympic Flame and the Torch Relay in the Suer- are placed under the authority of mondt-Museum, the IOC and legal protection is also Aix-la-Chapelle "The CIO was in favour of having the Olympic ensured. The National Olympic Flame brought from Olympia in Greece to Committees and the Organizing Committees London by athletes in the various countries."89 are responsible for the actual carrying out of the relay, whereby the "Executive Board" functions In just a few words, in 1949, the Olympic Legislation as a controlling body. In 1969, the IOC formulated defined, in 'Rule 33', for the first time the custom, same guidelines for the lighting of the Fire, for which had been carried out for the second time in the Torch Relay and for the Flame dish in its 1948, of staging a torch relay from Olympia to the "Recommendations for the Organizing Committees 93 venue of the Games. of Olympic Games" With these few stipulations there is plenty of scope left for distinctive national "The Olympic Flame then arrives by a courier features, artistic development and IOC-controlled and after circling the track the Sacred Fire is commercial exploitation. lit." 90 Highlights of the Torch Relays The Olympic Charter '91 devotes considerably For the 1940 Tokyo Games (which were not held) more attention to the opening ritual of the Carl DIEM had thought up a relay on horseback Olympic Games, which has developed since 1936 across the wide expanses of Asia. The route was to an imposing introductory piece, to a "celebratory worked out by the famous explorer of Asia, Sven 94 'Entrada'".91 The formulations show that the IOC HEDIN. During the planning of the 1964 Games, are also concerned with the 'copyright' for one of in which DIEM was involved, these plans were still their most effective symbols. under consideration. At first the "ancient dedication" was missing "18 Olympic Flame and Olympic Torch from the Winter Games. However, for Garmisch- 1. The Olympic Flame is the flame which is Partenkirchen in 1940 DIEM planned, by means of kindled in Olympia under the authority of the a "Messenger Run of Friendship" from the site of IOC. the first Winter Games in Chamonix, a symbolic 2. An Olympic Torch is a torch or a replica connection, whereby a relay team of skiers was to 95 thereof on which the Olympic Flame burns. deliver a message. 3. The IOC holds all rights of any kind relating In 1948, during the run from Athens to to the use of the Olympic Flame and of Olympic London, the Olympic Flame was carried to Pierre Torches." de COUBERTIN'S grave in Lausanne, where, in the presence of his widow, a service was held in "68 Use of the Olympic Flame memory of the founder of the modern Olympic 1. The OCOG is responsible for bringing the Games. Olympic Flame to the Olympic Stadium. The In 1952, in Helsinki, the last torch was carried celebrations to which the crossing or arrival of by Paavo NURMI, an idol of world sport, thus the Olympic Flame give rise, under the auspices symbolizing Olympic reconciliation with the man of the relevant NOC, must respect the Olympic who had once been excluded. A second flame lit protocol. The IOC Executive Board shall approve by the midnight sun in Pallastunturi, Lapland, all arrangements for any torch relay relating to was united with the Olympic Flame. the Olympic Flame. On the flight to Cairns for the Melbourne 2. The Olympic Flame must be placed in a Olympic Games, the fire was carried in a mining prominent position clearly visible and, where safety lamp that was donated by the Saar NOC. A the structure of the stadium permits, visible also relay of riders carried the flame from Denmark to from outside the stadium." Sweden for the Equestrian Games in Stockholm. Following the trail of the ancient Greek settlers, the torch was taken to Italy in 1960 on
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 41 the sailing school ship "Amerigo Vespucci" and other things, to draw attention to the history of carried through the ancient Magna Graecia. To the birth of Korea from the Silla, Paekche and commemorate the Etruscan Games a second torch Koryo dynasties. SOHN Kee Chung (Kitei SON), was brought from Tarquinia to the Capitol, where the Olympic marathon champion of 1936 for both flames were united. Japan, carried the torch into the stadium. The In Japan, in 1964, the flame was split up for runs 'true identity' of a 'usurped Olympic victory' was covering four routes and converging on Tokyo. brought home to world opinion by this sign of The last torch was carried by Yoshinori SAKAI, a national identity. young man who had been born at the hour of the A burning arrow shot to the flame dish ignited dropping of the atom bomb on Hiroshima, thus the Olympic Fire in Barcelona. It had reached reminding people of a moment of destiny both for Spain in Empurias where ancient Greek settlers the Japanese nation and for humanity as a whole. had started their colony 600 B. C. IOC-President In 1968, on the war to Mexico, the flame Juan Antonio SAMARANCH took the chance to bear followed the trail of Christopher COLUMBUS, at the torch through the streets of his hometown. first through Italy and Spain and then, by ship, Again and again, important events and across the Atlantic by the 1492 route. The flame pioneering achievements in sport, historical was brought to share by a relay of swimmers occurrences and moments of national development and then followed the route of Hernando CORTEZ of the countries involved have been made into to Mexico City In Teotihuacan there was an points of association in the torch relays. This has imposing celebration which blended the Olympic been effected by means of special routes, by the Fire with the Aztec cult of the sun. For the first choice of runners, by celebrations and symbolic time a woman, Enriqueta BASILIO, lit the fire in the acts, all preserved in an international spectacle. Olympic stadium. This also applies to the Winter Olympic Games, Innsbruck and Garmisch-Partenkirchen, two which have had torch relays since 1952, although venues of earlier Winter Games, were passed their permanent starting-point has only been through by the fire on its way to Munich in Olympia since 1964. 1972, thus underlining the Olympic integration of winter sports. Accompanying the last runner A Fiery Ideal Gunther ZAHN, Kim KEINO from Africa, Jim RYAN - an emblem continues to be effective from America, Keino Kunihara from Asia and Not only for the Olympic movement has the torch Dree CLAYTON from Oceania symbolized the five relay become a symbolic act. The custom has been continents. taken over by regional games such as The Mayor of Technical progress was the Asian Games, the Pan-American Yokohama demonstrated in Montreal by Games, the Central American Games, Ryozo Hiranu- means of a transmission of the the Spartakiads of the Socialist ma, member of the Tokyo 1940 fire by satellite. The two final countries and by a series of national OCOG, entering torch-bearers who lit the fire sports festivals. Japan's "National the stadium together - Sandra HENDERSON Sports Festival - Kokutai" during the ope- and Stephan PREFONTAINE - - is held, just like many similar ning ceremony of Japan's later became the dream couple events, under the influence of National Sports of torch relay history by getting the flame. In the U.S.A. torch Festival "Ko- married. relays have been used for fund- kutai" In Moscow the last few metres raising as, for example, by for the torch were particularly the "Philadelphias Children impressive. The torch reached its Olympic Fund Campaign", goal by crossing a cat-walk that which raised money for the was constructed, seemingly out 1960 Rome Games.96 of nothing, by a group of bearers In 1965, the Spartakiad torch holding separate parts of it. of the first Spartakiad for Children In 1984 the run across the American and Young People of the GDR continent began at the United Nations. was lit in the former concentration By means of the Youth Legacy camp of Buchenwald, where Ernst Kilometer Program an impressive THALMANN, the Chairman of the amount of support for young people's German Communist Party, had been sport in America was raised. However, murdered in 1944.97 this commercial utilization of the relay The sports organization of young led to violent arguments with the Hellenic Catholics, the "Deutsche Jugendkraft", Olympic Committee. has been holding torch relays since The Olympic Flame was sent to Seoul in early post-war days, whereby on 1 May a 1988 on a zigzag course involving the whole Tight of peace' is sent from the Altenberg of South Korea and beginning from the island Cathedral to numerous countries. of Cheju. The route was planned, among Originally, the fire was handed over at the
42 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 Below the copy of the HAUSHOFER sonnet "Olympisches Fest", DIEM recorded in his own handwriting the fate of this poet who was, "together with Bonhoeffer and Schleicher, murdered by the SS".106
"The author was taken from the prison on the Lehrter Straße on 23 April 1945 and shot in the back by SS men. 80 sonnets were found in his hand, including the above and 'Vision der Fackel'."107 The torch for the Spartakiad Leipzig ignited HAUSHOFER'S sonnet shows clearly that the in the Concen- 108 "heavenly light" , which the torch embodies, is tration Camp also open to ideological abuse. The "dialectics of Buchenwald enlightenment" include its Olympic symbol. borders as a sign of peace, so as to demonstrate Traces of the Flame can also be found in 98 the fact that enemies have become friends. literature for young people. Its presentation often Since 1987, originating in the U.S.A., there combines narrative, historical instruction with have been peace runs which are started from references to the modern Games.109 The Olympic the headquarters of the United Nations. The Fire has even reached the stage, although in a organizer responsible is an 'International Sri humorous way. In 1984 the Cologne Opera House Chinmoy Marathon Team', a sect which has put on the "Divertissementchen Olympisch For"110 obviously recognized the publicity potential of a as a guest performance of Cacilia WOLKENBURG, a "World Peace Run" which emphasizes peace and men's singing club. Even though recent times have 99 the community of nations. brought forth a number of talented people who On a smaller scale, the idea of the torch relay have been inspired by the torch, there seems to have was taken up again in the years following the been a shift in emphasis, regarding its reception, Berlin Games. In 1937, the final stage and the towards art directors and the publicity men in big lighting of the fire in the stadium were repeated, companies. Since the 1950s, Olympic Torches have as a historical tableau, as part of the celebrations been appearing ever more frequently in advertising th 100 marking the 700 anniversary of the city of Berlin. campaigns. Examples of this are recorded in the th To celebrate the 50 anniversary of the IOC in documentation. In the field of Olympic sport Lausanne, a torch relay was run from Geneva to and of sport in general, the torch has become the th Lausanne on June 18 , 1944. DIEM commented on emblem or part of the emblem of a large number 101 its low attendance in his diary. of clubs and organizations. Examples of this are The reception of the new Olympic symbol, Panathlon International, the Deutsche Olympische however, has spread far further than simply Gesellschaft and the Pan-American Games. Ten to imitations in the field of sport. Literary National Olympic Committees alone have the representations of the theme have become torch in their emblems. The torch or the Olympic components of the lighting ceremony, such as Flame have become the logo and pictogram for 102 the ode "Olympic Light" by Stelios SPERANTSAS the opening ceremony and in same cases also for or the poetic work "Light of Olympia" by Takis the closing ceremonies of the Olympic Games. The DOXAS, which hag been performed at the ceremony extensive fields of numismatics and philately, with 103 in Olympia since 1964. Carl DIEM'S collection of their hundreds of examples with torch motives, material for the volume Poesie des Sports contains can merely be referred to here.111 a number of lyrical versions of the torch theme, In plastic art, examples of personifications of including Albrecht HAUSHOFER'S "Vision der the torch can be mentioned which, like the torch Fackel" from the "Moabiter Sonette", which DIEM itself, stand for the Olympic Games as a whole had already put into his 1948 volume Ewiges - as 'pars pro toto'. A controversial example of 104 Olympia. The final triplet inquires critically such a 'Miss Olympia' was Ernilio GRECO'S "Torch into the political context of the Berlin Games and bearer", which was put up in front of the Palazzo touches on the theme of freedom, but not only in dello Sport in Rome, in 1960.112 sport: Film is an appropriate medium for the torch relays and its possibilities were exploited "Zwingt ihr dem Feuer eine Knechtschaft auf? extensively during the filming of the first torch Es zischt und spruht, wie man's in Banden halt. relay. The effectiveness of the presentation of Die Fackel flackert. Lodern - wird die Welt." the torch relay was increased by the use of trick shots.113 Leni RIEFENSTAHL did not adhere rigidly (Do you force the fire into bondage? to the genre of the documentary film and actually It hisses and spits as it is held in fetters. staged, in part, the scenes of the lighting of the fire 105 The torch flickers. Blaze - will the world.) and of the first handover, in order to heighten the
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 43 Symbol of enlightenment and free- Symbol of dialectics of enlightenment and of the abuse of the flame, Arno dom, the Statue of Liberty Breker's sculptures "Prometheus" and "Die Partei"
effect. However, this led to conflict with the Greek content that is understood throughout the world authorities, who did not want to allow a fire to be and has, indeed, become an emblem of the lit in the Temple of HERA and who wanted to avoid Olympic movement, along with the Olympic exaggerated theatricality.114 By using dissolving Rings. In a child's view of a torch relay runner as views of Greece and Germany, Athens and Berlin, the Statue of Liberty who - surrounded by athletes Ancient and Modern Times - embodied by the personifying the continents - runs into the "world" 120 discus thrower of MYRON projected onto a modern stadium the pre-requisites for the success of the athlete - the director turned to stylizations in course of the Olympic Fire are illustrated: freedom the film's prologue. Elements which would have of the individual and the peaceful co-existence of disturbed the solemnity of the moment in the the nations in a world that is seen as a unit. The sequences showing the torch relay in Greece, such "Olympic Aid" of the Lillehammer Winter Games as cars and motor cycles, were faded out: in 1994 has taken this into account and is trying to use the publicity of the Games to help children "She has filmed the torch relay, as well as the that are threatened by war. A torch bearer joining prologue of her Olympia film, in a stylized way hands with a child has been chosen as a logo for for artistic reasons."115 "Olympic Aid".
On its appearance in 1938, the prologue was celebrated as "the most perfect film-poetry''116 Even today the film has an enthusiastic public and it has become a subject for research.117 Later Olympia films, such as Kon ICHIKAWA'S film on the 1964 The helping hand, torch Tokyo Games, have also had important sequences runner as dedicated to the torch relay. symbol of the Olympia Aid in "Only film effectively translates the spectacle Lillehammer into another medium, and only two films of the scores that have been made - Leni Reifenstahl's Olympia and Kon Ichikawa's film of the 1964 Tokyo Games-have really succeeded in capturing the epic visual quality in the Games."118
In recent years, video technology has increasingly been used for filming individual stages.119
The Effectiveness of the Myth The presented documentation shows that with the Olympic Torch Relay, based on models from ancient times and their adaptation to 20th century sport, a universal sign of Olympic sport has been created which, with its ability to adapt to the traditions of various cultures, has a symbolic
44 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 Notes and References 21 COUBERTIN, Pierre de, "Closing words, Stockholm 1 On the history of its effectiveness in art and literature 1912", in: COUBERTIN, Pierre de, The Olympic Idea. cf. HUNGER, Herbert, Lexikon der griechischen und Discourses and Essays, ed. by Carl-Diem-Institut, römischen Mythologie, Vienna 41953, pp. 308-310 and Schorndorf 1966, p. 39. 22 FRENZEL, Elisabeth, Stoffe der Weltliteratur, Stuttgart COUBERTIN, Pierre de, Olympische Erinnerungen, 1962, pp. 527-529. Berlin 1987, p. 173. 23 2 Cf. DEUBNER, Ludwig, Attische Feste, Berlin 1932, p. WIDLUND has identified the text as part of COUBERTIN'S 211 f. closing words at the 1920 Games in Antwerp. Cf. 3 PARKE, Herbert W., Athenische Feste: Öffentlicher Kult BERNETT, Hajo, "Symbolik und Zeremoniell der XI. und private Mysterien, Mainz 1987, p. 26. Olympischen Spiele in Berlin 1936", in: Sportwissenschaft 4 Cf. PARKE, Feste, pp. 231 f. and 261 ff. 16(1984)4, p. 369. 24 5 JÜTHNER, Julius, Die athletischen Leibesübungen der Cf. ibid. 25 Griechen. II. Einzelne Sportarten, 1. Laut Sprung- und VERSPOHL, Franz-Joachim, Stadionbauten von der Wurfwettbewerbe, Vienna 1968, p. 136 f. Antike bis zur Gegenwart. Regie und Selbsterfahrung der 6 MACALOON, John J.: "Olympic Games and the Theory Massen. Gießen 1976, p. 211. 26 of Spectacle in Modern Societies", in: MACALOON, COUBERTIN, Pierre de, "Decoration, pyrotechnie, John J.(ed.), Rite, Drama, Festival. Rehearsals toward a harmonies, corteges. Essai des Ruskinianisme sportif", Theory of Cultural Performance, Philadelphia 1983, p. in: Textes Choisis, vol. 2, Zurich 1986, p. 535. 27 252. Congres International de Paris pour le Retablissement 7 Cf. KOBLER, Friedrich, ,,Fackel als Attribut", in: des Jeux Olympiques. Programme. Racing Club de Reallexikon zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte, vol. VI, France. Paris 1894. 28 Munich 1973, col. 993-1024. COUBERTIN, Pierre de, "Discours pour la cloture des 8 Cf. HENKEL, Arthur/SCHÖNE, Albrecht (eds.), Jeux Olympiques de Berlin", in: Textes Choisis, vol. 2, Emblemata. Handbuch zur Sinnbildkunst des XVI. und Zurich 1986, p. 305. 29 XVII. Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart 1967, col. 1201. Cf. as an example of such an ahistorical reduction with 9 MÜLLER, Norbert, "Preface", in: COUBERTIN, Pierre a critical purpose: ALKEMEYER, Thomas, "Gewalt de, Textes Choisis, Part II, Zürich 1986, p. 7. und Opfer im Ritual der Olympischen Spiele 1936", 10 "Let us light our torches at their poetic fires; I On in: DRESSEN, Wolfgang (ed.), Selbstbeherrschte Korper; new thoughts make ancient verses." Cf. MILLER, Berliner Topographien 6, Berlin 1986, pp. 60-77. 30 Norbert, "Europäischer Philhellenismus zwischen DIEM, Carl, Weltgeschichte des Sports und der Winckelmann und Byron", in: Propyläen Geschichte der Leibeserziehung, Stuttgart 1960, p. 43. 31 Literatur; vol. IV; Aufklarung und Romantik 1700-1830, MENZE, Clemens, "Zur Einfuhrung in die Frankfurt/Berlin/Vienna 1983, p. 337. Ausgewahlten Schriften Carl Diems", in: DIEM, Carl, 11 The author is preparing a study on the archaeologist Ausgewahlte Schriften, vol. 1, Zur Begrundung von Sport (a member of the German delegation in Athens und Sporterziehung, Sankt Augustin 1982, p. 9. 32 in 1896, a founding member and member of the MACALOON, John J., Korean Cultural Performance of an board of the Deutscher Reichsausschuß fur Olympische International Rite. The Torch Relay of the Xth Asian Games. Spiele (DRAfOS) and Deutscher Reichsausschuß fur Uncorrected Draft, 9.1.1987. Leibesubungen (DRAfL) and administrative director of Asterix as the Deutsche Hochschule fur Leibesubungen (DHfL) and Olympic Torch on his part in the Olympic movement which, however, runner, adver- ended after his involvement - through the good offices tising sticker, of DIEM - in the Berlin Games. 12 1992 "Speech by Alfred Schiff", in: Die Ernst Curtius-Buste im Museum von Olympia. Bericht fiir die an der Stiftung Beteiligten, pp. 17-19. [no p. and n.d.] 13 JAEGER, Werner, "Humanismus als Tradition und Erlebnis (1919)", in: Humanistische Reden und Vortrage, 2 Berlin 1960, p. 30. 14 HOLSCHER, Uvo, "Angestrengtes Griechentum. Die dritte Wiederkehr des Klassischen. Zu Werner Jaegers 100. Geburtstag", in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, (30 July 1988)175, p.19. 15 Cf. JAEGER, Werner, Paideia: Die Formung des griechischen Menschen, Berlin/Leipzig 1934, p. 3. 16 Ibid., p. 16. 17 Cf. DIEM, Carl, "Leibeserziehung - ein Nebenfach", in: Die Leibeserziehung 10(1961)3, p. 78. DIEM also mentions here that JAEGER, as ta representative of the University of Berlin, was present at the founding of the Deutsche Hochschule fiir Leibesubungen. In 1948 JAEGER, who was teaching at Harvard University subsequent to his emigration, figured as a potential teacher in DIEM'S plans for the Olympic Academy. Cf. File "Olympische Akademie 1948", Diem-Archives Cologne. 18 Cf. DIEM, Carl, Poesie des Sports, Stuttgart 1957, p. 218. DIEM had also printed the paradigmatic poem in the Olympische Rundschau and in the Olympic Sports Calender 1956, p. 51. Cf. also on the flame theme: GEORGE, Stefan, "Wer je die Flamme umschritt", p. 219 of Poesie des Sports. 19 HOLSCHER, "Griechentum", p. 19. 20 JAEGER'S short-lived delusion of "beingable to provide the pedagogical world-view for the new 'movement"' (HOLSCHER, "Griechentum", p. 19.) has its counterpart in DIEM'S futile attempt to preserve his aims in sport pedagogy by means of limited co- operation with the National Socialists.
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 45 33 DIEM, Carl, "Die Olympische Idee als moralische Revue Olympique (1974)85/86, pp. 611-616. Forderung", in: Report of the Second Summer Season of 53 Tagebucher Carl Diem, ref. no. 0263400, p. 68, from 23 the International Olympic Academy, Athens 1962, quoted May 1934, Diem Archives Cologne. from: Ausgewahlte Schriften, vol. 1, p. 214. 54 Cf. Fackel-Staffel-Lauf Olympia - Berlin 1936, Berlin n.d. 34 Cf. for example for the "Fete Federale" on 14 July [1934], p. 6. 55 1790: HOFMANN, Werner, Europa 1789. Aufklarung, Cf. DIEM'S letter to COUBERTIN, 24 April 1936, also Verklarung, Verfall. Ausstellung der Hamburger Kunsthalle Cf. KLINGEBERG, W., Fackel-Staffel-Lauf Olympia- zum 200. Jahrestag der franzosischen Revolution. Koln Berlin 20. Juli bis 1. August 1936. Report on the state 1989, pp. 228-230. of the: organisational preliminary work following the 35 DUDING, Dieter, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher journey over the entire route in September 1935, Berlin, Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847); Bedeutung 1 October 1935. Diem Archives Cologne, p. 17. Here, der Turner- und Sangervereine fur die deutsche however, COUBERTIN'S participation in Olympia is not Nationalbewegung, Wien 1983, p. 115. mentioned. 36 SOEFFNER, H. G., "Emblematische und symbolische 56 Cf. Olympia-Zeitung (3 August 1936)14, p. 244. 57 Formen der Orientierung", in: Fernuniversitat Letter from Jean KETSEAS to the editor of the Bulletin Hagen (ed.), Fernuniversitat und Gesellschaft. Hagener Officiel, from 24 January 1962, quotes from POURET, Universitatsreden 6, Hagen 1984, p. 107. Henri (see note 52) p. 614. The passage referred to by 37 ENGLERT, Ludwig, "Erinnerungen eines ehemaligen KETSEAS reads, in the German translation, as follows: Studenten an die ersten Jahre der Hochschule", in: "[...] so darf er [der Altar; W.B.] nicht von einem anderen SCHIFF, Alfred (ed.), Die Deutsche Hochschule fur Feuer her entfacht werden, sondern man muß neues und Leibesubungen 1920-1930, Berlin 1930, p. 117. frisches machen, indem man von der Sonne her eine reine, 38 Walther KLEFFEL'S guest book, 25 August 1931, copy unbefleckte Flamme entzundet. Man tut das zumeist mittels with a handwritten addition by KLEFFEL "Olympis. der Hohlpfannen, die man herstellt, indem man sie von der Fackellauf", Diem Archives Cologne. Cf. also: Grundlinie eines gleichschenklig-rechtwinkligen Dreiecks KAHLE, Manfred, Der Fackelstaffellaufbei den modernen ausgehend nach einem Mittelpunkt hin aushohlt. Wenn Olympischen Spielen. Degree dissertation, Deutsche ein solches Gefaß gegen die Sonne gestellt wird, so daß ihre Sporthochschule Cologne, WS 1966/67. KLEFFEL had Strahlen von allen Seiten zuriickgeworfen werden [...], so also made a copy available to the student, see letter zersetzt es die sich verdunnende Luft und entziindet rasch of 6 March 1967 to Liselott DIEM with enclosed copy, sehr leichte und trockene Stoffe, die man heranbringt, da Olympic spon- Diem Archives Cologne. der Strahl durch den Ruckprall Korper und Wirkungskraft 39 sor using a Letter from Carl DIEM to Pierre des Feuers erhalt." PLUTARCH, Grosse Griechen und torch runner as de COUBERTIN 12 June 1934, IOC Romer, vol. 1, translated by and with an introduction lid for a box of Archives, Lausanne. by Konrat ZIEGLER, Zurich/Stuttgart 1954, p. 182. 40 58 sweets, 1992 Tagebucher Carl DIEM, ref. no. Tagebiicher Carl Diem, ref. No. 02634, p. 104. 0253304, p. 239, 3 December 1933, 59 Ibid., p. 113 ff. 60 Diem Archives Cologne. Draft and index of potential exhibits in SCHIFF'S estate, 41 Organisationskomitee fur die XI. Diem Archives Cologne. Olympiade Berlin 1936 e. V. (ed.), XI. 61 Cf. among others: RAABE, Arthur, Eilbotenlaufen, Olympiade Berlin 1936. Amtlicher Bericht, Leipzig 1910. vol. 1, Berlin 1937, p. 58. 62 GROH, E., "Eilbotenlaufe der Deutschen Turnerschaft 42 Cf. KRÜGER, Arnd, "The 1936 Berlin zur Weihe des Volkerschlachtdenkmals", in: Deutsche Olympic Games", in: GRAHAM, Peter Turnzeitung (1913)44, p. 850. J./UEBERHORST, Horst (eds.), The 63 Ibid., p. 851. Modern Olympics, Cornwall (N.Y.) n.d., 64 KUNATH, Arno, Der Hermannslauf der Deutschen p. 170: "Mr. Haegert, a civil servant in Turnerschaft 1925. Bremen 1925. Goebbel's Propaganda Ministry invented 65 Diem, Carl, ,,Entstehung der Großstaffellaufe", in: the lighting of the Olympic Torch and its Olympische Flamme, vol. 3, Berlin 1942, p. 1178. international relay from Olympia to the site of the games." 66 Cf. "Neuauflage des Traditions-Staffellaufs Potsdam- Cf. in contrast to this MANDELL, Richard D., The Nazi Berlin", in: DSB-Information Nr. 5/90, p. 6. Olympics. New York 1971, p. 130: "The idea was entirely 67 Cf. Blatter f Volksgesundheit und Volkskraft 18(1930)19, p. Dr. Carl Diem's". 50 and p. 46 f. 43 It is possible that the Propaganda Ministry made 68 Ibid., p. 181 f. claims concerning the origin of the torch relay 69 Cf. SPITZER, Giselher, "Grundung des Nationalen afterwards. In April 1943, HAEGERT, the head of a Olympischen Komitees", in: ROTTER, Gunther (ed.), ministry department, is mentioned, in Carl DIEM'S Ruckkehr nach Olympia. Nationales Olympisches Komitee diaries: "My adversary with regard to the Olympic Games, fur Deutschland, Vorgeschichte, Griindung, erste Jahre. in the Propaganda Ministry", Tagebiicher Carl Diem, ref. Munich 1989, p. 115 f. no. 1744305, April 1943, Diem Archive, Cologne. 70 KLINGEBERG, W., see note 55. 44 71 Letter from LEWALD to COUBERTIN, 30 June 1936, IOC Fackel-Staffel-Lauf Olympia-Berlin 1936 (Ausschreibung), Archives Lausanne. 21935, p. 28. 45 72 The passage is quoted in LEWALD'S letter of 8 July 1936, KLINGEBERG, W., p. 21. see note 46. 73 Sammlung von Pressestimmen im Anschluß an den 46 Letter from LEWALD to COUBERTIN, 8 July 1936, IOC Bericht Klingebergs, DNB 18 September 1935, Diem- Archives Lausanne. Archives Cologne. 47 74 Letter from LEWALD to COUBERTIN, 26 July 1936, IOC KLINGEBERG'S traveljournal "Reise Griechenland Archives Lausanne. (Fackel-Staffel-Lauf)", p. 2, 6 September 1935, 48 Letter from WREDE to DIEM, 16 August 1936, Diem KLINGEBERG, W., p. 34., Diem-Archives Cologne. Archives Cologne. 75 Ibid., p. 33 f. 49 76 Tagebiicher Carl Diem, ref. no. 0733613 from 10 KLINGEBERG'S travel journal, p. 30. October 1936, Diem Archives Cologne. 77 KLINGEBERG, W., p. 25. 50 "Une Plaque Commemorative Olympique reconnue en 78 Cf. BORGERS, Walter, Krupp und der Sport. Grece", in: Bulletin Official du CIO (1961)77, p. 15 f., Anmerkungen zu Sport und Sportforderung der Familie "A propos de la plaque commemorative de Teghea und des Unternehmens, published by Institut fur (Grece)", in: Bulletin Officiel du CIO, (1962)1978, pp. 34 Sportpublizistik an der Deutschen Sporthochschule ff. Koln. Neuss 1988, pp. 85-92. 51 79 Cf. correspondence between Otto MAYER and Carl Technischer Bericht u'ber das Betriebsjahr 1935/36, DIEM, 10 October 1961 - 2 February 1962. Fried. Krupp AG, Stahlbetriebe (Apparatebau), p. 9, 52 Cf. POURET, Henri, "La Flamme Olympique", in: Historical Archives of the Fried. Krupp GmbH, Essen,
46 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 WAIV2962a.g 80 Cf. for the files on the meeting, notes sent by DIEM to WOLF on 8 October 1935, Historical Archives of the Fried. Krupp GmbH, Essen, WA 41/73-111. 81 Letter from LEWALD to COUBERTIN, 30 June 1936, IOC-Archives, Lausanne, "A ma sollicitation le chef de la maison Krupp, Monsieur von Bohlen- Halbach, nous a fair cadeau de ces 3000 poignees qui representent une valeur de RM 40000,- soit Ffrs. 240000,-" 82 Cf. KRUPP, Zs. der KruppschenBetriebs gemeinschaft 27(1936)23. 83 Historical Archives of the Fried. Krupp Gmbh, Essen, WA 41/73-111, contains the correspondence relating to the uses, given in the following passage, to which the torch was put by the media. 84 Tagebucher Carl Diem, Ref. no. 0743614, p. 46, from 3 October 1936. DIEM reports here on a conversation with Fraulein PRATSIKE, a LAXENBURG pupil, who was responsible for the arrangement of the celebration in Olympia. "Up till now I hadn't quite understood the celebration because the pictures did not rally with the report. Now I have discovered that the pictures were enforced by Leni Riefenstahl in the Temple of Hera, whereas the celebration took place outside the Altis. Leni was not wrong, as the pictures from the Temple of Hera convey the concept of Olympia." Child's view of 85 Cf. RIEFENSTAHL, Leni, Memoiren, a torch relay Munchen, Hamburg 1987, pp. 273- runner as the 275. statue of liberty 86 Letter from the director of the surrounded Suermondt Museum in Aachen to Krupp by athletes Ltd., Historical Archives of the Fried. personifying the Krupp GmbH, Essen, WA 41/73-111. continents and 87 Cf. JUTHNER, Leibesubungen, p.138 f. running into the 88 Letter from the Museen der Stadt "world" stadium Aachen, Renate PULLOGEL, to the author. 99 Sri Chinmoy Oneness Home Peace Run. Weltfriedenslauf 89 Circular Letter by J. Sigfrid EDSTROM, IOC President, '89, Advertising brochure. 16 September 1946. p. 2, Diem Archives Cologne. 100 Cf. 700 Jahre Berlin, Festfolge 14.-22. August 1937, Diem 90 International Olympic Committee, Olympic Rules, Archives Cologne. Charter of the Olympic Games, Lausanne 1949, p. 15. 101 Tagebucher Carl Diem, Ref. no. 1854405, Diem Archives 91 DIEM, Liselott, Die festliche Entrada der Olympischen Cologne. Spiele - eine Hymne auf die olympischen Fackellaufer, 102 SPERANTSAS, Stelios, Olympic Light Edited under typed draft, 1965, Diem-Archives Cologne, "A Hymn to the care of the Hellenic Olympic Committee, Athens the Olympic Torch Bearers", in: International Olympic 1970. Institute Lausanne, The Games of the XVIIIth Olympiad 103 DOXAS, Takis, Licht Olympias (in seven languages), Tokyo 1964. Stuttgart 1965, pp. 35-39. Athens 1976. 92 International Olympic Committee, Olympic Charter '91, 104 DIEM, Carl, Ewiges Olympia, Minden 1948, p. 247. Lausanne 1990. 105 Quoted from: DIEM, Carl, Poesie des Sports, Stuttgart 93 Cf. The Administration of an Olympic Games. Submitted 1957, p. 219. at the Request of the IOC by Sandy DUNCAN (Great 106 Cf. TEICHLER, Hans-Joachim, "Der Weg Carl Diems Britain), Marcello GARONNI (Italy) and Yukiaki vom DRA-Generalsekretar zum kommissarischen IWATE (Japan). Lausanne n.d., p. 89 f. Fuhrer des Gaues Ausland im NSRL", in: Zs. f Sozial- 94 Cf. BERNETT, Hajo, "Das Scheitern der Olympischen und Zeitgeschichte des Sports, 11198711. p. 84. Spiele von 1940", in: Station 6(1980), pp. 255 and 272. 107 Sachakte "Poesie des Sports", Diem Archives 95 Cf. DIEM, Carl (ed.), Vorbereitungen zu den Olympischen Cologne. Winterspielen 1940 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Munich 108 Cf. GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang von: Faust I, Works 1940, pp. 26 and 85. vol. 2, Salzburg/Stuttgart n.d., p. 758 f.: 96 Cf. United States 1960 Olympic Book. Quadrennial Report ,,Mephistopheles: of the United States Olympic Committee. New York 1961, Ein wenig besser wurd er leben, p. 35. Ha'ttst du ihm nicht den Schein des Himmelslichts 97 Cf. SCHMIDTKE, Dirk, "Die erste Kinder- und gegeben; Jugendspartakiade", in: NOK-Report Nr. 8/90, p. Er nennts Vernunft und braucht's allein. 29 f., Cf. also: Deutscher Turn- und Sportbund der Nur tierischer als jedes Tier zu sein." Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (ed.), VII. Turn- 109 Cf. as an example: TRENT, Thomas, Flamme von und Sportfest und IX. Jugendspartakiade der DDR. Leipzig Olympia. Gottinger Jugend-Bande. Gottingen n.d. [1956]. 25. 31. Juli 1983, Dresden 1983, pp. 2-3. 110 "Olympisch For", E Divertissementchen in 5 Bilder 98 Cf. Kolner Stafettte. Reports by the DJK district von Franz Wilkes. ed.: Fritz-Dieter GERHARDS, association Cologne, 311989. Cologne 1984.
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2 47 111 Cf. on the subject of philately, which has provided the 116 TROMEL, Walter (ed.), Olympia, der Film von den XL most accurate documentations of the torch relays so Olympischen Spielen in Bertin 1936. Wiesbaden n.d., far: WERNET, Kurt, "Die olympische Flamme zu den p. 7. Cf. also: BERNETT, Hajo, Untersuchungen zur Olympischen Spielen im Munchen 1972", in: IMOS Zeitgeschichte des Sports, Schorndorf 1973, pp. 115-139. - Internationale Motivgruppen Olympiade und Sport. 117 Cf. MANDELL, Richard D., Hitlers Olympiade Berlin Schonach 1973 (continuing). Cf. also WERNET, Kurt: 1936, Munich 1980, p. 125 ff.; and GRAHAM, Cooper "Stafette der olympischen Fackel auf dem Weg nach Carrington, A Historical and Aesthetic Analysis of Leni Moskau". IMOS Schonach 1980 (continuing). Riefenstahl's "Olympia", Ph.D. Dissertation, New York 112 Cf. on the reception of this sculpture: Bild am Sonntag University 1984; BERNETT, Hajo, "Leni Riefenstahls (24 April 1960). Dokumentarfilm von den Olympischen Spielen in 113 Cf. Staatspolitische Filme, issue 8/9, Olympia, ed. by Berlin 1936", in: BERNETT, Hajo, Untersuchungen zur Walther GUNTHER, Berlin 1938. p. 1. "The torch relay Zeitgeschichte des Sports, Schorndorf: 1973, pp. 115-139. trick photographs were taken by the team of Svend Noldan" 118 MACALOON, John, J., "Olympic Games and the Theory 114 Cf. note 84. of Spectacle in Modern Societies", in: MACALOON, 115 Information from the office of Leni Riefenstahl- John J. (ed.), Rite, Drama, Festival, Spectacle. Rehearsals Productions. 24.6.1987, Diem Archives Cologne. Cf. also: toward a theory of Cultural Performance, Philadelphia RIEFENSTAHL, Leni, Memoiren. Munich/Hamburg 1983, p. 245. 1987, p. 263 f., p. 273 f., Cf. for the documentary 119 Thus, the organizing committee in Los Angeles owns character of the torch relay parts also: GRAHAM, more than 300 videos. Cf. Los Angeles Olympic Cooper Carrington, Leni Riefenstahl and Olympia. Organizing Committee Records. Videotapes. Draft 2, (Filmmakers No. 13). New York, London 1989, pp. 56- 8/87, pp. 118-134. 65. 120 In: Message Olympique (March 1986)13.
Commemorative Plaque for Carl Diem, Diem-Archive Cologne
48 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(MAY/JUNE 2005)2