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002 SarphanUzunoğlu AslıTunç Tuğba Tekerek CerenSözeri Murat Önok SuncemKoçer DoğanAkın Authors P24, Creative Disturbance, andGlobalVoices. responsible editorof Journo.com.tr andcontributestoseveral digitalplatformssuchas PhD thesisconsideredtheprecariousness oflaborinTurkey’s journalismindustry. Heis ofLanguageandCulture, sectionforMediaandDocumentationStudies. HisDepartment digital activism,socialmedia,andfreedom ofexpression. onmediaanddemocracy, reports bookchaptersandcountry numerous academicarticles, media andcommunicationsatTemple inPhiladelphia2000.Shehaswritten University an MAinfilmandtelevision studies fromAnadoluUniversity. Shereceived herPh.D. in Bilgi University. ShehasaBA and incommunicationsciencesfromIstanbul University including forbothTurkishworked asfreelancereporter languagemediaandinternationaloutlets career in2006at also completedtheModernTurkish master’s History program. herjournalism Shestarted columnist for been theEthical JournalismNetwork’s (EJN) representative inTurkey since2015anda well asdiscriminationandhatespeechintraditional andonlinemediainTurkey. Shehas political economyofthemedia,mediapolicies,freedompress, ethicalissues, as andreceived herPh.D.same university fromMarmara University. Shewritesonissues of Galatasaray University. Sheearnedbothherbachelor’s andmaster’s degreefromthat Turkish Press Council. international law andcriminology. Önokalsocurrently astheVice-Presidentof serves criminal law, humanrightslaw andinternationalcriminallaw. Hehasalsotaughtpublic BA degreeandPh.D. fromDokuzEylül University, Izmir. Önok’s fieldsofresearchare columns fordaily filmsandworked aseditorandanchorat documentary two Turkey andtheMiddleEast. Koçer hasalsoworked asamediaproducer. Sheco-produced on ethnography ofmedia,politicalcommunication,news media,andpoliticsofculture in member attheFacultyHer researchfocuses ofCommunicationatKadir HasUniversity. founded T24,anonlineindependentnewspaper whereheiscurrently editor-in-chief. Magazine Groupandfoundedthegroup’s Tempo24. first onlinenews portal, In2009,he of journalistic careerat

(Professor) teachesattheMediaandCommunicationSystems atIstanbul Department Milliyet (Asst. Prof.) isanassistant professor atKoç Law School.Heholdsa University is agraduate ofAnkara University’s Hebeganhis Political ScienceDepartment. (Assoc. of Prof.) isafaculty memberattheCommunicationsDepartment

(Assoc. Prof.) isananthropologist of mediaandcommunicationafaculty is a graduate of the Management Department of Boğaziçi University whereshe ofBoğaziçiUniversity is agraduate oftheManagementDepartment The New York Times newspaper. In2008hebecamethepublishingdirectorofDoğan-Burda (Assoc. Prof.) currently ofNorway, works forUiTTheArctic University atthe Evrensel Milliyet Evrensel Cumhuriyet daily. , beforeworking forthedaily . and daily in1987and1999becamethenews director Foreign Policy . Taraf . In recentyears shehas İMC TV . Shealsowroteweekly tr-tr.facebook.com/ Punto24 www.twitter.com/P24Punto24 www.platform24.org e-posta: [email protected] Beyoğlu 34430 İstanbul Yemenici AbdüllatifSokakNo:1, Meşrutiyet Caddesi, Asmalı MescitMahallesi, Kıraathane İstanbul Edebiyat Evi, Punto24 BağımsızGazetecilikPlatformu P24 MEDIALIBRARY No:12055 Certificate T: +902123251207 No: 3Kapı No:5Seyrantepe/İstanbul 4. Levent OtoSanayi SitesiAhmetbayman Cad. Reklam Sanayii ve Tic.Ltd. Şti. Depo PrintDijitalBaskıve Printing andCover: 1st Print:December2018 Mehtap Genç,P24 Pre-Print Preparation Bülent Erkmen Book Design Seçil Epik Fatma Demirelli Yasemin Çongar Editor Sarphan Uzunoğlu Aslı Tunç Tuğba Tekerek Ceren Sözeri Murat Önok Suncem Koçer Doğan Akın Suggestions Challenges, Opportunities, Media Self-Regulation inTurkey: English PublicationNo1 P24 MediaLibrary

European Union. of itsauthorsanddonotnecessarily reflecttheviews ofthe the European Union.Itscontentsarethesoleresponsibility of This publicationwas producedwiththefinancialsupport not committheOrganization. authors; they arenotnecessarily thoseofUNESCO anddo and opinionsexpressed inthispublicationarethoseofthe the delimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.Theideas territory, orareaofitsauthorities,concerning city UNESCO concerningthelegalstatus ofanycountry, expression of ofanyopinionwhatsoever onthepart material throughoutthispublicationdonotimply the The designationsemployed andthepresentationof South East Europe andTurkey.” the EU UNESCO-funded Project“BuildingTrust inMedia this bookwere realizedwithassistance of provided aspart toproduce The publicationofandresearchundertaken commercial purposes. education andsolidarity. Itisnottobesoldordistributed for Journalism forthepurposeofprofessional research, This bookispublishedby Punto24PlatformforIndependent

003 004 Sarphan Uzunoğlu Aslı Tunç Tuğba Tekerek Ceren Sözeri Murat Önok Suncem Koçer Doğan Akın Media Self- Suggestions Opportunities, Challenges, in Turkey: Regulation

CONTENTS Between Self-CensorshipBetween andSelf-Regulation: JournalisminaGray butNew Media Self-Regulation inInternetMedia:ProblemsandPossibilities Regulation andSelf-Regulation inTelevision inTurkey In Turkey, theOfficeofOmbudsmanAlsoHasItsLimits Applications Press CouncilsasOrganofSelf-Regulation: Turkish ExampleinLightofComparative Around theWorld Pointing theCompass intheRightDirection:ExamplesofSelf-Regulation from Freedom andEthics: IsOnePossible WithouttheOther? A General ofTurkey’s Overview MediaLandscapeandaFramework forSelf-Regulation Editors’ Introduction: Yasemin Çongar, Fatma Demirelli,SeçilEpik Sarphan Uzunoğlu Doğan Akın Suncem Koçer Tuğba Tekerek R. Murat Önok Aslı Tunç Ceren Sözeri >

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005 006 Media LandscapeandaFramework forSelf-Regulation Editors’ Introduction: AGeneral ofTurkey’s Overview Polarized A MediaThatIsNotFree, NotIndependentandVery Much be summarizedasfollows: The long-standingstructural problemsofTurkey’smediacan decade. within Turkey’smediathathaveworsenedover thelast within thesector.Itisresultofstructural problems series ofjolts,wreckingballsandnever-ending landslides result ofasingle,suddeneventbuttheculmination ofthe is morerealistictoseethepresentsituationasnot earthquake responsible for so much destruction; we think it That said,theSoEallonitsownwasnotproverbial regulation ofmediabecameavirtualimpossibility. to fulfilltheirfundamentaldemocraticfunction.Self- the SoE,itbecameharderformediainstitutionsasawhole thus themaincomponentofdetrituswedescribe.Under of fear,intimidationandhabitsself-censorship institutions andmediaworkersnurturedanatmosphere on July19,2018.TheSoEhadadirectimpactmedia three months–lastedfortwofullyears,beforeending then reviewedandextendedseventimesinarowevery in theaftermathoffailedcoupattemptJuly15, The StateofEmergency(SoE)–declaredonJuly21,2016 is leftofamedialandscapeinTurkey. Europe andTurkey,”wasconductedamongtheruinsofwhat supported project“BuildingTrustinMediaSouthEast This study,carriedoutintheframeworkofEU-UNESCO the pressand ofexpressionhas neverachievedthe 1) Throughout thehistoryof Republic,freedomof the imprisonment of over 150 journalists.” Similarly, the 2018 the imprisonment ofover150journalists.” Similarly,the 2018 some 60,000 people, theclosureof over160mediaoutlets, and has becomeasprawling witchhunt,resultinginthearrestof noting that:“[Erdoğan’s] responsetotheJuly2016coupattempt The reportbaseditsdiagnosis onseveralbasicobservations, time sincetheinaugural publicationofthereportin1999. country amongnationsinthislowlycategory forthefirst Turkey to“NotFree”from“PartlyFree,”thus placingthe D.C.-based watchdogorganizationinits2018 report downgraded freedom ofexpressionandthepressinTurkey: theWashington, liberties, alsoholdstrueinthemostprofound sensefor Freedom We thinkthediagnosismadebyFreedomHouse’s annualreport media, letaloneofpeople’strustinmedia. no sensetotalkaboutfreedomandindependenceofthe ubiquitous. Wehavereachedapointwhereitalmostmakes press, allthreeoftheseproblemshavebecomeevenmore In theFallof2018,asweareabouttosendthisbook envisaged bytheEuropeanConventionofHumanRights. dimensions norbeenabletoestablishfoundationsas relationship oftrusthaveneverbeenputinplace. that wouldbebothpossibleandcompulsoryina accountability, transparencyandself-regulation gained thetrustofsociety–mechanisms media andespeciallynewshasneverfully 3) Asaresultofthefirstandsecondpointsabove, governments andentrenchedinterests. very fewmediaoutletstooperateindependentlyof is paramounttomonopolization.Thisinturnallows renders freecompetitiondifficultandwhichattimes sectors, resultinginanownershipstructurethat corporations withcolossalinvestmentsinother 2) Majormediaoutletshavebeeninthehandsof intheWorld , which covers political rights and civil , whichcoverspoliticalrightsandcivil

007 008 Borders (RSF) saw Turkey fall to the rank of 157 among 180 Borders (RSF)sawTurkey falltotherankof157among180 World Press Freedom IndexoftheParis-basedReportersWithout makes itnearly impossiblefor the mediatodoitswork climate of self-censorship. Yet another factor,which imposed onthespoken andwrittenwordproduceanintense journalists inTurkey aswellotherheavypenalties The extendedperiods of incarcerationfacedbydefiant the President.’” against journalistsonchargesof‘insult’ and‘insulting defendants andsentencesdonotincludelawsuits filed of 30,000Turkishliraintotal.Thesefigures regarding imprisonment,’ 2,855yearsinprisonanda judicial fine faced 46‘aggravatedlifeimprisonment’,one ‘life sums upthegravityofsituation:“247 journalists Media MonitoringReportcoveringthethird quarterof2018 published intheBIA(IndependentCommunicationNetwork) linking themtothecoupattemptand/orterrorism.Thedata place andgenerallyfaceheavysentencesofallegedcrimes on remandforlongperiodswithoutafinalverdictin Most ofthemediaworkersinprisonhavebeenincarcerated 2018). of October15,2018)and 2018), theContemporaryJournalistsAssociationat141(as Union ofTurkeysetthenumberat144(asOctober1, encompassing “mediaworker.”Amongthem,theJournalists a narrowerdefinitionof“journalist”thanPunto24’sall- keeping thelistofjournalistsinprison,generallyusing 2018. Otherorganizationsmayapplydifferentcriteriain media-related activitiesatthebeginningofNovember 175 mediaworkerswereinprisonasaresultoftheir that issupportedbytheE.U.–weestablishedatleast Interrupted” –ajointprojectofPunto24andArticle19 As partofourmonitoringworkunder“Expression countries, downtwofromthepreviousyear. Bianet at123(asofOctober1, emergency decreespublishedduringtheSoEdictated freely isthedirectpressureagainstnewsoutlets.The Party (CHP),inanutshell,revealedthefollowing: technologies underthemainoppositionRepublicanPeople’s chairmanship inchargeofinformationandcommunication Internet inTurkey,puttogetherMay2018bythedeputy A reportexploringtheproblemssurroundingaccessto despite theirsupposedlymoreindependentandfreenature. Censorship alsoreignsovertheInternetandsocialmedia, unemployment. staff facedarrestandimprisonment,allwerecondemnedto their propertiesconfiscated,andwhilesomemembersof and 29publishinghouses.Theseshutteredoutletssawall networks, 25radiostations,70newspapers,20magazines immediate closureof15newsagencies,20television years, has been banned61times since 2015.” news portalsendika.org, whichhasbeenrunningfor17 the securityforceand otherparties.Accesstothe the remaining5,823were filedbystateinstitutions, Among thoserequests, 1,181werecourtorders,and Twitter received7,004removalrequestsfrom Turkey. requests forcontentremovalonTwitter.In 2017 alone, leading countryintheworldtermsof number of was bannedcountlesstimessince2014.Turkey isthe Twitter, whichhasbecomeahubforpolitical debate, which timecertaincontentonthesitewas banned. a targetofcensorshipin2014and2015,during banning accesstothesite.YouTubecontinued being March 2007andMay2008with34separatecourtorders facing censorshipinTurkeyduringtheperiodbetween 31, 2017.YouTube was theleadingsocialmediaplatform December 31,2016;andto99,952URLsasof URLs asofDecember31,2015;to86,351 > “Access wasbannedinTurkeytoatotalof36,603

009 010 of WikipediafromTurkeywasbannedonApril29,2017and It needstobepointedoutthataccessalleditions government groups. Thesubsequent layoffsandcensorship in television stations andbookstores itonceownedtopro- decades, morerecently soldallthenewspapers,magazines, despite havingdominated Turkishmediaduringthepastthree pressure. Themoststriking exampleisDoğanHoldingwhich self-censorship thathelped themnavigatethegovernment the politicalauthorityfortheyhadinternalized akindof relatively freefrompressure--butwerein factbowingto media sceneinthecountryforyearsandseemed tobe aside certainmainstreammediamagnateswho dominatedthe We havealsobeenwitnessingthepolitical authority cast on theiroffices,etc. closure, accessban,arrestoftheiremployees, policeraids facing unrelentingandseverepersecutionintheformof dissident press,particularlyamongKurdishmedia,havebeen influential newspapers,websitesandnewsagenciesamongthe their propertieshavebeenseized.Inaddition,numerous declared asaterroristgroup,werecloseddownandall to belinkedwiththeGülenmovement,whichgovernment need tobehighlighted.Allmediacompaniesownedbyorseen media suchastheseizureorclosureofcompaniesalso Practices involvingthegovernment’sdirectinterferencein action waslaunchedagainst285individuals. said thatitprobed349socialmediaaccountsandlegal operations betweenSeptember24andOctober1,theMinistry of socialmedia.Inarecentstatementconcerningpolice about thenumberofpeoplebeinginvestigatedonaccount Interior Ministryhasbeensharingweeklystatistics imprisoned onaccountoftheirsocialmediaposts.Turkey’s these investigationsledtopeoplebeingarrestedoreven investigation fortheirpostsonsocialmedia.Someof several years,morethan10,000individualshavefaced this banisstillineffect.Additionally,thepast well-established formerDoğanmediagroupcompanies when overahalfdozennationalnewspapers publishthesame by pro-governmentgroupsorindividuals.There aremornings newspapers andnewschannelsinmainstream mediaareowned It wouldbenooverstatementtoarguethat currentlyall Cumhuriyet the foundationthatadministeredpaper. Dozensof for aradicalchangeinthecompositionof theboardof was oustedfromthepaperafteracourtdecisionallowed Even then,thiscadre,targetedbypoliticalauthority, serious charges,althoughmostarenowfreependingappeal. senior editorsandbest-knowncolumnistswereconvictedof were filedagainstthenewspaper’sexecutives,paper’s different strategyofbeing“neutered.”Criminalcases Cumhuriyet still strivingforsomewhatindependentjournalism. handful ofcolumnists,correspondentsandcommentatorswere Antarctic birdscouldnotsavethemediagroup,whereonlya airing adocumentaryaboutpenguins.Buteventhoselovely “breaking news,” world werecoveringtheGeziParkprotestsinIstanbulas companies. Inthesummerof2013,asTVnetworksacross vastly damagedthereputationandcredibilityofitsmedia despite itselfresortingtoself-censorshipinawaythat Moreover, DoğanHoldinglostitsbattleforsurvival in present-dayTurkey. the toneforwhatittakestobeamainstreammediaoutlet Hürriyet subsequent spike inthepriceof importednewsprint, and this adramatic devaluationof the Turkishliraand the mainstream mediahas badly affectedcirculation.Addto Increasing (andinour opinion,deserved)distrustin headline ontheirfront pages,exactlywordforword. , Kanal D , Turkey’slongestlastingdaily,faceda ’s columnistsandreportersresignedinprotest. and CNN Türk CNN Türk (theDoğanowned undertheirnewownerssets CNN affiliate)was Milliyet ,

011 012 newspapers haveceased to publish. it isnotdifficulttounderstandwhilemanymainstream the umbrellaofhigherbodiessetupinlight ofsuch in particularandthereforethepractice of meetingunder reference amongmediaworkersingeneral but journalists solidarity, acknowledgementofethicalcodes andcodesof broad strokesaboveisthatco-operation, co-production, One resultofthebleakpicturewehavepainted in brother oftheson-in-lawPresidentRecep TayyipErdoğan. of thegroupisSerhatAlbayrak,whohappenstobe papers andthattheVicePresidentofExecutiveBoard including televisionchannelsandthreemajornational be notedthatTurkuvazMediaGroupowns47mediaorgans, 2018, leavingTurkuvazthesoledistributor.Itshould national newspapercirculation,wascloseddowninOctober distribution companyresponsibleforroughly40%of control becameabsolutewhenYay-Sat,aprintmedia services. Inahighlyworrisomedevelopment,monopoly- through themonopolizationofnation-widedistribution online streamingservices.Printmediaisfurthercontrolled imposing newlicensinglawsandparentalcontrolsover but hascomeincreasinglyfocusedonon-demandmedia-- the regulationandsupervisionofradiotelevision Television SupremeCouncil.Thiswasfoundedin1994for digital spherethroughtheagencyofRTÜK,Radioand In addition,statecontrolovermediaisactiveinthe appear on-line. titles, owned dailyshutdowncompletelyinMarch2016.Other one sideare workersofpro-government mainstreammedia, and with neither siderecognizingthe otherascolleagues. On Media inTurkeycurrently isundergoingextremepolarization weak hasnowbecomepractically impossible. professional consideration, whilealreadyandinvariably Habertürk and Vatan , weretofollowandnowonly Radikal , a liberalDoğan- The LegalInfrastructure ofSelf-Regulation -- strugglingtosurviveandneveraccreditedbythe on theotherworkersofahandfulindependentnewspapers keep abreast of developments concerning the media services; and Television SupremeCouncil, lists thefollowing: “to Chapter 1,Article37, onthedutiesandpowersofRadio appropriate meansand notifiedtotheSupremeCouncil.” viewer representative shallbeannouncedtothepublicby company andtofollow uptheconclusions.Theassigned from viewersandlistenerstotheeditorial boardofthe to submittheevaluationsoncomplaints obtained establish co-regulationandself-regulation mechanisms, least tenyearsofprofessionalexperience inorderto providers shallassignaviewerrepresentative whohasat Media ServiceProviders”isasfollows:“Media service viewer representationunderchaptersixtitled “Private chapter six,andtheotherin11. Article 22on concept ofself-regulationtwice,thefirstbeingin Enterprises andTheirMediaServicesmentionsthe Law No.6112ontheEstablishmentofRadioandTelevision row tohoe. practiced byallmediaactorsis,tocoinaphrase,tough making surethatsuchasystemisaccepted,supported,and the prospectsofbuildinganewsystemonruins,and ethical standards,norhashadarobusthistoryinTurkey, media self-regulationwasneverincompliancewithglobal the extremechallengeposedbythisvolume.Giventhat begin afreshortorebootactinsolidarityasper media, currentlyconstituted,isnotinapositionto The assertionhastobetakenveryseriouslythatTurkish pro-Kurdish media,andInternetnewsportals. operating withlimitedsources,theremnantsofsurviving Added tothisareoneortwoTVchannelsbroadcasting government andundertherelentlesspressuresdescribed.

013 014 and generalstrategiesforthesector;toconductstudies to determineco-regulatoryandself-regulatorymechanisms having a“legal garb”wascirculated duringthePress by laws.When theprospectsofself-regulation organs basis, emphasizingthe dangersfacedbyinstitutionsbound a vigorousargumentthat itshouldoperateonavoluntary while thePressHonor Councilwasstillextant,there For instance,youwill readthatasfarbackin1966, slippery slope? democratic processesoperate,tosaytheleast, ona exponential resultsinacountrysuchas Turkey, where a self-regulationbodylaiddownbylaws work produce framework. Thequestionremainsasurgent as ever:would system, andwhetheritshouldpossessalegally binding organizational structureofaflourishing self-regulation for manyyearsexpressedconflictingopinionsoverthe volume alsodocuments,journalistsandmediaworkershave as aCatch-22thatsuchmechanismisimpossible.Asthis mentions self-regulationmerelytwiceshouldnotbeseen defined self-regulatorymechanism,orthatthePressLaw That beingsaid,theabsenceofastatutoryandwell- Regulation: UnderWhatBasis?” the sub-section“ViewerRepresentation,”under“Self- Regulation inTelevisionTurkey,”andparticular, Koçer’s submissiontothisvolume,“RegulationandSelf- representation worksinpracticeisanalyzedSuncem representative. Howandunderwhatconditionsviewer minimum thatmediaorganizationsshouldassignaviewer self-regulation isconfinedtoestablishingthebare As canbeseenabove,thecurrentlegalstructureon providers, andtoissuecertificates.” and certificationprogramsforemployeesofmediaservice media servicesinthecountry;tocoordinateeducational and toprovideincentivesinorderensureimprovementof What CanWe Do?ARoadmap forSelf-Regulation editor-in-chief Abdiİpekçivoicedconcernsthatsuch Seminars heldinIstanbulonJanuary10-15,celebrated These recommendations canbesummedupasfollows: overall mediaself-regulation couldbeachieved. Internet media--presentsomecommonalities astohowan structures andcharacteristicsoftheprint, broadcastand though sometimesatoddswithoneotherdue totheunique provide. Therecommendationsincludedinthis road-map-- have attemptedtodrawaroad-mapfromthe answersthey questions onprospectsformediaself-regulation and Nonetheless, authorsofchaptersthisbook asked the press. with democraticvalues,freedomofspeech,and because mediaself-regulationcanonlyworkinasociety let aloneimplementingit,willbeaneasytask.Thisis self-regulation thatisfunctionalandall-encompassing, described above,itisevidentthatdevelopingamodelof In arepressiveatmospheresuchastheonewebriefly authoritarian government. of journalismunderpressurefromanincreasingly institutions forthemostbasicethicalprinciples outlets anddisregardonthepartoflargermedia media, structuralweaknessesoftheindependentmedia is compoundedfurtherstillbytheriseofInternet “professional discipline”whichiscurrentlylacking.It becomes evenmoreentrenchedwhenitispreciselythat described asoneof“professionaldiscipline.”Theproblem pressure onthepressandthatissuewouldbebetter an undertakingwouldassistthegovernmentinputting in themedia isnot 1) Emphasize to the general public that self-regulation generalpublic thatself-regulation just a matter for journalists or justamatter forjournalistsor

015 016 defending thesociety’sright the professionofjournalism of ethical journalism throughseminars, educative Journalists shouldbeencouraged tofollownorms to implementethical journalism 3) embrace thatdynamism. media, theseplatformsshouldalsobedesigned to especially whenitcomestotelevisionand digital ethics shouldberesponsivetochangingneeds, Operating fromthepremisethatrules ofmedia civil societyactors. of allpolitical“camps”butalsofromthe relevant on acodeofethicsforthemediaandjournalists not justfromtheself-regulationbodiesfocusing fashioned insuchamannertoallowcontributions recommendation inmind,theseplatformsshouldbe difficult economicconditionsmaybe.”Withthefirst journalism isnotsustainable,regardlessofhow that reliesonactivismandpresentsitselfas apex. ToquoteCerenSözeri,“Asurvivalstrategy political polarizationamongjournalistsisatits This isparticularlyimportantatatimewhen unifying codeofethicsforjournalism 2) awareness. seminars, conferences,trainingprogramstoraise segments ofthesocietyinjointlyorganizing civil societyorganizationsrepresentingdifferent Self-regulation initiativesshouldpartnerwith awareness campaignstothateffect Create participatoryplatformsfordebates Support andencourage journalists but a crucial element in butacrucialelementin to information; introduce toinformation;introduce

in theirefforts on a guidance andtraining.Professionalmechanismsthat programs andinstructiveguidelinesthatwouldoffer among media stakeholders,“Itis clearthatinthe Council, which haslongbeenabone ofcontention To quoteMuratÖnokon thefutureofPress should not,sotospeak, trytoreinventthewheel. in othercountriesshould berecognizedassuch.We the practicesthathaveproventobewell functioning mechanisms, notremovingthem.AsSuncemKoçer states, strengthening andrevampingtheseinstitutions and media self-regulationinTurkeyshouldbe aimedat ineffectiveness, etc.),anystrategytoimprove financial capacity,insufficienthumanresources, - criticismduetotheirdeficiencies(limited and mechanismshavebeensubjectto--mostly fair- already existinTurkey.Althoughtheseinstitutions Press Council,andmechanismssuchasombudsmanship A numberofself-regulationbodies,suchasthe institutions, mechanisms 5) their implementation instrumental inpromotingthesenormsandencouraging ethics andregularlypublishitsfindingswouldbe monitor Internetpublicationsaccordingtoacodeof Doğan Akın,theintroductionofamechanismthatwould recommendations. Assuggestedinthecontributionby the sameprinciplesoutlinedinprevious The processofdraftingthesenormsshouldfollow digital media 4) ones shouldbeintroduced. would rewardgoodexamplesandnameshamethebad Preserve andimprove Draft and introduceacodeofethicsforthe existingself-regulation

017 018 of thepressinparticularisunderthreat,removing current politicalsituationinTurkey,wherefreedom professional organizationsthemselves. media ethicsarenotdefendedbyoutlets and lose bothitsfreedomandintegritywhen professional deterrence andenforcement.Themediaisdestined to if theyaretoperformeffectivelytheir duty of a dynamicandparticipatoryprocessesof debate also functionasself-regulationinstitutions, through essential tostrengthenprofessionalbodies,which task fortheprofessionalbodies.Itis,ofcourse, in cultivatinggoodandhonestjournalism;itisa criminal law.Thecourts,however,canplaynorole and thelike,arealreadywell-definedinpublic media, suchaslibel,violationsofprivacy,harassment Aslı Tunç.Punishmentsforcrimescommittedusingthe ethical andlegalentitiesfromoneanother,”toquote Last butnotleast,itisessentialto“separate 6) extensive debatesinthefuture. that theseideascouldserveasabasisformore could becreatedinAslıTunç’schapter.Webelieve council thatismoreinclusionaryandeffective You canfindsomepracticalideasonhowamedia contribute anythingpositivetothepress.” accepts asindependentofthegovernmentwillnot an institutionofself-regulationthateveryone Prevent criminalizationofmedia misconduct

Freedom andEthics: IsOnePossible WithouttheOther? Ceren Sözeri of thefactorsfeedoff political powertowardthepressis another. Whiletheauthoritarian No doubt,thesethree Chadwick (1992,p.13),givecreditto and internationalcartels;and,inthewords o has becomecommercializedandevolvedinto ownership structure no and otherwise)thatare never pleasedwithacritical press, confronting thoseengagedinthiscareer:powers(political democracy. However,thereareavariety indispensable forasocietythataims political climates,is Journalism, independentofindividualpressuresand life’s circumstances but livinghonorably” poses isfar morally accountable if end on or ratherthemorality talk ofethics,orto crisis: ifthepressisnotfree, history ofthepressbegetsasecondquestion One oftheoldestandmostenduringquestions circumstances, freedomofthepress isnotan despite our defenseoffreedom of expression of thepressisrelated totherightof of whichIamtheTurkey representative.Though founder andpresident oftheEthical important distinction vigorouslymade matterhowdemocratictheymayclaimtobe;amedia freedom ofexpression.Canindividualsbeheld more thansimplychoosingbetween“beingpoor , which,undertherulesofcapitalism enforce. anhonorableprofessionand make ethicsaprimaryconcern?Ethics factors arenotindependentofone or givingintotheexigenciesthat they arenotfree?Thequestionthis on whichitisbased,restsinthe one another.Butthereisan stance exhibitedbythe does itmakesenseto “trivi the mostsalient,all Journalism Network, toliveina ofobstacles by AidanWhite,the free speech,and a conglomerates andtrash.” under all unlimited f at timesof in the

freedom Belsey and

019 020 freedom. Itisanchorednotjustbylegalrestrictions, operate, theyallfallinto itself. Althoughtheymaydifferin There areseveralwaysinwhich on this Theodore Peterson’s to to not itscriticism;itwascallforthemediaorgans and editorsimmediatelyrejectedit.But behavior resulting content, prioritizationofsensationalism,andirresponsible pleased nooneforitscriticismofmedia’s of newspapers.Whenpublishedin1947,theresultant Hutchins thenestablishedateamtoanalyze by TimeInc.($200,000)and University ofChicago feeding that focused after and policy thatisindependentofthenewspaper’smanagement on whetherornotthejournalistscouldhaveaneditorial time more“tabloid”intheprocess.Thedebatethenfocused working class,becomingmoredemocraticbutatthesame the IndustrialRevolution,pressreachedoutto of thepressfollowingIndustrial The entiredebatecanbetraced also byresponsibility. 1997 https://mtprof.msun.edu/Fall1997/Blevins.html (accessedApril16,2018) Civic Journalism,” theThirdAnnualConference onIntellectualFreedom, April 1 code ofethicsgoesback toatime a codeofethics,press councils,and “TheHutchinsCommissionTurns 50:RecurringThemesinToday’sPublicand aregulatorymechanismestablishedbythe government. comeupwitharegulatorysystemthemselves, asopposed advertisers.In1937, givingaspeechinwhichhecriticizedjournalism themsensationalismandvulgarity,reachedoutto A Freeand ontellingreaderswhattheywantedtohearor ResponsiblePress fromcommercialconcerns--publishers theoryofsocialresponsibilityrests ChancellorRobertM.Hutchins.Funded Time EncyclopediaBritannica($15,000), threefundamentalcategories: magazineeditorHenryR.Luce, backtoatransformation themediacanregulate whenjournalistsfirst thewayinwhichthey ombudsmanship.The report Revolution.After itshallmarkwas distortionof 1 thecontent . a report

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began toorganizethemselves.Buteventhough council --wasborninSweden The ideaofombudsmanhsip prestige. punishment injournalismthan inclusive and A press sanctioning referred toas“toothlesswatchdogs”;theyhaveno in general,butespeciallypresscouncils,are untrue andharmfultosociety. evaluate andaddress primary responsibility are in organizations, andreader/viewerrepresentativesthere their stakeholders.Themorejournalists, Press councilsderivetheir who decidesitwillalways decide anddotherightthing to everyquestion;mostofthe not possibleforacodeofethics can attimesmeanhidingthetruth truth.” Thetruthhasmanysides ethical behavior.“Don’tlie”is be done,andinsomesituationsserve themselves. Theserulestypicallystate institutions alsohavea addition common fundamentalpoints,culturaldifferencesexist.In in theUSwas atthe address readers’ complaints.The as ameansto throughout theworld at the prevent thearbitrary use to thepress;rather, it a pressorganization,thestrongeritis.Their totheinternationalandnationalorganizations, council’s effectivenessincreasesasitgets more power otherthantoexpose,warn,orcondemn. increase thequality of newspapersand respectable, becausethereisnogreater complaints concerningnewsthatis Kentucky Louisville Courier- is tooverseethepress,and cameaboutasameans to codeofethicsspecificto ofstateauthority. It spread --likethatofapress remainatopicofcontention. startofthe20thcentury power fromthesizeof . Wherethelimitis,and , butitwasnotrelated the lossoftrustand time,thejournalistmust Self-regulation mechanisms differentfrom“Tellthe , andremainingsilent first ombudsman’s office toprovideananswer . Furthermore,itis asaguideto whatshouldnot civil society thereare often

021 022 Journal, butitsmandatewaslimitedto the newspaper’s it becameclearthatshe heroin addict.”Theprizewas Prize in1981forher“storyof Post another comparison been verified(Baydar a fabricatedpieceof job. Asombudsman had beenfiredfor protests, wassummarilyfired. in anarticlefor negative effectmediaownershave something similarin2013 The Bagdikian resignedin1972(Pritchard,2000,p.57). questioned Bagdikian’sloyaltytothenewspaperand as ameansofinfluencingitseditorial appearing tosupportaBlackboycottof quarreled withBagdikianwhowasquotedin the legendaryeditor-in-chiefof as thepaper’ssecondombudsman. freedom ofthepress,recommended Spielberg film who becamebetterknown an investigativejournalist,columnist,andacademic was newspaper tointroduceanombudsmanasweknowittoday complaints andconveyingthemtoeditors.Thefirst karilisini-anlatiyor (accessedApril16,2018) 2013 https://m.bianet.org/bianet/medya/148765-okur-temsilcisi-baydar-isten-ci 2 the wrongscommitted in World” manytimes “OkurTemsilcisiBaydarİşten Çıkarılışınıanlatıyor”,Bianet,July26, correspondentJanetLeslieCooke Sabah The WashingtonPost newspaper’sombudsman,YavuzBaydar,experienced ombudsmanatthetime,mentioned“Jimmy’s The for intheyearsthatfollowed, describing involvinganombudsman, “disloyalty”or,inhisterms,doing The NewYork Post , 2011,pp.86-87).Ifwearetomake newsbasedonsourceswhichhadnever Milliyet thenameofjournalism, sothecase , emphasizedtheimportanceof (Baydar,2011,p.65).BenBagdikian, hadmadeupthestory.BillGreen, as aresultofthe2018Steven . Baydar,whowroteaboutthe takenawayfromCookewhen 2 newspaper,hehadcriticized Thiswasthesecondtimehe Times Jimmy,the8-year-old But BenjaminC.Bradlee, oneditorialindependence the newspaper,infamously this positionandserved duringtheGeziPark wonthePulitzer receiving readers’ policy. Bradlee his ownpaper The Washington an AP story - Relationship Self- Between was fired went downin editorial content.Fromthisperspective,journalism presented bygovernmentsasan questionable press andimprovedworkingconditionsreflectonthe journalists bothadvocateandworkforfreedomofthe organized journalism.Whentheymeetoncommon news andthepressemergedinparallelwith Discussions amongjournalistsonthecredibility forming oradministeringthatmechanism. on thepoliticalsituationorindividualsincharge of theself-regulationmechanismsisgenerallyblamed in Turkeyoflateisexactlythis.Thenon-functional journalists inbookstheywriteafterthefact.Thesituation how journalism brought to both Turkey The historyof the worldfollowedon The firstattemptat shortcomings whichareremembered its practitionerskeep all wrongdoings which in comparisontootheroccupations,isaprofession in 538270a1ca31_story.html?utm_term=.de737344b182 (accessedApril16,2018) ted-fabricated-janet-cooke-story-dies-at-91/2016/03/30/bf494b66-f6ad-11e5-8b23- https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/bill-green-post-ombudsman-who-investiga dies at91”TheWashington Post, March30,2016 3 “BillGreen,Postombudsman whoinvestigatedfabricatedJanetCookestory, publicself-criticismiscommonplaceand inwhich butwithitslessonsforjournalism. light not through a sincere internal reckoning of lightnotthroughasincereinternalreckoningof and the world. Unfortunately, most of them are andtheworld.Unfortunately,mostofthemare historynotasoneinwhichanotherombudsman journalisticpracticesthatareincessantly needstobecarriedoutbutbythetestimonyof the press is littered with “black stains” in thepressislitteredwith“blackstains”in areexposed;anditisundeniablethat organized journalisminthispartof Regulation and Military Coups Regulation andMilitary anunofficialrecordofitsown the heelsofdeclaration excusetointerferein formanyyearstocome. theadventof 3 platforms, ofthe nature nature , either either of of

023 024 This wasaperiod Second ConstitutionalEra( press ethics.Article14states:“Newspapersthat of thecountry.Itscharter and dignityoftheOttoman goals oftheassociationwas Ottoman PressAssociation This, however,wasa“carrot;”the that wasnotcoveredbythe1936 and entitlementofcopyrightsto purpose of the unionwas union might order, sothe profession andnewspapers This wasatime Congress, ledby the press.AnewPressLaw state, one-partygovernment under governmentcontrol Republic duringwhich A new 560-563). further than the regulation. However, In asense,this and self-respect they will from they willrefrainfromvulgarlanguageandinsinuation members oftheassociationwillnotengageinblackmail; established in1939,wastokeep thepress punish journalists. Thatthemain goalofthe members weregovernment officials,wasableto profession, andtheHigh Honor with theunionwereno longer control ofthepress. Journalists periodfollowedtheestablishmentofTurkish content thatrunscontrarytogeneralmorals;and not publishanythingthatdamagesthedignity seemincongruouslyprogressive.Thestated ideathatwasbroughtupofestablishing a whenjournalistswerebeingforcedoutof thegovernment,wasconvenedin1935. can betermedthefirstattemptatself- preparation ofthecharter(Aydın,2010,pp. of anyforeignorOttomanconstituent.” when thepresswaspopularizedand it remainedonpapersandwentno attemptsweremadetobringthepress toregulatetheworking conditions . Duringtheformationofnew couldbecloseddownbyamere waspassedin1931,andaPress was formed.Amongthefundamental expectedfullcooperationof 1908) andtheendofcensorship. press bothinsideandoutside included provisionsconcerning that ofprotectingthehonor abletocontinuein their Council,amongwhose LaborLaw(No.3009). journalists,anissue whowerenotregistered realgoalwastotake undercontrol PressUnion, warnand are became clearwhenitwasabolishedin1946 among thepresscommunitytoday. solely forhiswritings,didnot time. Theimprisonmentof74-year-old newspapers, createdgreattension(Topuz,2003, p. prison, aswellsuccessivecourtcases This event,andtheincreasingnumber Hospital, andashortwhilelater Yalçın wastakenfromprisonandmoved in Turkey. After mounting reactions international pressonthe Üsküdar Prison,and police officerstaking of Cahit no oneexpected75-year-oldveteranjournalistHüseyin argued thiswouldnotrestrictfreedomofthepress, without theneedforevidence.Althoughsome gave prosecutorstherightto via Publicationand of thatsame after special and recognizedjournalists’employeerightsthroughthe from thepressbeforecomingtopower,kept The DemocratParty,whichhadreceived (Özsever hard introduction ofmulti-partysystem.Journalistsfought pending trial after spending20monthsbehind barsonMarch16,2018. (ed.n.) 4 military coup years, and The DemocratPartytightened censorshipinthefollowing JournalistŞahin Alpay,remandedinprison onJuly30,2016,wasreleased the newspaperspublishedphotoofplainclothes tofreethemselvesfromstatetutelageinthisperiod Yalçın tobeimprisoned.OnDecember2,1954,all the economyworsened,governmentgrewintolerant , 2004,pp.69-71). Labor LawNo.5953.Afewyearslater,however, in1960wasremoved from powerfollowinga critical press.The“LawonCrimescommitted . Themilitary-appointed NationalUnity many articleswerepublishedinthe Radio Broadcasting,”passedin1954, Yalçın fromhishomeinŞişlito restrictions facedbythepress directly chargeoffenders 4 provoke thesamedisquiet pardoned andsetfree. domestically and abroad, Şahin Alpayin2016, of journalistsin strong support to ŞişliChildren’s and closureof , amidstthe its word journalists 197) atthe

025 026 Governing PressEmployeesandEmployers,also Committee madeimprovementstothe Press MoralityLaw,passedonJuly that cameaboutfollowingthe1960 Another oneoftheimportant freedom ofthepress. the worseninginjournalists’workingconditionsand has beenhardtosaythattheday Working Journalists’Day.Foraverylongtime, the daylockoutbeganin1961,isstillknown journalists producedtheirownpublication.January10, The newspapers’moveprompteda publication forthree Yeni of support andunitingthemagainsttheiremployers the NationalUnityCommitteewas Press LaborLaw(ortodayasAmendment the government sorabidthatthey turned its frontpage. ForAdnanMenderes it “Deposed President”under apictureof bid. Itpublishedphotos from the DemocratPartyprior to out againstbuying were puton were put the to makethepressbehaveresponsibly,especially after the existenceofPressHonorCouncil were not 78-79). However,thepassageofPressMorality Law censorship lawcouldbeputinplace(Alemdar, 1990 solution toaddressirresponsiblepublishing beforea Unity Committeeitself,whileotherssayitwas Council wasformeduponasuggestionfrom According totheaccountsof Honor Council,whichwas based Akşam Yassıadatrials(inwhichtheDemocratParty leaders

Sabah , inthedock).SensationalphotosofYassıada Cumhuriyet , sale,andeventhoughothernewspaperscame Hürriyet them, , and , Dünya days toprotesttheamendment). Hürriyet Yeni İstanbul , thecoup,offered highest Milliyet changesaffectingthepress severaljournalists,the thehearingsandwrote ontheSwedishPressCouncil. large demonstrationand bothrepayingjournalists’ , whichhadsupported 24,1960,andthePress LawontheRelationship militarycoupisthe is “celebrated,”given , wrote“members of Tercüman no.212).Indoingso, newspapers)ceased CelalBayaron brotheragainst theNational knownasthe , Vatan though, it anad-hoc (Owners enough as the , pp. , and in new brother.” ThisfrenzywentsofarforHürriyet that thedisciplineofprofessionalchambers shouldbe argued thatnamingandshamingalonewas not enoughand at lengthmeetingsin1968and1971.Some journalists The ineffectivenessofthePressHonorCouncil wasdebated years laterandcontinuestobeusedasa punishment for a advertisements tonewspaperswassubsequently suspended revoked (Alemdar,1990,p.88).Althoughtherefusal lawsuits togetfinesissuedbytheCouncil commitments madetothePressHonorCouncil entirely counterproductive.Newspapers away fromthe authority thatwasgiven proposed by punishment, whichwasnothingshortofcensorship, citing abreachofpressethics,andthismethod institution, generallypunishedoppositionnewspapers, in oneyear.ThePress received threewarningsand Agency not accepted later, theGeneralCouncilofPressAdvertisingAgency than “nameandshame”irresponsiblepublications.Twoyears was widelyattributedtoitsinabilitydo The PressHonorCouncil’sfailureto Simavi familywhichownedthepaper(Barutçu,2004 Minister NamıkGedik,whowasknownasafriend the bloodypictureofsuicidescene Press Ethics. In 1972,the AssociationofJournalists setout as thereasonfor ineffectivenessof Those opposedcitednewspaper owners conditions wouldrestrict freedom reintroduced. Others time duetothisbacklash,itwasreintroduced afew a proposalthatcalledonthePressAdvertising to placeadvertisementswithnewspapersthat journalists themselvesin1962.Whilethe state, theresultsalsoturnedouttobe warnedthatself-regulation underthen Advertising Agency,beingastate to thestatecouldnotbetaken one censureortwocensures ofthepressevenmore. , andnotjournalists, meet expectations began toretract self-regulation. Interior against them and file anything other topublish ofthe aCodeof , p.78). to issue today.

027 028 some journalists,crushedthepress.That The 1980militarycoup, media ownerwithbusinessinterests entrants fromoutsidetheindustry problems alsoemerged.Thiswas quickly inthe p. 110).Although organizations tomaintainitsindependence (Alemdar,1990, pledge adherence,butreliedonmembership feesfrompress the PressHonorCouncil,didnotobligejournalists came intobeingin1988.ThePressCouncil, Professional EthicsofthePressdivided law. Intheend,aPressCouncil,alongwith still prevailedevenaftertheformalending to limitfreedominthealready Ali SirmenarguedthatthePress However, journalistssuchasUğur (IPI). Theideaofhavinga participation in1983of Work beganona sensationalist newsmediathat increased censorshipandself- over self-regulation were detained Newspapers wereshutdownoneafteranother,journalists military coupandtheputschistswhocarrieditout. ensure thattheircontentwouldnotbecriticalof news. Newsbroadcastsfirsthadtobeapprovedsoas TRT evinced fromtheordersgiventostate devoted greatthoughtintohowthemediawould unions. Another to acttogether followingthedissolution ofjournalist can beaddedtothese wastheinabilityofjournalists became muchtooclose toauthority.Anotherfactorthat with governmentandwho thus,fromcommercial used theirnewspapers asatactic (thenamonopoly)concerningthecontentofbroadcast and forcedtorevealtheirsources.Debates years thatfollowed,significantethical sea change came duringthe1990s, whenthe new self-regulationmechanismwiththe the numberofPressCouncilmembersrose resumed againstabackgroundofboth though initiallysupportedby the InternationalPressInstitute Press Councilcamein1986. censorship andofafarmore sprung uptofillthevoid. the resultofmanynew restrictive climatewhich Council wouldonlyserve Mumcu, NailGüreli,and to leverageinfluence and anewbreedof in othersectorswho the military into 16clauses, TheCodeof contrary to broadcaster of martial motives, operate is the to to media organizationscameunderthe first private in aracetothebottomtermsofquality companies, theprioritiesshiftedaswell,resulting “sitcom journalism”to Mumcu and investigative journalismrepresentedbyfigures likeUğur chief ofHürriyetbetween1990and2009,declared “ politicians. ErtuğrulÖzkök,whoservedas the newsroom andtocultivatetheowner’s job istomanagetherelationsbetween introduced toarebrandedpostofeditor-in- as a“vicioustriangle,”journalistsand and financiersthatŞahinAlpay( a webof with Abdiİpekçi’s of Çetin to Doğan family likewisewithdrewwhenitsold Aydın Doğanandwithdrewfromthesector;Simavi İpekçi, theKaracanfamilysold tenders. In1979,followingthe one’s readershipbuton excellence ofthejournalism ownership structure, doubt, playedastrong proprietors whose strong familyjournalistictraditiontobereplacedby p. “tabloidization” andsensationalizationofnews(Bek,2004, which lead The worst p. 137). preferred tobereferred 374). Thewithdrawalfromthesectorofownerswitha ethical investigativejournalismthatweassociate -up tothe February 28,1997“postmodern” coupin themilitary soughttoorchestrate publicopinion Emeç in1990(Barutçu,2004,p.299).Atradition relations amongmediaowners,politicians, four yearsafterthemurderofeditor-in-chief episodeinthemedia ofthe1990swas Abdi İpekçiold-fashioned”andrecommended a television stationsbeganbroadcasting.As primary businesswerenon-media,no name begantoloseitsluster.Within competition wasbasednotonthe role inthisaswell.Innew take itsplace,addingthathe using mediatowingovernment to asabusinessman(Alan, 2015, and gainingthetrustof assassination ofAbdi Milliyet 2010, p.378)defined umbrella ofholding relations withthe Hürriyet newspaper readers were owner andthe and the chief, whose editor-in- newspaper the to

029 030 owners, whohad to bringdown and MehmetAliBirand,losttheir and someofthemost demarche to became the cowards...” columnist thatsamedayheadlinedhispiece“Let’smeet had beencooperatingwiththePKK.Thenewspaper’schief journalists, politicians,andcivilsocietyorganizations and allegedthatŞemdinSakık headlined itsleadstory from Generals informer, ŞemdinSakık,whichwasmanipulatedonorders captured KurdistanWorkers’Party(PKK)leader,turned- printed frontpagestoriesbasedonthe coup in1998, predecessor paper, solidarity afterthemurderofjournalistsfromits the Kurdishnationalistpaper violations anddidnotevencoverthe1994bombing Duran as“wearingepaulettes”remainedblindto described byveteranjournalistand the generalswhowere composition oftheCabinet, influence oncoalitionpoliticsand Meclis AraştırmasıKomisyonuBilgisineBaşvurulanKişilerin GörüşmeTuta Araştırılarak AlınmasıGerekenÖnlemlerinBelirlenmesi AmacıylaKurulan rasiyi İşlevsizKılanDiğerBütünGirişimveSüreçlerin TümBoyutlarıile 5 alcaklari-taniyalim-39015759 (accessedApril 16,2018) 6 lu-05.10.2012.pdf (accessedApril 16,2018) son/28_subat_alt_komisyonu/28_subat_alt_komisyonu/05.10.2012/Zafer%20Mut https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/arastirma_komisyonlari/darbe_muhtira/docs/tutanak_ nakları,” October5,2012 “ÜlkemizdeDemokrasiyeMüdahaleEdenTümDarbeveMuhtıralar ileDemok “Alçaklarıtanıyalım...,” Hürriyet,April 25, 1998http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ known asthe“memorandum”periodafteramilitary the government.Journalistsweretargeted thegovernmentofday.Themedia 6 Hürriyet Çevik BirandErolÖzkasnak. ThisperiodofTurkishmediahistory becomeaccustomedtohavingstrong Özgür Gündem prominent, includingCengizÇandar and pulling thestrings.Themedia, on April25“Horridconfessions” Sabah were fullyawarethatitwas Özgür Ülke had testifiedthatsome . Immediatelyafterthe newspapers,uncritically jobs. Itwasnotonly evenasay media analystRagıp letaloneshow testimony ofa Hürriyet 5 inthe rights

of - - - journalists whoweretargeted.A independence period, whenmediaownersendedanyandall editorial Journalists werealsothrownintodisarray duringthat at this article. But never-ending criticism is your administrative buildingtoofferyourcondolences much likeyourself,tellingme,‘Butyoudidn’tgo building wasbombed.AndIrememberayoungjournalist Council, afterthe exhibited thestrongestreaction,onbehalf I apologizedintwo journalists whosuffered public inthisway strongest language the storytopress wrote twicethatthereal speaking aboutthatcolumnsaidhe me concerningarecentarticleIwrote “Let’s meetthecowards,”includingby Council. Hewasstronglycriticizedfor at Oktay Ekşi,inadditionto seriously injured. Association, AkınBirdal,resultedinhim accusing fingeratthethen-president as themost prestigiousself-regulation mechanism– Journalists in1998.Thedeclaration is Declaration ofRights bring journaliststogether toprepareandpublishthe an initiative,headed byjournalistUmurTalu, pieces. TheTurkishJournalists myprerogative’.”Therearedifferingtestimonies and Hürriyet fellowjournalists?’Itoldher,‘Excuseme,butthat point. , alsoservedasthe thereisbenefitinincludingEkşi’sobjection and turnednewsarticlesintopropaganda , andIexpressedmyregretstothe todescribethosewhodeceivedthe Özgür Ülke separatearticles.”Furthermore,“I

. Ididnotshyawayfromusingthe , butthatisnotthetopicofthis and Responsibilities of Turkish afterwewerealldeceived,and cowardswerethosewholeaked beingthechiefcolumnist / Özgür Gündem presidentofthePress Association (TGC)launched news articlepointingan hadnamednonames:“I myself.Hecontacted onthetopic,and of theHumanRights his1998column still viewed today being shotand administrative ofthePress to tothe its

031 032 Through 2000s, reputation stemmingfromnotonlyitscontentbutalso Journalists’ effortstorescuetheirprofession producedno Talu describeshowthedeclarationcameabout: collective effortrequiredtoproduceit.Inacolumn, luk-bir-derin-huzursuzluk (accessedApril 16,2018) 2015 7 as aresultofthe2001 financialcrisis.Thiscrisis result “Özgürlük,hak,sorumluluk… Birderinhuzursuzluk!”Habertürk,November28, New Organization Efforts inFaceNew OrganizationEfforts ofControlMedia http://www.haberturk.com/yazarlar/umur-talu/1159598-ozgurluk- Ownership in numerouscasesinvolvingfreedomofthe press cited by lawyers, prosecutors, and judges as ‘precedent’ It received3,000signatoriesimmediately. Andit organizations, accepted,andopened were end product.Itwasdiscussedbyjournalistswho Responsibilities ofTurkishJournalists’was exemplary journalism.’ something ‘moreappealing’like‘Cleanjournalism, Freedoms, Rights,andResponsibilities’ myself first.Ichose I was political-democratic-historical background.Basically, enough, Itriedto organizational, and conduct-principles, includinginternational,national, ever beenwrittenonjournalism I cansayread executive board of ethics?’I the TGC,said,‘ “It , andthemediasector wasoneofthemostaffected was sometimeback.[Nail]Güreli,presidentof members oftheAssociationandprofessional learning anddiscussingthesematterswith had notyetbeenelectedtoTGC’s Can youprepareaprofessionalcode at thattime.Withoutexaggerating, and comparedeverythingthathad understand thephilosophical- corporate. Andifthatweren’t to focusona‘Declarationof The ‘DeclarationofRightsand ethics-codes of up tosignatures. instead of hak-sorumlu the

.” was Umur 7 the -

25 banks affected Turkishpoliticsveryseriouslyandresultedin kileri-BASKI.pdf (accessedApril16,2018) Uploads/Editor/T%C3%BCrkiye%E2%80%99de%20Medya-%C4%B0ktidar%20%C4%B0li%C5%9F ya-%C4%B0ktidar%20%C4%B0li%C5%9Fkileri-BASKI.pdfhttp://platform24.org/Content/ tüsü, http://platform24.org/Content/Uploads/Editor/T%C3%BCrkiye%E2%80%99de%20Med 9 rk-16.10.2012.pdf (accessedApril 16,2018) subat_alt_komisyonu/28_subat_alt_komisyonu/16.10.2012/Ahmet%20Ert%C3%BC https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/arastirma_komisyonlari/darbe_muhtira/docs/tutanak_son/28_ October 16,2012, Araştırması KomisyonuBilgisineBaşvurulanKişilerinGörüşme Tutanakları,” tırılarak AlınmasıGerekenÖnlemlerinBelirlenmesiAmacıyla KurulanMeclis yi İşlevsizKılanDiğerBütünGirişimveSüreçlerinTüm BoyutlarıileAraş 8 Ciner testified Dinç was leased and Sabah-ATV Group,which government was were unable and self-censorship.Thefundamentalreasonjournalists work inanenvironmentofincreasinglystrong Some lefttheprofession,andothersthat Close to5,000journalistslosttheirjobs came topowerin2002,reconfigurethe offered bytheTMSF,openingupwayfor that had and DepositInsuranceFund(TMSF).Themediaorganizations were some, becausetheirownershadbeeninvolvedincorruption, some of ( 10 television, newspaper,orboth).Followingthe2001crisis, “Türkiye’deMedya-İktidarİlişkileri SorunlarveÖneriler,”İstanbulEnsti “ÜlkemizdeDemokrasiyeMüdahaleEdenTümDarbeveMuhtıralar ileDemokrasi of thebanksthatwentunderbelongedtomediaowners taken backintopublicownershipagainin2007after seized bythestateandhandedovertoSavings Bilgin, thepreviousownerofSabah-ATVGroup, which wasstillineffect.Thejournalistswhowere the mediagroupshadtoexitfrommarket,and goingoutofbusiness.AccordingtoAhmetErtürk been seizedweresoldafewyearslaterintenders that hehadenteredintoasecretagreementwith then finallysoldin2005totheCinerGroup, to standuptheiremployeesorthe the lackofjournalisticorganizations.The had beenseizedbytheTMSFandthen remained beganto media landscape. in thecrisis. censorship AKP, which - - 8 9 - , -

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033 034 the affected came out;intheend,onlyasignwasleft abandon were Union’s authority.Thisrequestwasdenied.Thejournalists Çalık December the umbrellaofJournalistsUnionTurkey(TGS).In The was slappedwithanapproximately$4.5billion taxfine. broadcasting license.Thefollowingyear,the DoğanGroup of theDoğan-owned Hilton whichtheyownedaswelltorescind the to grantbuildingpermitsonlandaroundthe Istanbul to thegovernment]wasputpressureon the at DenizFeneri[theLighthouseAssociation- acharity real reasontheDoğanGrouprannewscoverage According tothen-PrimeMinisterRecepTayyip which itsawasanopponent.In2008 a waronthelargestmediaorganization, to thegovernmentwascompleted,and television stationsheldbytheTMSF the GeneralStaffonApril27.The fended offthestronglywordedpress 2007 wasaturningpointfortheAKP established began journalists quicklywanedandorganizationsthathadbeen 2015, p.239).Followingthisstrike,mutualsupportamong all hopeofcollectiveresistancecametoanend( the Press chief columnist All hell in self negotiate groupthendecidedtodownsizeitsmedia holding and TMSF’s secondseizureofthegrouptoorganizeunder also pressuredbytherepresentativesofownersto Group, thecompanyaskedacourttotakeaway -censorship intheway itpresentednews. the Union.Astrikewascalledandonly10people termswiththegovernment, whichmeantanincrease 2007, afterthemediacompaniesweresoldto by thecrisisthatresultedfromsaleused broke looseonOctober 27,2010when Council, criticized inhiscolumn thedecisionto Oktay Ekşi, whoalsoservedaspresident of to split. CNN Türk ’s requestfor saleofnewspapersand , thiswarintensified. toinvestorsclose releaseissuedby ’s mediapolicies.It governmentwaged aterrestrial standing and DoğanGroup, government ofcorruption Erdoğan,the Hürriyet rejection Keten,

to declareprotected give the gi-oktay-eksiyle-yola-devam-edecek (accessed April16,2018) 3, 2010http://bianet.org/bianet/ifade-ozgurlugu/125852-basin-konseyi-kinadi 10 Journalists Platform in responsetojournalistswhohad Journalists Association, toestablishthe the JournalistsFederation them the Turkey (TGC)broughttogether14pressassociations, among strike. Inthesameyear,Journalists Association of the MediaAssociationwouldnotcommenton theSabah- content. Yet,ongroundsthatitwasbeyond its of theassociationwastoincreasequality of Emre Aköz(ÇamandYükselŞanlıer,2015,p. 93).The Başyurt, Star Karaalioğlu, Editor-in-Chief who was press conferencecalledby announced theformationofMediaAssociationata That sameyear,mediaoutletsclosetothe announced theirwithdrawalfromthePress Broadcasting state-owned of thevotes still wona Council hadissuedEkşi the PressCouncilbecame Ekşi didnotsubside Ekşi wasforced mentality thatwould district ofRize for ahydroelectricpower “BasınKonseyiKınadığıOktay Ekşi’yleYolaDevamEdecek,”Bianet,November columnistErgunBabahan, later electedpresidentoftheassociation, Sabah Ministry of Environment and Forestry the authority Press Council,theJournalistsUnionofTurkey, news agency vote ofconfidenceafterreceivingamajority Zaman Group in November2010. editorBarışSoydanand Ekrem Dumanlı, to resignfrom province. “Wearenowseeingadeceitful technology , Türkiye and hispositionaspresidentof even sellitsownmother,”hewrote. areas, andtherebyclearingtheway Anadolu Agency with awarningoverhiscolumn,he a subjectofdebate.Thoughthe plant tobebuiltintheİkizdere daily Sabah of Turkey,andtheProgressive Bugün correspondent DenizErgürel, 10 Star Followingthis, Hürriyet cartoonistSalihMemecan, , and Editor-in- Editor-in-ChiefMustafa TGRT , the Sabah . Reactionsagainst Council. Freedom for newschannel government columnist Samanyolu Chief Erhan scope, TRT goal media , the Zaman

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035 036 were been arrested over their articles. That year, 40 journalists “willingness ofjournaliststoself- the off-the-recordmeetingand “‘National’ journalismandmy‘ deputy editorof east andsoutheastof on-going clashesaspart administrators toestablish its hands, The government,havingfullyconcentratedpowerin amended in2005,andundertheAnti-TerrorLaw 16, 2018) https://www.acikgazete.com/gazetecilere-zgrlk-platformu-kuruldu/ (accessedApril 11 for overayear.Thatsameyear,theMedya network withinthestateapparatus.Theyremained in Imam], whichdealtwiththesubjectof Gülen process ofwritinghisbookİmamınOrdusu [TheArmyof as partoftheErgenekoninvestigation.Şıkwasin Şener werearrestedandsubsequentlyremandedinprison authorities.” stating that theywould “comply withbansimposedbylawful - CİHAN Türk -AHT five largenewsagencies( was verysurprising.” more oftenfromthemediaitself fact thatproposalstohaveaneven saklarina-uyacagima (accessedApril16,2018) tober 21,2011 http://m.bianet.org/bianet/ifade-ozgurlugu/133576-yetkililerin-ya 13 li-hislerim,176329 (accessed April16,2018) 21, 2011http://t24.com.tr/haber/yasemin-congar-milli-gazetecilik-ve-gayrimil 12 “GazetecilereÖzgürlükPlatformukuruldu,”AçıkGazete, September9,2010 “Millî’gazetecilikve‘gayrımillî’ hislerim,”YaseminÇongar,T24,October “AjanslardanOto-Muhtıra: Yetkililerin YasaklarınaUyacağıma…”,Bianet,Oc in prisonasaresultoftheTurkishPenalCode, , İhlas HaberAjansı-İHA , called ameetingwithmediaownersand Ankara HaberAjansı-ANKA, 13 ItwasatthistimethatAhmetŞık Taraf 12 Thefollowing

the country.YaseminÇongar,then newspaper wroteinacolumnentitled of theKurdishconflictin Anadolu Ajansı- guidelines forcoverageofthe non-national’ feelings”,about voiced hersurpriseatthe ) publishedadeclaration and notthegovernment more uniformmediacame censor,” adding,“The day, thecountry’s

Cihan -İş union,which AA , Haber Ajansı 11 Ajans Haber . group's and Nedim prison last the - - - was affiliatedwithIslamistHak-İş,itself An attemptwasmadetopreventthedistribution easier toremovecontentandshut changed toincreasecontroloverthe fell underfullcontrolofpro- and the primary target.Pressure entirely intothe Media a jobandthe from theprime honor ofonethe disclosures, whichbecameknown government. Trustinthemedia mainstream mediawere taps, whichwereleaked the Gülenmovementturned The followingyear, freedom of following the the proteststargetingjournalistsandmediaorganizations began apressconferencewiththewords,“Itisclear Broadcast vehicleswereattacked.TheMediaAssociation mainstream mediabuildings,nicknamed“ victim ofmuchwrath. During theGeziParkprotests TGS within government, wasestablished.Theunionorganizeditself cy-at-risk-in-turkey/ (accessedApril16, 2018) 2015 https://freeturkeyjournalists.ipi.media/ipi-special-report-finds-democra 14 Charlie Cumhuriyet “IPIspecialreportfinds ‘Democracy atRisk’inTurkey,”IPI,March27, , becametheauthorizedunion. organizations belonging to the Gülen movement moved organizations belongingtotheGülenmovementmoved Hebdo Anadolu Ajansı Samanyolu Broadcasting newspaperafteritexpressed solidaritywith the press and media” (Media Association, 2013). the pressandmedia”(MediaAssociation,2013). bypublishingcaricatures fromthere- number ofjournalistsinprisonroseto60. Gezi eventshavereachedalevelthatdamages minister. Many journalists were left without minister. Manyjournalistswereleftwithout opposition camp and became the government’s opposition campandbecamethegovernment’s the relationship between the AKP and the relationshipbetweenAKPand media executives who took orders by phone media executiveswhotookordersbyphone Protests were organized in front of Protests wereorganizedinfrontof and,afterpressuringmembersofthe under direct instruction from the under directinstructionfromthe on social media, made clear that the on socialmedia,madeclearthatthe was placedonthe sour. A series of leaked phone sour. Aseriesofleakedphone of 2013, the media became the of 2013,themediabecame took a heavy hit after these took aheavyhitafterthese government members. Laws were government members.Lawswere Group as “Hello Fatih” calls – in as “HelloFatih”calls–in down websites. . The Media Association . TheMediaAssociation Internet. It was made Internet. Itwasmade the Penguin media.” the Penguinmedia.” Zaman closetothe newspaper newspaper ofthe that that

037 038 of itsstaffwere launched magazineafter received threats.Anannouncementwasmade the caricaturesin and administratorsofthefoundationthat in whichninepeoplewere Cumhuriyet İnan Kızılkayafor months, proprietor Alpay, andZana role of“managing the and detained. In August,journalistsfrom were canceled.Thousandsofjournalistsleftjobless. organizations wereshutdown;hundredsof of journalistsinprisonsurpassed100, after thefailedcoupattemptofJuly The mostdifficultperiodinTurkish by trucksoperatedMİT,the the paper’scoverageofallegedtransfer Ankara RepresentativeErdemGülspent92days quickly rose,and pressure andthreats.Thenumberof as awaytosupporttheirfellow volunteer journalistsstartedaNews journalists felttheir of conflict.Thiswas at anend,andwithitthere the peaceprocesstoresolveTurkey’s was released bythecourt. Akın Atalay remainedinprison until April25,2018, 10, 2017.CumhuriyetFoundation ExecutiveBoard July 28,2017,oneon September 25,2017, and arrested.Sevenof thoseimprisonedwere Ahmet Şıkwasaddedto theinvestigation Özgür Gündem newspaperwascarried Prosecutions beganofthosewhohadjoined Kaya wereimprisonedforfour-and-a-half

murdered.Thejournalistswhopublished newspaper insolidaritybytakingonthe Cumhuriyet editor” foraday.AslıErdoğan,Necmiye Kemal Sancılıfor301days,andeditor Cumhuriyet 440 days.Anoperationtargetingthe areturntotheearly1990swhen livesthreatened.Agroupof thedeadly2015attackwheneight

arrested, amongthemjournalists wasareturntoanatmosphere Editor-in-Chief Özgür Gündem were nationalintelligenceagency. journalistswhohadfaced out inlateOctober2016 putontrialand journalistsinprison WatchinDiyarbakır Kurdishissuewas media historybegan 15, 2016.Thenumber ofweaponstoSyria wereassaulted close to200media and twoonMarch in lateDecember inJulythat owns thepaper. press cards CanDündarand released on injailfor President when he Considered aCrime Fighting forEthics inan attempt inthefaceof Journalists showedincreased pressure washardtoresist.Some among thegovernmentsofworld The press,facedwith characteristics whichhad the injustice commercial interests,politicalcrises,clashes, andsocial principles andwhathasbeentermed“fake that stemsfrom has thrust economic pressurealongwithdevelopmentsintechnology public serviceinstitution,theincreaseinpolitical responsibility andaccountabilityorwinning been fromthelast Irrespective ofthe journalists much of of ProfessionalEthicsthePress,areinsteaddevoting is taskedwithregulatingwhethernewsconformtothe many media organizations, including the Press Council in prisonasofMarch11,2018 Independent Journalism,therewere153members jailed. Accordingtodatacompiledby fled abroad,whilethemajorityof had workedformediaoutletsclose dimensions of this“corner”no doubt to defenditselfbysometimes has beenpushedinto a tight Estate asespousedby thetheory attempts toplaceit under control,is country. objectivityandimpartialityofjournalism-- thevery theirtimetryingtosecurethereleaseof

haveinthesepastfewyearsputintoquestion theentireworldintoajournalisticcrisis whohavebeenimprisoned. deficientfundamentaljournalistic centuryuntiltodayindemonstrating Atmosphere WhereJournalismIs debateoverhoweffectivemediahas theslidetowardauthoritarianism oncebeenacceptedasagiven. governmentpressure.Butthat solidarityafterthecoup corner,whereithas tried turningtoactivism. The . Journalistinitiativesand ofliberalism.Instead it ofthejournalistswho thosewhoremainedwere totheGülenmovement andtheresulting varyfrom country to theP24Platformfor nolongertheFourth news.”Moreover, trustasa ofthemedia , which and Code

039 040 their ComparingMediaSystems(2004), Hallin andMancinispeak with restrictedfreedomofthepress. in CentralandEastern to Hallinand Media most watchedtelevision and Turkey propaganda. AccordingtotheMediaOwnership Monitor those withinthisstructurebecomevehicles media structureisfullyinthe ownership andcontrolare(Adaklı,2006 While mediatheoreticians also by by themedia journalists are over professionalstandardsonthebackburner.Moreover, assault ofjournalistshaveundoubtedlyputany with theimprisonment,criminal A government category (Eberweinetal,2018,p.5). Turkey, togetherwithRussiaandIsrael,intothis or ina agree thecountry academics working Pluralist Corporatist Model,andtheMediterraneanorPolarized or LiberalModel,theNorth/CentralEurope and politicalsystemsoftheworld: tr/bulgular/siyasi-iliskiler/ (accessedApril 16,2018) 15 and givengreateraccess government. They the tenmost “MediaOwnership MonitorTurkey,”RSF-Bianet, 2016https://turkey.mom-rsf.org/ Bianet Accountability 15 theircolleagueswhoareundergovernmentcontrol. report,publishedbyReportersWithoutBorders nearby “noman’sland.” Model. AlthoughthebookdoesnotmentionTurkey, in ownerswhohavesuccumbedtoitswill,but whichconsidersjournalisma“crime”combined read newsportalshave closetiestothe Mancini’s categories:hybridmodelsobserved 2016, thesevenmostreadnewspapersand notonlyvictimizedbythegovernmentor are favoredfromaneconomic perspective is closetothePolarizedPluralistModel on policyconcerningthemediainTurkey , published in 2018, makes two additions European countriesand channels aswellthefiveof underlinehowintertwinedmedia of threefundamentalmodelsin to officialnewssources. Media investigation,firing,and The EuropeanHandbookof handsofthegovernment, the NorthAtlantic and comparesthemedia Research places ), whencontrolofa or Democratic ofstate debate last are ostracizedbyvariousmeans, outlets thegovernmentdeemsto who wereswept same year,anews advertising campaignwas lives of responsible site inIstanbulbelongingtoSomaHolding, whichwas in question.Newsofaworkplacedeathat a construction ignored inexchangeforadvertisementsfrom thecompany That iswhynewsofworkplacedeaths,forexample placed undercontroloftheadvertisement Some evencommentedthat problems andunion have I interviewed,newspapers’businessandeconomicspages is notlimitedtothisalone.According publish newsconcerningcorruption are thereforedependent outlets reflect onnewscontent.Journalistswhoworkatmedia owners ofmainstreammediaoutletsandthegovernment Untold Stories The EthicalJournalismNetwork(EJN conditions doesnotin and keepinganeye difficult vulnerable andevendeniedpresscards.Butworkingunder from theseoutletsworkunderdifficultconditions,are accreditation, andevendefinedas (accessed April 16,2018) http://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/resources/publications/untold-stories/turkey (ed. by)AidanWhite,Ethical JournalismNetwork,March2015, in UntoldStoriesHowCorruption andConflictsofInterestStalktheNewsroom 16 “Turkey:Journalismavictim ofcosyrelationsbetweenpoliticsandmedia,” beencompletelysanitizedofnewsconcerningworkers’ whoseownershavewongovernmenttendersand 301workers,wasimmediatelyremovedafter an conditions, defendingfreedomofthepress, fora2014miningdisasterthatclaimed the revealedhowtheclose awayafterthegatesofAlkumruDam in articleaboutthedeathoffivepeople strugglesandreplacedbycompanynews. on thegovernmentevenunderthese onthegovernmentareunableto itself equatetogoodjournalism. businessdeskswerepractically launchedthefollowingday. be partoftheopposition such asnotbeinggiven . Butthesituation ) inits2015report targets. Journalists relationsbetween tojournalists departments. , canbe 16 That

041 042 owner. NihatÖzdemir,theownerofLimakHolding,which Siirt them forapproval.Journalistswho advertisements arefirstsentto common. Articlesthatdo In addition,“paid person deemedresponsible(Hoş,2014,pp.87-88). elsewhere leadingtothetrialofNurullahErcan, the incidentwashushedup.However,newsdid by DoğuşHoldingwhichalsoownsNTVnewschannel, Bükköy Mining, transferred moneyto Garanti Bank, then 19 lives,thecompanythatoperatedmine, that aftera2009gasexplosionatmine also ownsamediagroup.JournalistMustafaHoş on theeventbecauseCinerHolding, 2016 miningaccident;buttherewere prior of theSabah-ATVGroupbyZirveHoldingonlya built thedam,hadloaned$100millionforpurchase http://www.diken.com.tr/nihat-ozdemir-sabah-atvye-borc-olarak-100-milyon-do February 12,2014 17 media. advertise commercialproductsintheirarticles oronsocial widespread practiceoflateforjournalists toopenly is nevermadeclear. have supplements turnintobulletinsofprivateuniversitieswho trips writeadvertorialsinsteadofnews (accessed April 16,2018) http://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/resources/publications (ed. by)AidanWhite,Ethical JournalismNetwork,March2015, in UntoldStoriesHowCorruption andConflictsofInterestStalktheNewsroom 18 lar-vermis/ (accessedApril 16, 2018) “NihatÖzdemir,Sabah-ATV’ye‘borç’olarak100milyondolar vermiş,”Diken, “Turkey:Journalismavictim ofcosyrelationsbetweenpoliticsandmedia,” paidforthem,buttheproblemisthatthisrelationship 17 wereopeneddidnotincludethenameofdam . InanothercasefromSiirt,16 Hürriyet readerrepresentativeFarukBildiricihas journalism”inmainstreammediaisquite 18 Moreblatantly,it notexplicitlystatetheyare thecompaniesthatpayfor gooncompany-sponsored few newsarticles hasbecomea workers diedina . Educational party responsible, that claimed /untold-stories/turkey Bursa-based fewmonths explained appear and ’s

owned

in commercials felt theneed inaccurate reporting.Furthermore,editorssee order toreducecostshas pressure toproducequickly “clicks” arean Ethical problemsare advertise http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/yazarlar/faruk-bildirici/instagramda-urun-yerlestir 20 April 16,2018) http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/reklamlardaki-hurriyet-yazarlari-22939288 (accessed 19 situation journalistsfacedafterthe the Post-TruthEra in theNews:EJN problems The EJNpublishedareportin2016concerningethical media!” was, “Forgetthe had beenshared photo gallery journalists objected or unchallenged.Accordingtoonejournalist,whenfemale on to verification.Theveryaccessibilityofwhatappears thus theyfeellessinclinedtosubjectsuch as acompetitorbecauseitissoinstantly (accessed April 16,2018) http://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/resources/publications/untold-stories/turkey (ed. by)AidanWhite,Ethical JournalismNetwork,March2015, in UntoldStoriesHowCorruption andConflictsofInterestStalktheNewsroom 21 me-40465213 (accessedApril 16, 2018) “Turkey:Journalismavictim ofcosyrelationsbetweenpoliticsandmedia,” “ReklamlardakiHürriyetyazarları,”Hürriyet,March31, 2013 “Instagram’daürünyerleştirme,”Hürriyet,May22,2017 social mediaistakenaslicensetouseitunaltered 21 that politicalcorrespondentsfacetitled products toremindjournalistswhohavelongtakenpart 19 of nudephotosHollywoodcelebritiesthat andwhousetheirsocialmediaaccountsto on socialmedia,theanswertheyreceived important metricforadrevenue.The ethical debate,thisisalloverthesocial Report onChallengesforJournalismin 20

oftheethicalnormsinvolved. and whichdescribedthenightmare to aneditor’sdecisionmakea on theriseinInternetnews,where opened Internetnewsupto and employfewereditorsin July 15,2016failed accessible and information social media Ethics -

043 044 coup attempt.Theorganizationstheyworked holds initshands,tovote“ was notconvinced,despitetheimmense certainly requirescourage.Closeto principled politicalstance press freedomindexesis pressure andwhen freedom ofexpression It isclearthatit from for governmentmediaoutletsbeforereceivingaresponse they firstincurthewrathoffellowjournalistswho government andacorrespondentasksunpleasant is convenedby,forexample,an a pressconferencethat questions and any comment that thisaccident outlet iscalledand what question;ifanyone conference takesplace,it referred tothem official line.This outlets closeto report on those to their accreditationswerecanceled.Itwasnotpossible of informationinthecapital,Ankara,wasrestricted, down, theirpresscardswerecanceled,access ethics-in-the-news/turkey (accessedApril 16, 2018) by) AidanWhite, 2017http://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/resources/publications/ the NewsEJNReportonChallenges forJournalisminthePost-truthEra,(ed. 22 constitutional referendum concerningthe “TurkeyAfteranAttempted CouptheJournalists’Nightmare,”inEthics receive commentfromthegovernmentonanytopic.Even those theyhadquestioned. who managedtogetaccreditationwereunable what washappeningingovernmentcorridors.Media from thegovernmentisnottoask“problematic” thereby notbe“labeled.”Furthermore,if as “governmentmedia.”Beforeapress the governmentdidnotdeviatefrom the country’sstandingininternational is notrepeated.Theonlywaytoreceive is whyonejournalistIspokewith is noteasytodojournalismwhen told tosendadifferentreporter,so and thepressisundersomuch does notrequireaccreditation acts contrarytothis,theirnews so low.Buttakingarights-based, is firstdecidedwhowillask is notdifficult,thoughit yes” attheApril16,2016 22 organization closetothe half ofthepopulace media powertheAKP introduction for wereshut to sources questions, work and Conclusion andRecommendations time, thosefewmediaoutletswhichsupportedthe“no” of amuch-strengthenedpresidentialsystem.Atthesame discourse, abandoningthemissionofservingasa sometimes prefercarryingself- is no atmosphere wherethelinebetweenjournalismandactivism a debateplatformthatisdemocraticinnature.Inan verification ofinformation,impartiality,andcreating live uptobasicstandards referendum notedthat newspapers that A receive campaign find addition, thanks through the among on our houseinorderbeforenewrestrictions areplaced under has and the“ journalists journalism nowthatwehaveenteredaperiodwhen We they do(Sözeri,2017). forum, andtherebyonlycateringtoreaderswhothink (accessed April 16,2018) politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/Digital%20News%20Report%202017%20web_0.pdf 23 thought provokingthat Turkeydidnotwitnessthesame our voices “ReutersInstituteDigital NewsReport2017,"https://reutersinstitute. declaration presentedatthe2017IAMCRCongresson freedom ofthepress.”Yetthereisgeneral agreement are ingreaterneedofthedebateoverethics increased. Turkeyisnolongerbackinthe 1980s themselves intheechochamberswhere furthest longer clear,newspapersthatfeelthreatened in thejournalisticcommunitythatweare living martial lawinwhichthewatchwordwas“let’s put a passinggradewhenitcomestogoodjournalism. in thefaceofmuchpressuredidnotnecessarily you’re eitherwithusoragainstus”polarization can reacharepeople who thinklikeus. darkest periodofTurkey’spresshistory. In have splitintopro-andanti-governmentcamps had openlystatedtheirpositiononthe in parttotheriseofsocialmedia,we even dissentingnewspapersdidnot such astruthfulreporting, righteous opposition 23 public It as is

045 046 rise inpeople’strustthemediaasseen 24 focused onrightshavealsobeenfighting In additiontojournalists opportunity for in comparison an increaseinsolidaritybetweenjournalists, certainly and writerswhoareinprison.Theircampaigns are focusedonpushingforthereleaseof As mentionedearlier,almostall would notknowhowor that ifIweretoldtomorrow said, “I’veinternalized[self-censorship]to Speaking onthispoint,ajournalistIspoke hope forthefutureof censorship havebeeninternalizedand Coming tomainstream conditions maybe. journalism isnotsustainable, A survival strategy for support mainstream mediaandthegovernmentmedia,journalistscall to anincreaseinmistrustthemedia.Outside general trendamongcirculationfiguresinTurkeypoints subscriptions. example being election intheUS,wheresomenewspapers, ethics-in-the-news/turkey (accessedApril 16, 2018) by) AidanWhite, 2017http://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/resources/publications/ the NewsEJNReportonChallenges forJournalisminthePost-truthEra,(ed. 25 subscriber-growth.html (accessed April16,2018) May 3,2017https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/03/shares-of-new-york-times-surge-after- “TurkeyAfteranAttempted CouptheJournalists’Nightmare,”inEthics “Trumphasbeen‘rocketfuel’forNYTdigitalsubscriptions, CEOsays,”CNBC, to survive, instead of offering good journalism. 24 The NewYorkTimes to thepast.Thissituationcancreatean Asunreliableasthenumbersmay good journalismandaunifiedstruggle. that relies on activism masquerading as mediaoutlets,censorshipandself- whattowrite.” journalisticprofession. , civilsocietyorganizations regardless ofhowdifficult , sawan journalist organizations I’mcompletelyfree,I 25 thereisnotmuch

increase in forbetter the prime the journalists suchadegree after Trump’s withlastyear encourage be, the content inthemedia.Theyregularlymonitornews a tunnelandneedto volume willhelpshowthewayoutof the press;onecannotexistwithoutother.I Freedom ofthepressgoesintandemwithresponsibility its abilitytofightforfreedominthecurrent would makeindependentmediamorepowerfuland could beseentomore receive greaterpopular #GazetecilikSuçDeğildir (#JournalismIsNotACrime)would There isnodoubtthatthemedia’ this wouldleaveapositiveimpression but allthestakeholdersthat or self-regulation Efforts foraway media. Seminarsonpeace are academic representation first been producingreportsforthepastnineyears.The Hrant DinkFoundationandKAOSGL,bothofwhichhave and preparepublishreports.Amongthesearethe concernshatespeechinthemediaandlatter studiesinvolvingregularmonitoringofthe of LGBTI issues in the media.Moreover,there out needtoinvolvenotjustjournalists mechanisms dealingwithethicalissues see thelight. journalismarealsobeingheld. support ifjournalismitself responsible. Suchresponsibility were mentionedabove.Doing s rallyingcrythat our dilemma.Wearein on thereadership. strengthen climate. reports, hope this

047 048 Ailesi. İstanbul: Agora Kitaplığı Barutçu, İ.(2004).BabıâliTanrıları Simavi Medya, İstanbul: Ayrıntı pp.31-65 in (Ed.) U. Aydın. Neoliberal Muhafazakâr Muhafazakarlığa Türk Medyasının OtuzYılı,” / Neoliberal MilitarizmdenOtoriter Aydın, U.(2015).“LanetliSüreklilik (27), pp.553-567 Tartışmalar,” Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi Osmaniye: Kuruluşu ve Basında Aydın, H.(2010).“Cemiyet-i Matbuat-ı Palgrave Macmillan, pp.370-387 engagement withmodernity. Oxford: J. Kerslake, K.Öktem &P. Robins, Turkey’s modernisation anddemocracy”, (Ed. By)C. in Turkey: theroleofmediainTurkey’s Alpay, Ş.(2010).“Two facesofthepress Özdenetim. Ankara: Bilgi Alemdar, Z.(1990).OyununKuralı -Basında Türkiye’de GazetecilikMasalı.İstanbul: Can Alan, Ü.(2015).Saray’dan Saray’a ve Kontrol İlişkileri.Ankara: Ütopya Endüstrisi /Neoliberalizm ÇağındaMülkiyet Adaklı, G. (2006).Türkiye’de Medya References (in) Profesyonel Gazetecilikve Özdenetim Kamu Denetçiliği,”Düşmanca Birortamda Baydar, Y. (2011).“Türkiye’deki Deneyim: 61-84 Yeni Medya, EskiAçmazlar, UNESCO, pp. Özdenetim Güneydoğu Avrupa ve Türkiye’de Rolü,” (in)Profesyonel Gazetecilikve Rolündeki Yalnız Kovboy: Kamu Denetçisinin Baydar, Y. (2011).“VicdanMisyoneri York: Routledge Handbook ofMediaAccountability. New T.Eberwein, etal(2018).TheEuropean Medya, İstanbul: Ayrıntı pp.66-102 (in) (Ed.) U.Aydın. Neoliberal Muhafazakâr Dönüşümü: Ekonomi Politik BirYaklaşım,” “Türkiye’de Medyanın 2002Sonrası Çam, A.andYüksel Şanlıer, E.(2015). Ayrıntı ve Gazetecilikte Etik Sorunlar, İstanbul: Belsey, A.andChadwick,R.(1992).Medya 386 Journal ofCommunication,19(3),pp.371- of television news inTurkey,” European Tabloidization ofnews media:ananalysis Bek, M.G. (2004).“Research note: Medya, EskiAçmazlar, UNESCO, pp.85-87 Güneydoğu Avrupa ve Türkiye’de Yeni Gazeteci. Ankara: İmge Özsever, A.(2004).Tekelci Medya Örgütsüz 225-252 Muhafazakâr Medya, İstanbul: Ayrıntı pp. Örgütlenme,” (in)(Ed.) U.Aydın. Neoliberal Döneminde Medyada Emekve Sendikal Keten, E.T. (2015).“Neoliberal Hegemonya Hoş, M.(2014).Abluka.İstanbul: Destek PressUniversity media andpolitics.Cambridge:Cambridge Comparing mediasystems: threemodelsof Hallin, D. C. andMancini,P. (2004). Colombia Session, 16-20July 2017, Cartagena, Ethics ofCommunicationWorking Group Paper, IAMCR2017Ethics and ofSociety ofastory,”journalism by beingpart Working Sözeri, C. (2017).“Isitpossible todogood Press.Bloomington: IndianaUniversity Accountable: Citizens,Ethics, andtheLaw. Pritchard, D. (2000).HoldingtheMedia Türk BasınTarihi. İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi Topuz, H.(2003).II.Mahmut’tanHoldinglere

049 050 Self-Regulation fromAroundtheWorld Pointing theCompass intheRightDirection:Examplesof A General Overview of Media Self-Regulatory Models A General ofMediaSelf-Regulatory Overview Aslı Tunç In anidealself-regulatorysystem,stateparticipation value ofjournalistsdefendingtheirprofession. press freedomandself-regulation,whilealso demonstratingthe level, thisratiosuggeststhatthereisacorrelation between there mightnotbeanidealself-regulatory model onaglobal Reporters WithoutBorders(RSF)andFreedomHouse. 50 countrieswiththefreestmedias(70percent),accordingto Still, mediaself-regulatorymodelsarefoundin36ofthe such abalance,thereisnomagicformulaforeverysociety. and itspotentialattacks.Becauseitisnoteasytofind journalistic professionfromthecolossalpowerofstate and participateinthemediawhilealsoprotecting in themediapresentsreaderswithopportunitytosupport more rigorouslyinachangingdigitalworld.Self-regulation naturally, theneedtodefendprofessionofjournalism the operationsofprofessionalandmediaorganizationsand, of anewsombudsman,codesethicscreatedbycivilsociety, framework ofavarietyself-regulatorymodels,theconcept will alsoexploredifferentpresscouncilstructureswithinthe examples ofmediaself-regulationaroundtheworld.Thisstudy profession ofjournalismthroughtheexplorationdifferent readers andthemediasectorcanprotectimprove This articleseekstoanswerthequestionofhowjournalists, ds/1/6/5/7/16577624/mpdp_pcsa_pfc mission andRelated Discourses,” An AnalysisofthePressCouncil ofSouthAfrica,thePressFreedomCom 1 is notsomethingthat iseverdesired.InEurope’smedia “MediaPolicyandDemocracy Project:PressregulationinSouthAfrica: _report2015.pdf. (accessedApril23,2018) https://www.mediaanddemocracy.com/uploa 1 Thus, while Thus,while - - is largelyconductedonavoluntarybasis(Hulin,2014). systems, thedefenseofprofessionalandethicalprinciples punished. In Belgium,mediaorganizations thatimplement the according to thelegalframework andaresometimeseven the self-regulatorysystem receivedifferenttreatment is. IntheUnitedKingdom, organizationsthatoperateoutside on violatorsofthelaw –regardlessofwhotheperpetrator against themediaand wieldsthepowertoimposepenalties to theDanishPressCouncil,whichevaluates complaints in Denmark.ThegovernmentCopenhagenappoints members and basedontrust,suchasystemcanfunction, asitdoes the frameworkisdelineatedeffectivelywith regulations for legalregulationstofosteranindependent model.If operations ofself-regulatorymechanisms,it ispossible though itmightappeartobeanoxymoronin termsofthe strengthening self-regulationingeneral.Accordingly, even in self-regulationandacceptethicalprinciples,thereby provide taxbreakstonewsorganizationswhichareactive incentives (Iglesias,2014).Forexample,agovernmentcould operation ofthemodel,statecanalsoprovidefinancial choose itsownrepresentatives.Byparticipatinginthe clear ofimposingpoliticalpressureandsothesectorcan leave theprocesstomediasectorsoassteer with theaimofimplementingthismodel,itcansubsequently justifications forwhatconstitutesthepublicgood.But in thesector,aswellethicalparametersor could legallystipulatewhichactorsmustberepresented with theaimofincreasingtrust.Insuchacase,it leading ittorecommendtheinclusionofsomeinstitutions difficulties indevelopingamediaself-regulatorymodel, areas. Forexample,acountry’sparliamentmightexperience the stateparticipatesinregulationononeormore and areespeciallyprominentinEurope.Insuchamodel, self-regulation, statutorymodelshaveignitedmuchdebate much aspossible,eventheyoffersupport.Butintermsof institutions attempttoremainoutsideofthesystemas In thisgeneralapproach,publicauthoritiesandofficial

051 052 news organizationsthatparticipateintheself-regulatory self-regulatory systemreceivestatesupport.InIreland, Kroes fromtheEuropeanCommission. Kingdom andtheotheris2013reportbyNeelie debate. OneisJudgeBrianLeveson’sreportintheUnited regulatory models–bothofwhichhaveattractedmuch There aretwomainstudiesonstatutorymediaself- system areviewedmorefavorablyininsultandlibelcases. SPEECH/13/252. http://eu-ropa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-13-252_en.htm. This 2 that newstatutorymediaself-regulation was required Complaints Commission)failed,whilealso emphasizing bare thereasonswhyBritishpresscouncil (Press media self-regulatorymodel.The2,000-page reportlaid Leveson emphasizedthenecessityofestablishing anew World mogul RupertMurdochclosedthe168-year-old “Hackgate.” Inthewakeofscandal,Australianmedia extent oftheeavesdroppingscandal,whichbecameknownas began inJuly2011,ultimatelyliftedthelidon her voicemailbox.TheLevesonInquiry,whichofficially erased oldmessages,causingnewmessagestoappearin creating falsehopethatshewasstillalivebecauseit still missing.Dowler’sfamilyaccusedthenewspaperof 13-year-old girlwhowasmurderedin2002,whileshe and listeningtothevoicemessagesofMillyDowler,a of theWorld eavesdropping scandalinvolvingtheBritishtabloid limits ofmediaself-regulationwasprecipitatedbythe power-to- https://www.telegraph.co.uk/ even firejournalistsmust be transferredtothemechanisminBrussels.See es reportalsosuggeststhat theauthoritytofinemediaorganizationsand sels mustincreaseitspower overnationalmediainEUcountries.TheKro contentious EUreportdemands rigorousmediaoversightandarguesthatBrus Kroes,N.(2013).“Safeguardingmediafreedomandpluralism” March22,2013. , whichhehadacquiredin1969.Interestingly,Judge sack-journalists.html (accessedApril21, 2018) . Thetabloidwasaccusedofsecretlyaccessing news/uknews/leveson-inquiry/9817625/Leveson-EU-wants- 2 Thedebateonthe News ofthe News - - of theBritishpressfiercelyobjectingtoproposed (Hadwin andBloy,2007).Eventhendespiteamajority re UptoRegulationOverseas?” Study ofJournalism(RISJ). “Royal CharterforthePress:HowDoesitMeasu 3 will overseetheself-regulationtonews organizations. The RoyalCharterleavestheselectionof thosewho system aninspectionfortheinspectors. at firstandtheneverythree.Thiseffectively makesthe principles, mediaoutletsareinspectedevery twoyears benefits. Andtoensurethattheydonotstray fromthe approval –somethingthatprovidesitwith innumerable organization meets29differentcriteria,itreceives were setbasedonLeveson’srecommendations.Ifamedia whether mediaoutletsareadheringtothecriteriawhich newspaper oranewssite.Itsonlypurposeistodetermine directly andcannotinterferewiththecontentsofa This delegationwieldsnoauthoritytoaffectthepress of themediasectorandalwayschampionspublicgood. minister. the personwhooverseesitsimpartialityisjustice has operatedasimilarinstitutionsince2008,however never becomeamemberofthepanel.Ironically,Ireland manner ofpoliticalpressure.Forexample,apoliticiancan panel isindependentofthegovernment,parliamentandany worries tothebenefitofpublic.Atsametime, adhering tobasicregulationsandassuagingcommercial determines whetherthoseengagedinself-regulationare Recognition Panel(PRP)wasalsoestablished.Thepanel Charter, anindependentapprovalpanelknownasthePress March 18,2013(Leveson,2012).AsaresultofthisRoyal authorities, allpartiesinparliamentpassedthebillon legal regulationsduetofearsofinterferencebypublic pdf default/files/2017-06/Fielden%20-%20A%20Royal%20Charter% See the report that Lara Field penned for the Reuters Institute for the (accessed April 21,2018) 3 InBritain,therecognitionpanelisindependent https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac. 20for%20the%20Press_0. uk/sites/ -

053 054 a decidedemphasisonjournalistsadministeringtheir In theinterestsofprotectingpressfreedom,thereis in areaswhichthereisnoregulation regulatory process.Asimilarattitudeis also critical is essentialthatthestatebeexcludedfrom theself- pressure andcensorshipareahistorical reality, it In newlydemocratizingcountrieswherestate control, problems inthepost-communistcountries in EasternEurope. This model,however,hascreatedanumber of serious press) receivedrecognitionfromthePRPinOctober2016. independent organizationknownasIMPRESS(https://impress. representatives of the media sector. Meanwhile, a completely Seven oftheorganization’s12members,however,arenot 2014, theIndependentPressStandardsOrganisation(IPSO). form theirownself-regulatoryinstitutioninSeptember outlets rejectedtheproposedregulations,unitingto broadcasting organizations.Infact,severalBritishpress apologies. Suchpowershavesplitanumberofpressand of poundsinfines,demandcorrectionsand,ifnecessary, panel therighttomakepressorganizationspaymillions the system.InBritain,however,thismodeldoesgive conduct self-regulationandremaincompletelyoutsideof Based ontheirownrules,allorganizationsarefreeto force anymediaorganizationtoacceptsingleoption. to acquirethenews.Lastly,suchlegalregulationsnever the delegationwilladoptapositionfavoringright When therearedifficulties,thisthusguaranteesthat permitted toobstructtheprintingofanypublication. For instance,theself-regulatorydelegationisnever own affairs.Thecriteria,however,areabsolutelyclear. as wellrelated legalregulations. rules regulating theestablishmentofmedia companiesandtheiroperations, 4 provides noroomfor pluralism. Inpartiallydemocratic media companiesaredominant andthemediaatmosphere Inthisstudy,theconcept of “regulation”referstotheentirety 4 andwheregiant Press CouncilModels be addressedwithdifferentregulations.TheOrganization societies, thestatutorymediaself-regulatorymodelmust are effective mechanismsforissuing rapiddecisions on state intervention (Kleinsteuber, 2004,p.63).Presscouncils a majorityofpresscouncils wereestablishedtoescape of anautonomousbody toaddresscomplaints.Inpractice, sought toopposesuch attempts,emphasizingthenecessity steps alwayscamefrom states.Thepresssector,however, Kingdom (1953),Germany(1956)andIndia(1966), thefirst formed aroundtheworld,suchasSweden(1916), theUnited regulatory modelsarepresscouncils.Inthe presscouncils In manycountriesaroundtheworld,most commonself- political expediency. into amandatorystateregulatorymechanismoutof risk thatthisself-regulatorymodelcouldbetransformed opponents ofthegovernment.Accordingly,thereisalwaysa and organizationswhoseaccreditationwascanceledwere press council.Unsurprisingly,allofthejournalists government meetingsiftheyrefusedtojointhecountry’s canceled the accreditation of media organizations to attend as amethodofpunishment.In2014,Estonianauthorities occur, however,incountrieswhichthesystemisused authorities cannotinterferewiththemechanism.Problems funds forsuchasystem,allwhileensuringpublic Belgium, thestatehasprovidedsupportbyallocating Particularly incountrieslikeFinland,Germanyand in termsoffreedomexpression. media self-regulatorymodeldoesnotpresentanyproblems (Mijatovic, 2010).Indevelopeddemocracies,thestatutory laws canbeusedindirectlytorestrictmediafreedom differently innewlydemocratizingcountries,sothatpress that themediaself-regulatorymechanismcanbeused for SecurityandCo-operationinEurope(OSCE)hasnoted

055 056 burden ofhighlegalcostsintrials.Whilewealthyand readers’ complaintsandrescuingindividualsfromthe and thePressCouncil SupremeBoard(BKYK). main organs,thePress CouncilAssemblyofMembers(BKÜK) (Erkelli, 1998,p.82).Thispresscouncilconsists oftwo regulate itself,emulatesWesterndemocratic countries,” press andwhich,intermsofallowingthe Turkish mediato of journalistswhodesireafreerandmore respectful on acommonfoundation,facilitatingthefree gathering aim of“introducingandpromotingasystem thatisbased councils. Turkey’spresscouncilwasformed in1986withthe South Korea,IndonesiaandSriLankaformed theirownsuch from theUNESCOMacBrideCommission,ascountrieslike By 1980,thisnumberhaddoubled,accordingtoareport Union, therewere25presscouncilsintheworld1975. of presscouncils.AccordingtotheCommonwealthPress A numberofeventsbetween1970and1980shapedthegrowth mounting afirmdefenseoffreedomexpression. setting journalisticstandardsand–mostimportantly initiating updatestoethicalprincipleswherenecessary, the media,publicizingdecisionsinatransparentmanner, compromise betweencomplainantsandrelevantactorsin comprehensively withinanethicalframework,fostering complaints fromreadersorviewers,evaluating In general,presscouncils’activitiesincludeaccepting cases openedagainstjournalistsandmediaorganizations. official institutions,aswellreducethenumberof a shieldtopreventinterferencefromthestateorother quality informationinthemedia.Presscouncilscanactas regulatory institutionsdefendeveryone’srighttoaccess influential peopletypicallyresorttothelaw,self- cil, see 5 a numberofpresscouncils aroundtheworldthatvary Foralookat thehistory,structureand operationsofTurkey’sPress Coun http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/tarihcemiz/ (accessed May13,2018) 5 Thereare - and sanctions. according totheirreasonsforestablishment,structure 6 media outletownersand journalistshavebeenseparated media outletownersand publicservants.InGermany,however, representatives (including editorsandeditors-in-chief), members, presscouncilsgenerallyconsist of journalist complaints. Amidsomevariationsinthemakeup ofthe of members,presscouncilsreceiveandevaluate citizens’ in publishing.Ineverycountry,regardless ofthenumber councils regulatetheimplementationofethical principles lies inthecouncil’sbasicoperations.In general, press representation ofthecouncilmembers,an important factor Here, inadditiontotheselection,quantity and the journalisticprofession. state pressurewhilealsoactingasastandardbearerfor institution thathassucceededinremainingfreeofall degree ofassistancefromthestate,butitisknownasan similar system.TheGermanPressCouncilacceptsasmall sector. TheGermanPressCounciloperatesaccordingtoa as threeordinarymemberswhoarenotrelatedtothemedia chairman, onerepresentativefromeachmediagroup,aswell venerable ofsuchinstitutions.Thecouncilconsistsa 1916, theSwedishPressCouncil(PON)isoneofmost for thewrittenpress,radioandtelevision.Formedin institutions areresponsibleforsettingethicalprinciples Journalists andtheNationalPressClub.Thesefour Magazine Publishers’Association,theSwedishUnionof the SwedishNewspaperPublishers’Association, on acompletelyvoluntarybasisbyfourinstitutions: the self-regulationforSweden’sprintedmediaisconducted search forsolutionswithintheirownprofession.Allof solve allofsociety’sproblems,focusinginsteadonthe the UnitedKingdomandIrelandrecognizethattheycannot tablejournalism.org/press-councils (accessed May13,2018) Toseealist ofeverypresscouncilin the world,consult 6 Forexample,presscouncilsinFinland, https://accoun -

057 058 Slovenia onlyconsistofjournalisticrepresentatives. to formadualstructure,whilecouncilsinSlovakiaand on mediaoutlets thatfailtoadhere toethicalprinciples elicits the mostargumentissanctions. Sanctionsare imposed In termsofthestructure ofpresscouncils,thesubjectthat technology. national security,libel, privacyandthelike)modern by thenuancesofpressfreedom(regarding topicssuchas the Americancourtsystemthatcanruleon problemscreated outside regulationontheirsector.Asaresult, itisonly the Constitutiontoresistallofficialattempts toimpose in termsofself-regulation,Americanjournalists relyon country inaleagueofitsown.Atthemost basiclevel this regard,thelatter’sconstitutionalguarantees putthe democratic countriesaresimilartotheUnited Statesin a professionalorganizations.Evenifnumberofother state permission,ajournalismdegreeorthepresscardof a newspaperorlaunchTVstationneedfirsttoobtain censorship. IntheUnitedStates,noonewishingtopublish restricts stateinterferenceinthepressandanypossible expression byimplementingthisarticle,whichcategorically At itsveryfoundation,theU.S.guaranteedfreedomof Amendment providesanumbrellaforbroadpressfreedoms. of muchfunctionbecausetheU.S.Constitution’sFirst In theUnitedStates,however,presscouncilsaredevoid no presscouncilsinItaly,Greece,PolandandPortugal. institutions mightbeformed.Likewise,therearecurrently are continuinginthecountryregardinghowautonomous the inevitabilityofstateauthority.Still,discussions a presscouncil,meaningthatthereisanacceptanceof Denmark andLuxembourg.France,meanwhile,doesnothave also involvedintheappointmentofcouncilmembers are appointeddifferently,whilethegovernmentis countries, sectorrepresentativesandindependentmembers the mostsenioradministratorsininstitutions.Insome Typically, membersofpresscouncilsareappointedby climates. JusthalfofthepresscouncilsinEuropehave according toeachcountry’svaryingculturalanddemocratic In 2011,a media councilwasestablished inCroatia to to createself-regulatory models intheWesternBalkans. Here, itisparticularly usefultotouchontheefforts no effectonthebody’s operationsanddecisions. different amountsdonated bymediaorganizationswillhave it iscriticalthatthepresscouncilensure thatthe campaigns andmakingthemmoreattractive. Nonetheless, press councilwhilealsoencouragingsuch donationswith could allocateasmallpercentageofits revenue tothe have equalaccesstosuchrecords.Everymedia organization system remaintransparentandthatallmedia organizations enterprise. Onthisfront,itiscrucialthat therecords depend oncirculation,viewingfiguresand thesizeof also possibletobasefinancingonmembershipfeesthat an importantrolefornewlyformedpresscouncils.Itis council. Internationaldonors,however,frequentlyplay financing, meaningthatjournalistsdefendtheirpress In Switzerland,journalistsfoottheentirebillfor organizations whiletheothercouldcomefromjournalists. of thefinancingcouldcomefromownersmedia come frommediaorganizationsor,asinNorway,half Netherlands andSweden,theseresourcescouldlargely should haveavarietyoffinancialresources.Asinthe financial autonomy.Inidealcircumstances,thecouncil independence, themostimportantfactorisundoubtedly independent, respected,obeyedandstrong?Intermsof So howshouldoneestablishapresscouncilthatis organizations (Leonardi,2004,p.14). has thepowertobothprintcondemnationsandfinemedia media organizationinquestion.OnlySweden’spresscouncil can onlyissueanannouncementtothepubliccondemn are foundtobeatfault.Inmanycountries,presscouncils ability toprintcondemnationsinnewsorganizationsthat

059 060 Reader Representatives /OmbudsmanMediator first efforttogatherjournalisticorganizationsand monitor andevaluateethicsviolations,representingthe until 2009,whentheNorwegiangovernmentprovidedgrants. formation ofapresscouncil,thatdidnotbecomepossible implementing commonprofessionalprinciples.Asforthe 2006 thattwolargejournalisticorganizationsfirstbegan the fundsnordesireforamodel.Itwasnotuntil any self-regulatorymodel.Atthetime,therewasneither solidarity andeffectivelyrulingouttheformationof splitting journalistsintwo,destroyinganychanceof the Serbianmediawasusedfornationalisticpurposes, Serbia in2012.DuringtheBalkanwarsof1990s,however, the conceptofmediaself-regulationinMontenegroand first bodyin2005.Similarforeignaidhelpedintroduce found Bosnia’sfirstpresscouncilin2000andKosovo’s support. Globaltechnicalandfinancialsupporthelped been effortstofosterself-regulationwithinternational In BosniaandHerzegovinaKosovo,meanwhile,therehave council’s roleandstrengthhasnotbeenproperlydefined. between thetwogroupsremainedlimited.Asaresult, action wasrestrictedtomembersalone,theinteraction self-regulatory system.Butbecausethecouncil’srangeof representatives fromlargemediainstitutionsintoa task toacceptcomplaintsandcommentsfrom readers, and mostunwantedpersoninthenewsroom. It isnoeasy Dvorkin definesthereaderrepresentative astheloneliest (ONO), whichhas60membersaroundtheworld, Jeffrey In thehandbookforOrganizationofNews Ombudsmen (accessed April 23,2018) London 7 editors beforesearching forcompromiseorsolvingthe viewers orlisteners and presentthemtojournalists White,A.“TheTrustFactor: AnEJNReviewofJournalismandSelf-regulation,” http://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/assets/docs/142/118/79dd78e -837b376.pdf 7 defined withtermsthatmean“representative”inSwedish, misunderstandings betweenthetwogroups.“Ombudsman”is conciliatory one. the ombudsman doesnotplayajudgmental rolebuta And inkeepingwiththe journalisticclimateinFrance, to thehandbookand, when necessary,printcorrections. Part oftheombudsman’s tasksaretoguaranteeadherence the rulesfornewswriting andtheprofessionalframework. clearly stipulatedtheprinciplesrequired injournalism, a handbookreleasedin2002,thenewspaper’s ombudsman cut orchangedwithoutpermissionfromthe ombudsman.In weekly column.Furthermore,thecolumncannot beedited, stance andmistakes,aswellreaders’complaints, ina power, heorsheisfreetocommentonthe newspaper’s or her.Although and onlyanswerstotheadministratorwho appointedhim newspaper, theombudsmanisindependentofmaineditor effectively, havingfirstappointedonein1998.Atthe is thenewspaperthatusesombudsmansystemmost in newspapersandpublicbroadcasting.Today, where suchofficialswieldagreatdealofinfluence with themostprominentombudsmansystemisFrance, employed inthewrittenpress.Ultimately,country Israel, Spain,PortugalandJapan,ombudsmenareonly own self-regulatorymechanisms.InBrazil,Canada,Denmark, worthy ofdiscussioninregardstomediaorganizations’ which isknownasthereaderrepresentativeinTurkish, not particularlywidespreadinAmericannewspapersand editor todothissystematically.Thisjob,whichisstill respond toreaders’complaints,laterappointingadeputy the 1920s.In1970, committee toreceiveandinvestigatereadercomplaintsin 20th century,with to spreadaroundtheworldinfirstquarterof ombudsman’s jobisthesameworldover.Thepostbegan if thetermsdifferfromonelanguagetonext,an “protector” inSpanishand“mediator”French.Buteven Le Monde Asahi The WashingtonPost Shimbun ’s ombudsmanwieldsnopunitive inTokyoestablishinga devotedacolumnto Le Monde

061 062 The BackboneofSelf-Regulation: Ethical Principles without resorting to legal action. For instance, since the without resortingtolegalaction.Forinstance,sincethe In theUnitedKingdom,ombudsmencanrecommendsolutions States, institutionssuchas journalistic practicesthatrequirechange.IntheUnited the newspaperandpublicatlargethroughreportsabout that thesamemistakesarenotrepeated,whileinforming expenditures havedroppedby30percent.Theombudsmanensures The Guardian the backboneofmediaself-regulation.As noted above,the become evenmorecomplicated.Ethicalprinciples constitute journalism havenotdisappeared–ifanything, theyhave in journalists.Inthenewdigitalage,ethical dilemmasin increases mediaaccountability,aswell citizens’trust seek toraiseprofessionaljournalisticstandards, asthis correct andtrustworthynews,mediaself-regulators always In theinterestsofensuringthatpublic canaccess Swedish presscouncilsworkwithindependentombudsmen. institutions butpresscouncils.Forinstance,theIrishand or aTVstation.Infact,someombudsmendonotworkwithmedia someone whodoespublicrelationspromotionsforanewspaper accountable. Atthesametime,anombudsmanmustnotbecome regulatory mechanismensuringthatmediaorganizationsare In theend,postofombudsmanfunctionsasaself- ombudsman’s independenceisessentialandmustbeprotected. experience andtherespectofcolleagues.Atsametime, characteristics aresoundjournalisticknowledge,professional follow suchpractices.Foranombudsman,themostimportant Post religious sensibilities. traditions, aswelltheirsocial, cultural,ethnic and around theworlddepending oneverysociety’sdemocratic framework. Naturally, ethical principleswilldiffer evaluate readers’and viewers’complaintswithinanethical press councilsandombudsmen atdifferentinstitutions , Los AngelesTimes ’s ombudsman began work, the newspaper’s legal ’s ombudsmanbeganwork,thenewspaper’slegal , ABC News

The NewYorkTimes , PBS and NPR continue to continueto , Washington Washington journalistic codeof“ethics”thatwouldencompassall The threecornerstonesoftheeffortstocreatea ethics, while brand-newdeclarations arebeingwritten for Just inEurope today,thereare more than30codesof anywhere. distributed tothemedia sectorbutwasneverimplemented any use?Adraftofan internationalcodeofethicswas question wasthis:Wouldtheseethicalprinciples beof U.N. secretarygeneral.Forallconcerned, the fundamental and recommendationsbeforeforwardingthe drafttothe and mediainstitutionssubsequentlyadded theircomments various governments.Some500professional organizations draft wasproducedin1950by12experts appointed by countries wasproducedbytheUnitedNations. Thefirst international codeofethicalprinciples to encompassmany On aworldwidescale,however,thefirstdetailed, press implementedasimilarcodeofethics. framework. NotlongaftertheMunichDeclaration,Swiss been pennedwithsuchclarityandwithinalogical rights. Intruth,fewoutlinesofethicalprincipleshave outlined theirrightsandthewaysofprotectingsuch responsibilities ofjournalists,whilethesecondsection The firstsectionofthedeclarationnotedtasksand the DeclarationofRightsandDutiesJournalists. journalists tradeunionsoftheEuropeanCommunityadopted been usedbytheIFJ.InNovember1971inMunich,six actors. Attheveryleast,communiquehasalways journalism anddelineatedtheboundariesofsector’s that enjoyedsuchwidespreadacceptance,clearlydefined profession. TheBordeauxDeclaration,thefirstdocument in 1952,journalistssatdownBordeauxtodefinetheir International FederationofJournalists(IFJ)wasformed from theCouncilofEuropein1993.Twoyearsafter the 1971MunichDeclaration,aswellasimilartext of Europeconsistthe1954BordeauxDeclaration,

063 064 ethics thattheEuropeanCouncilpennedin1993 new democraciesinCentralandEasternEurope.Thecodeof for ethicaljournalism. foundation ofdemocracy”,beforeoutliningfourprinciples “public enlightenmentistheforerunnerofjusticeand of theSPJ’scodebeginswithacknowledgementthat Professional Journalists’(SPJ)codeofethics.Thepreamble standards intheUnitedStatesisSocietyof The textthatoutlinesthemostrespectedprofessional from bothpublicauthoritiesandcompanies. The codealsonotedthatjournalistsrequireprotection correct newsandprincipledcommentary,notasacommodity. the basicingredientforallowingcitizenstoaccess owners, publishersandjournalistsmustseeinformationas is stillinuseonthecontinent)emphasizesthatmedia en.asp? 8 working inanymedia anywhere. Respectednewsorganizations The SPJ’sfourprinciples areincumbentuponjournalists Forthefull text, consult fileid=16414 (accessed April21,2018) explaining one’sdecisions means taking Be AccountableandTransparent:Ethicaljournalism of ethicaljournalismistoserve Act Independently:The human beingsdeservingofrespect. subjects, colleaguesandmembersofthe Minimize Harm information. courageous ingathering,reportingandinterpreting be accurateandfair.Journalistsshouldhonest Seek TruthandReportIt:Ethical responsibilityforone’sworkand : Ethicaljournalismtreatssources, http:// assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML highestandprimaryobligation tothepublic. thepublic. journalismshould publicas 8 (andwhich and around theworld,suchas anonymous sources,commentsonsocialmedia, suicides, among honestjournalists.Issuessuchasthe usageof different topicsthathavenotevenproduced aconsensus avoiding plagiarism.Thesecondsectionfocuses on40 journalists agreeupon,suchasprotecting sourcesand The firstsectionspellsoutbasicprinciples thatall through self-regulation. meaningful wayofdefendingthehonorprofession organizations foistuponthem.This,ineffect,isthemost they establishthemselvesmorethanprinciplesthatmedia black andwhite,journalistsneedaninstructiveguidethat would require.Inadigitalnewsworldthatisfarfrom academics determinedwhichethicalprinciplesjournalists as theirstartingpoint,25volunteerjournalistsand situations. Usingconcreteproblemstheyhadencountered their workingconditionsandactasabeaconindifferent sites andjournalistswithtoolsthatwouldbothsuit Own EthicsCode,” crowdsourcing project.Theproject,dubbed“BuildYour in journalism,ONAdrafteditscodeofethicsasa undertaking. Inkeepingwiththerapidpaceofchange the OnlineNewsAssociation(ONA)embarkeduponaunique an increasingneedtoreviewcodesofethics.In2014, But becauseofthegrowthinInternetnews,thereis publishing whichitupdatedin2015. Association (RTDNA)providesacodeofethicsforonline ethics. Atthesametime, the Radio,Television,DigitalNews and othersalsooperateaccordingtotheirowncodeof April 21,2018) 10 cessed April21,2018) 9 coverage ofbombthreats orhostagecrises,aswell Forthefulltext,see See https://journalists.org/resources/build-your-own-ethics-code/ (accessed 10 aimedtoequipnewsbloggers,Internet https://www.rtdna.org/content/rtdna_code_of_ethics (ac BBC , Deutsche Welle 9

, RAI , NPR

065 066 Digital World The ChangingDiscussions onSelf-Regulation inthe gray area.Insuchsituations,ONApursueswhateveroption the confirmationofsocialmediasources,fitintothis it topursue asenseofcollective responsibilityin such they area professional oranamateur, howrealistic is one countseveryoneas ajournalist,regardlessofwhether self-regulation encompasses haslostanymeaning.Evenif platforms, blogsand news sites,thequestionastowhom ambiguous; becauseof theappearanceofalternativenews valid. First,thedefinitionofajournalist hasbecome technology, however,thesethreeconditions arenolonger reached usingethicalprinciples.Duetodigital media and intent.(3)Compromiseondivisivesubjects mustbe Or somethingelse?(2)Self-regulationrequires willingness profession? Isitsomeonewhoworksforan institution? a journalistonlysomeonewhoearnsmoney fromthe define theprofessionofjournalist.Forinstance, is of mediaself-regulationmustfulfill:(1)Itclearly Ultimately, therearethreeconditionsthattheconcept journalists today.” they’re goingtostandforismuchmoreimportant providing clarityonwhotheyareandwhichprinciples with alotofdifferentdefinitionsfor‘journalists,’but and technologies.Inrecenttimes,peoplehavecomeup profession isaboutmuchmorethanpeople,philosophies this undertakingwiththebeliefthatjournalistic encapsulates ONA’sself-regulatoryefforts:“Webegan crowdsourcing funds.Thefollowingquoteperhapsbest its digitalplatforminSeptember2015withadditional and ExcellenceinJournalismFoundationbeforelaunching ONA obtaineda40,000-dollarstartupfundfromtheEthics to change.Inaneffortdevelopthismodularsystem, requires notrigiditybutflexibilityandtheability suits journaliststhemost.Accordingly,honestjournalism

principles beimplementedondifferentmediaplatforms? a chaoticmediaenvironment?Howwillacceptednormsand more transparent self-regulatory model.Giventhatthe of suchevents, digitalmediatechnologies couldoffer a readers. Intheinterests ofensuringthereisnorepeat using ittoprotectits owninterests,ratherthanthoseof self-regulatory model, withsomesayingthesectorwas scandal, manycriticisms wereleveledagainstthemedia espousal ofacodeethics.AftertheNews oftheWorld journalists’ devotiontotheirprofession through the exchange ofideas,self-regulationinthe media isabout assuming responsibilitytowardreadersand engaginginan to readers’commentsandcomplaints.Butmore thanmerely becoming moretransparentandas openaspossible the mediatoaccount.ThanksInternet, journalismis incommensurate powertonormalpeople call thosein media environment.Atthesametime,Internetprovides outlined aboveneedtobeupdatedinlinewiththenew First, thevariouspresscouncilandombudsmanstructures become evermoreimportantinafluidmediaenvironment. stories produced,theconceptofself-regulationhas channels. Withtheincreaseinspeedandnumberof self-regulatory mechanismswillonedayencompassall audio platforms.Asaresult,itisnowinevitablethat simultaneously producingnewsforwritten,visualand media. Thedigitaljournalistsofthe21stcenturyare however, nowappearasoutmodedmethodsforstructuring publications withinalegalframework.Suchapproaches, press onavoluntarybasisordoingsoforelectronic journalism haslargelyconsistedofregulatingthewritten discussion onthematter.Throughouthistory,monitoring written orelectronicpresshasactuallyfosteredanew the concept of self-regulation into either the contemporary migrating todifferentplatforms,theattemptsshoehorn taken overourworldand journalism hasbeentransformedby At atimewhendigitalmediatechnologieshaverapidly

067 068 for thewrittenpressandbecauseoflengthyperiod self-regulatory mechanismwastailoredovermanyyears copyright require anewphilosophy ofself-regulation. sourcing and theincreasinglycomplicated issueof of videosdepictingviolence orhateinthenews, their personalandcompany accounts),thebroadcasting regulation ofjournalists’ socialmediaposts(fromboth so easy,theimportance ofsystemsforverification,the and montageintheuseofvisualmaterials havebecome instance, inanenvironmentwhichdigital manipulation never appearedontheagendaoftraditional media.For The Internethasopenedmanytopicsfordiscussion that solely oncontent. various mediaplatformsofthepresentday orfocus is aself-regulatorymodelthatdoesnot disregard the its multimediacontentonline.Here,whatisnecessary Internet needsregulations,justasanewspaperdoesfor that doesnotrequirealicensetobroadcastoverthe engage withfreshconflicts.Forinstance,aTVchannel offline –itisclearthatself-regulatorymodelswill there isnolongeranydifferencebetweenonlineand media. Inthepresentmediaecosystem–aplacewhere the basicrulesofjournalism,justliketraditional of theage,Internetjournalismwasforcedtoadhere notoriety Internetmediahadgained.Becauseofthespeed attempt torespondconstructivelysomeoftheadverse to traditionalmediaorganizations–indicatingan accepting membersfromtheInternetmediainaddition self-regulatory umbrella.Somemediacouncilssoonbegan traditional mediaorganizationswerebroughtunderthe the growthofInternet,contentonwebsites were forcedtounitedueofficialregulations.With models thatacceptcomplaintsfromviewersandlisteners monitoring mechanism.Inmanycountries,self-regulatory became moredefinedandoccasionedarigorous required toacquirealicense,radioandTVbroadcasting Conclusion andRecommendations news organizationshavedevelopedcodesofethicsand The WashingtonPost 11 commercial pressure. Repressive atmospheressuffocateand protected fromstate intervention andallmannersof countries wheretheprofession ofjournalismiscarefully guaranteed mediafreedomandbecomefunctional inall There isnodenyingthatself-regulatory mechanisms have journalistic sector. body thatcouldbecomeasourceofinspiration forthe companies andtheEuropeanCommission, IWFisa civil societyorganizationthatworkswithglobalInternet removed withintwohours.Ultimately,asanindependent the imagesarebroadcastfromUnitedKingdom,they of childsexualexploitationin281,781thecases.If IWF hasaccepted700,000complaints,determininginstances sexual exploitationofchildren.Inthelast20years, to anonymouslyandsafelyreportonimagesdepictingthe and involveordinarycitizensbyprovidingopportunities by 2018. Britain, butthisratehadfallentolessthanonepercent 18 percentofalltheworld’schildpornographycamefrom British government.WhentheIWFwasformed,asmuch bringing togethertheInternetindustry,lawmakersand the sexualexploitationofchildren,hassucceededin particularly successful.TheIWF,whichespeciallycombats which wasfoundedintheUnitedKingdom1996,hasbeen media. Onthisfront,theInternetWatchFoundation(IWF), they canalsobeusedtoaddressnegativecontentinthe But self-regulatorymodelsarenotjustforjournalism– professional standardsbefittingthedigitalworld. news/iwf’s-self-regulatory- See“TheIWF’s self-regulatorymodelis working” at 11 ThefoundationhashelpedcleanuptheInternet , the model-working (accessed May13,2018) BBC andotherwell-established https://www.iwf.org.uk/

069 070 journalists incountriesthatarehometowell-developed choke mediaself-regulation.Researchhasshownthat Brief-6-Replacing-the-PCC.pdf (accessedApril 21,2018) LSE MediaPolicy Brief.”http://www.lse.ac.uk/media%40lse/documents/MPP/Policy- Micova, S.B.,andTambini,D. (2012).“ReformingthePCC:LessonsfromAbroad, March 2005,London:Article 19. Self-Regulation. Article19 &InternationalFederationofJournalists, 12 ombudsmen haveparticularlypositiveeffects ontheir journalists donotbelievethatpresscouncils ornews practices. half-democracies thatarehometoweakprofessional own codesofethicsthanthenationalcouncils of many mediainstitutionsplacemoreimportance ontheir of reliabilityorgainingaccreditation.Incontrast, council isnottantamounttoacquiringacertificate has becomeasymbolofprestige.Beingmemberthe not bemandatorytoamemberofthecouncil,butit sector. IncountrieslikeDenmark,forexample,itmight indeed, financedthroughcontributionsfromthemedia completely independentandavastmajorityofthemare, and trusted.Itiscriticalthatpresscouncilsare divests itselfofpartisanshipandbecomesrespected creation ofaninstitutionthatjoinshandswithreaders, is paramount.Here,thegreatestemphasison countries –placesinwhichfreedomofexpression media self-regulationaretobefoundinScandinavian valuable. Itisnocoincidencethatthebestexamplesof news ombudsmenandcodesofethicsaremeaningful open toregulation.Forsuchjournalists,presscouncils, are morelikelytobeprofessionallyaccountableand as wellahealthyandrespectedpublicbroadcaster, journalistic training,independentnewsorganizations, professional organizationsandcolleagues,longstanding journalistic practices,strongorganizationamong FreedomandAccountability: SafeguardingFreeExpressionThroughMedia 12 Accordingtosomestudies,European

media ecosystem,digitaldevelopments,culturaldifferences professions. book/guidebook.pdf Transparency across Europe.” 13 workshops anddistributes instructiveguidesinaneffort news mediabeforethe councilorganizesseminarsand A codeofethicscanalsobepreparedfor thedigital standards withpublicsupport,adoptinggood practices. the nascentcouncilcouldthendefineits criteriaand their efforts.Usingtheseexamplesasalaunching pad, and discusspoorexamplesinpublic,thereby publicizing order ofbusinesswouldbetoinspectpast years’reports considering howtoimplementacodeofethics, thefirst in representationneednotbesetstone. Butin percent fromordinarycitizens.Naturally,thisbreakdown (news ombudsmen,editorsandsoon)theremaining15 percent fromthosewithexperienceinregulatingthemedia practices (especiallywomen,minoritiesandthelike),10 20 percentfromthoseworstaffectedbythemedia’swrong training –orgiveonnewmediatechnologies, 15 percentcouldcomefrompeoplewhohavereceived drawn fromvariousrepresentativesofthemediasector, groups. Fortypercentofthecouncil’smemberscouldbe individuals, aswellthecontributionsofmembermedia survive withdonationsfromfoundations,associationsand societal segmentsaspossible.Suchamediacouncilcould get downtoworkwithacouncilthatencompassesasmany important topointthecompassinrightdirection,and structuring ofmediacapital.Regardless,however,itis full democracyordisplaydeficienciesintermsofthe into countriesthatsufferfromoppressiveregimes,lack that theideal,Scandinavianmodelcannotbeintroduced and beimplementedinaconcretefashion?Itisobvious regulations, howcanaself-regulationmodelberealistic and governments’attemptstointervenethroughlegal Bichler,K.,etal.(2012).“Best PracticeGuidebook:MediaAccountabilityand 13 Amidincreasingcomplicationsrelatedtothe (accessed April 21,2018) http://www.mediaact.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/Guide -

071 072 time, thiscouncilwillbecomeasymboloftrustandthe to contributebroaderpublicawarenessandeducation.In in defendingsociety’srighttoaccessthe news. viewers andlistenersabouthowimportant suchmodelsare of theprofession,buttounceasinglyexplain toreaders, out acodeofethicsforjournalistsand defend thehonor The purposeofself-regulatorymodelsis not justtospell ideological polarizationdonotimpactprofessional values. is toensurethatthestate’srole,political pressuresand make adifference.Inthesecountries,thebiggeststruggle international aidfunds,EUcontributionsandtrainingcan Slovenia andBulgariahasshownthattherigoroususageof countries suchasAlbania,BosniaandHerzegovina,Romania, profession. Instead,theexperienceofnewlydemocratizing financial sanctionsarenotthebestwaystoimprove legal cases.Ultimately,itisclearthatmonetaryfinesor Denmark, thepresscouncilonlypresentsanalternativeto though astatutoryself-regulatorymodelisinplace case withtheSwedishPressCouncil.Forinstance,even cases, professionalorganizationsmustintervene,asisthe no roleincultivatinggoodandhonestjournalism.Insuch in publicandcriminallaw.Thecourts,however,canplay privacy, harassmentandthelike,arealreadywell-defined committed usingthemedia,suchaslibel,violationsof and legalentitiesfromoneanother.Punishmentsforcrimes At thesametime,itisnecessarytoseparateethical will beslowanddifficult. form ofjournalism.Needlesstosay,however,theseefforts first pointofentryforanyonewishingtoengageinany and MediaIntegrity, 2014-2020.” https:// Enlargement Guidelines forMediaFreedom European Commission. (2014).“EC DG Yayın Dağıtım. Medyada Oto-Kontrol. Istanbul: BetaBasım Erkelli Kızıl,N.(1998).İletişimÖzgurlğve Culture andEducation, Strasbourg. Journalism,” oftheCommittee on report Council ofEurope. (1993).“TheEthics of W. Cooperetal.(eds). New York: Longman. Communication Ethics andGlobalChange,T. Universals: InSearchofaCommonGround”in Cooper, ThomasW. (1989). “Global Journal 51(3)pp.746-749. and theMedia.” Federal CommunicationsLaw Campbell, AngelaJ. (1999).“Self-Regulation Guidebook/guidebook.pdf. www.mediaact.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/ Transparency across Europe.” http:// and Guidebook: MediaAccountability Bichler, K.etal.(2012).“Best Practice Transaction Publishers. Systems.Accountability New Brunswick,N.J.: C.-J.Bertrand, (2000).MediaEthics and Self-Regulation, March2005,London. Safeguarding Free Expression ThroughMedia Journalists. Freedom andAccountability: 19&InternationalFederationArticle of Bibliography Frost, C. (2000).MediaEthics andSelf- Press. Councils. Oxford:OxfordUniversity A Comparative Study ofInternationalPress Fielden, L.(ed.).(2012).Regulating thePress: integrity_210214.pdf elarg-guidelines-for-media-freedom-and- sites/near/files/pdf/press_corner/ ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/ Media. OSCE Representative onFreedom ofthe Media Self-Regulation Guidebook.Vienna: Hulin, A.,andM.Stone, M.(2013).TheOnline upload/WP4_Outcomes/WP4_Report.pdf http://www.mediaact.eu/fileadmin/user_ Practices ontheInternet.”Accountability MediaAcT Working Paper serieson“Media Study onEmergingPractices andInnovations.” GoesOnline.ATransnationalAccountability Heikkilä, H.,andD. Domingo.(2012).“Media (eds). London: Routledge and Media,inA.Belsey andR.Chadwick for Journalists. InEthical Issues inJournalism Harris, NigelG. E.(1992).“CodesofConduct Answers. Vienna:OSCE. Regulation Guidebook:AllQuestions and Haraszti, M.(2008).TheOSCEMediaSelf- Media. London:ThomsonSweet &Maxwell. Hadwin, S.,andD. Bloy. (2007).Law andthe Regulation. London:Longman.

073 074 Replacing-the-PCC.pdf media%40lse/documents/MPP/Policy-Brief-6- LSE MediaPolicy Brief:http://www.lse.ac.uk/ “Reforming thePCC:Lessons fromAbroad.” Micova, S.B.,andD. Tambini. (2012). the EU. Oxford:OxfordUniversity. Codes inUseby Press CouncilsinCountriesof and thePrintMedia:CodesAnalysis of Leonardi, DaniloA.(2004).Self-Regulation files/2017-11/Regulating%20the%20Press.pdf reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/ Press Councils.” Reuters Institute: https:// A Comparative Study ofInternational Lara, F. (2012).“Regulating thePress: statutory-regulation/ mediapolicyproject/2012/11/28/varieties-of- policy project:http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ Regulations.”Statutory LSE media Iglesias, C. (2012).“Varieties of and Papers onMass Communication. Ethics andCouncils. Paris: UNESCO Reports Jones, C. J. (1980).Mass MediaCodesof Freedom? European Institute. University regulation: BeneficialorDetrimentalforMedia MediaSelf-Hulin, A.(2014).Statutory conference-on-safeguarding-media-self- www.presscouncil.ie/contribution-to-osce- Self-Regulation, Baku,September6.http:// Safeguarding Free Expression throughMedia Mijatovic, D. (2010)OSCEConference on D. (2012).“LSE MediaPolicy Project: Puppis, M.,S.B.Micova, andD. Tambini Social Responsibility. Westport: Praeger. America:Assessing an Experiment in North Nemeth, N.(2003).News Ombudsmenin press-council-of-ireland-in-baku-azerbaijan given-by-mr-martin-fitzpatrick-member-ofregulation-through-freedom-of-expression- Model-of-Press-Regulation.pdf. MPP/LSE-MPP-Policy-Brief-12-The-New-UK- http://www.lse.ac.uk/media@lse/documents/ Press Regulation.” LSE Media Policy Project: Tomlinson, H.(2014). “TheNew UK Modelof censorship(lsero).pdf ac.uk/44999/1/The%20Privitisation%20of%20 UK: Routledge/UCL Press. http://eprints.lse. Convergence, inD. Tambini etal.Abingdon, Self-regulation intheAgeofInternet In CodifyingCyberspace:Communications Self Regulation andFreedom ofExpression.” (2008). “ThePrivatisation ofCensorship: Tambini, D., andD. Leonardi,andC. Marsden. 457-475. European JournalofCommunication21(4)pp. Newspaper ombudsmenintheNetherlands.” Advocates orNewspapers’ Ambassadors? Van Dalen,A.,andM.Deuze. (2006).“Readers’ Replacing-the-PCC.pdf media%40lse/documents/MPP/Policy-Brief-6- Self-Regulation.” http://www.lse.ac.uk/ Media policy brief6Reforming Journalism Example inLightofComparative Applications Press CouncilsasOrganofSelf-Regulation: Turkish 1. History R. Murat Önok konseyi.org.tr/tarihcemiz/ Press Council.Fordetailedinformationaboutitshistory, see 1 away withitspowertorestrictadvertising, itwasleft media sector. purely punitiveinstitutionthatlostits supportinthe by cuttingofftheiradvertisingandthus turnedintoan resorted tosanctioningnewspapersthatviolatetheCode that the“namingandshaming”offenderswasineffective, responsible forenforcingthePressEthicsCode,seeing important reasonforitsfailurewasthatthecouncil 1967 havingonlyanalyzed148cases. However, theHonorCouncilwasineffectdissolved Code, waspreparedatthesametime. occupational principlesguide,namedthePressEthics would beboundedandabidebytheorgan’sdecisions. press associationssignedacharterthatdeclaredthey number ofnewspaperowners,editors,agencymanagers,and and theIstanbulJournalistsUnion. an initiativeoftheIstanbulJournalistsAssociation “Press HonorCouncil,”establishedonJuly24,1960as The firstattemptatself-regulationinTurkeywasthe 6 5 4 3 this organ,seeSınar,2008, p. 24;Gölcüklü,1970,206. 2 Animportantpartofthissectionwassummarizedonthe websiteofthe Formoreonthis topic,seeSınar,2008, p. 31. Girgin,2006,p.51;İçeland Ünver,2012,p.217.Forinformationabout Tikveş,1968,p.192. Gölcüklü,1970, p.208;İçelandÜnver,2012, p.223. Girgin,2006,p.54. 1

6 Moreover,aftertheCouncilofStatedid (accessedApril11,2018) 2 Onthisdate,a 4 Perhapsthemost http://basin 3 The 5 -

075 076 with nopowersofsanctionaswell. should havethefollowing: According tothereport,organbeestablished Convention thatstatedthefollowing: Responsibilities oftheMedia”presentedareportat media organizations.The“CommissionontheDutiesand Information in1975andattendedbymanyofTurkey’s organized bytheGeneralDirectorateofPressand to thisendwasthesecondTurkishPressConvention after this initialfailure.One of the important meetings regulation withinthemediawasdiscussedimmediately The topicofestablishinganeworganizationself- press. only metingoutfines“wouldnotwintheheart”of as wastheconvictionthataninstitutioninvolvedin state ofjournalismwasnotedasearlyinthe1960s in variouswaysandengageresearchstudiesonthe for aself-regulatoryorganthatwouldassistthepress 10 9 8 “the competitionbetweennewspapers andmagazines”werealsomentioned). also Tikveş,1968,p.192(“differing politicalopinionsinthecountry”and 7 Dönmezer,1968,p.10-11.For otherreasonsforitsfailure,seep.12; Dönmezer,1968,p.8. Dönmezerand Bayraktar, 2016,p.405. http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/tarihcemiz/ freedoms andrespectforthepress.” irresponsible publicationscandestroyall have an auto-control press toshape of thepress conclusion thattheresponsibilityofmembers “The membersoftheCommissionhavecometo 8 iscommensuratewiththepowerof publicopinion.Thepressneedsto mechanism, keeping in mindthat 10 (accessedApril 11,2018) 7 Infact,theneed press 9 , attended by 28journalists.That sameyear,aworking group up thedraft todiscussionduring ameetinginMay1986 were preparedbasedon inputhereceived.Ekşiopened and distributeditto hisclosecolleagues.Twomoredrafts the endof1985during whichself-regulationwasdiscussed Ekşi. Ekşiprepareda draftafterameetingheldtowards in thiswasthechiefcolumnistof The personwhoperhapsplayedthemostinfluential role Institute, andbeganworkonformingaPress Council. press cametogetherandcontactedtheInternational Press to takethepressundercontrol.Inresponse, membersofthe 1983 waswidelyseenasasignofthemilitary regime’splans the PressEthicsCodeinaspeechdelivered on November4, as president,madementionofthePressCouncilandrecited that KenanEvren,wholedthemilitarycoupandlaterserved no developmentsweretobeseeninthe1980s.Infact,fact However, the1980militarycoupinterruptedthisdebate,and occupational bodiesunderoneumbrella. whether ornotitwouldbeanti-democratictobringall a voluntarybasisorhavecorporateidentity,and whether thisself-regulationbodyshouldoperateon Conversely, thereweredifferencesofopinionconcerning during thedebateonneedforaself-regulationbody. The majorityofthedelegatesatConventionagreed body whilebuildingonpastexperience, > in shapingitseditorialline. newspapers theyworkforashaveresponsibility > the difficultiesposedbytheirdisorganization, occupation intooneaftertakingconsideration >

Ensure thatjournalistsjointhemanagementof Unifying thevariousbodiesrepresenting Forming amoreeffective,powerful,andevenlegal Hürriyet daily,Oktay

077 078 idea offormingaPressCouncilwithmediaoutletsand comprising ninejournalists Erinç, Yurdakul Fincanci,GüngörMengiand RaufTamer. 11 of thegovernment’sinclination tointroducerestrictions. the freedomtoexpress thoughtthroughthepressinface the pressandpublic’s righttoaccessnews,ordefending contemporary democraticprinciplestosafeguard freedomof pressing topicthanintroducinglegalmeasures inlinewith law professorDr.ÇetinÖzek,self-regulation wasafarless on thetopic.Forexample,accordingto famed criminal and thegovernmenttaskedanacademictoprepare areport repeated declarationsonself-regulationwithin thepress, Kenan EvrenandgovernmentspokesmanMesut Yılmaz made doubts furtherincreasedespeciallyafterthen-President the governmenttoideaofhavingaPressCouncil; opposed tothePressCouncilwaspositiveapproachof press werestillinplace.Whatperhapsmostworriedthose the anti-democraticlimitationsandregulationsgoverning freedom ofthepressremainedproblematicinTurkeyandwhile Council thatwouldfurtherregulatethepressatatimewhen time. Accordingtothem,itwasnotrightdiscussaPress Some cameoutagainstestablishingthePressCouncilat successful examplesseeninWesterndemocracies.” more respectedpressoftheirownfreewillandbasedon brings togetherjournalistswhowishtohaveafreerand for theTurkishpressrelyingonacommongroundthat to “introduceandmaintainasystemofself-regulation The workinggroupdescribedthePressCouncil’sgoalas attention of294membersthemedia. took intoconsiderationcriticismsandsuggestions,tothe Council Contract”afterbringingthefinaldraft,which “Code ofProfessionalEthicsthePress”and“Press journalists inIstanbul.Theworkinggroupproducedthe HasanCemal, Güneri Civaoğlu,YalçınDoğan, OktayEkşi,TeomanErel, Orhan 11 hadconsultationsonthe amendments includedintheprepareddraft. Furthermore, thereweretechnicalcriticismstothe work bytheworkinggroup. on February6,1988afterone-and-a-halfyears ofhard Eventually, thePressCouncilwasofficially established institutions. show itsweightinthefaceofpoliticalpower andother respected institutionthroughthedecisions it makesand will meteoutpunishment.Onthecontrary,it willbecomea the ideathatcouncil“willnotbeaninstitution solving itsownproblems.”Fromthisperspective,hedefended types ofregulation,andputinplaceapresscapable freed itselffromthegovernment’sshadowandopposeall to “protectfreedomofthepress,createapressthathas Journalist YalçınDoğannotedthatthePressCouncilaimed have theauthorityto“punish”newspapersandjournalists. writing. ItwasalsostressedthatthePressCouncildidnot journalist whorespectedtheirprofessionandreadersinto rules thatwerealreadyfollowedbyeverynewspaperand that themandateofcouncilwaslimitedtoputting for theremovalofexistingrestrictions”andmaintained of thePressCouncilisneededinordertobeablefight the council.Forexample,itstressedthat“establishment on thePressCounciltoclearupsomemisconceptionsabout calls, theworkinggroupmentionedabovepreparedabrochure their memberstonotjointheCouncil.Inresponsethese Association, andthePhotojournalistsAssociationcalledon Journalists UnionofTurkey,theContemporary In thisatmosphereofdebate,associationssuchasthe the PressCouncil, seeArvas,p.86. 14 13 April 11,2018) 12 Forthesecriticisms,see

Forconclusion thatthisdateisnotedas theofficialopeningday of http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/tarihcemiz/ ” 13 http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/tarihcemiz/ 14 ThePressCouncilContract (accessedApril11,2018) 12 (accessed

079 080 six broadcasters,andpressorgans. was signedby28newspapers,22magazines,11newsagencies, The vacancywasfilledby independence andimpartialityofthePress Council.” out hispoliticaldutiesandtonotcast a shadowonthe the SupremeBoardinordertobefullycapable ofcarrying Presidency ofthePressCouncilandfrom his membershipin this development,saying,“OktayEkşihas resigned fromthe a columnhewrote.ThePressCouncilinformed thepublicof criticized thethen-PrimeMinisterRecepTayyipErdoğanin January 2011 afterreceivingheavycriticismforthe wayhe only toresignfromallofhisdutiesattheCouncilin October 1988.Heservedinthiscapacityforover20years, Following this,OktayEkşitookoverthepresidencyin fact thathehadservedasalawyerinseveralcases. journalist, andafterresignationcallsstemmingfromthe the PressCouncilbeingheadedbysomeonewhowasnota resigned laterfollowingcriticisminthepressconcerning request andheservedashortwhilelonger.However,Erem citing healthreasons,buttheSupremeBoarddeniedhis in May1988thathewouldliketowithdrawfromhispost, could befound.ItshouldnotedthatEremhadannounced the postofsecretary-generaluntilafull-timereplacement Oktay Ekşiassecondpresident.wasalsoassignedto law professorDr.FarukEremasitspresidentandjournalist had itsfirstmeetingonMarch12,1988,appointingpenal formed thePressCouncilSupremeBoard.TheBoard The “CouncilofRepresentatives,”whichwaslaterdisbanded, R9hCsjvE6UKAxEnAl2hg 17 16 15 Birgit. However, thenew president onlyremained atthepost

Girgin,2006,p.55;Sınar, 2008, p.35.

https://www.ntv.com.tr/turkiye/ http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/tarihcemiz/ (accessedApril 11,2018) oktay-eksi-basin-konseyinden-de-istifa-etti,RY Cumhuriyet (accessedApril11,2018) columnistOrhan 15 17 16 - 2. LegalStatus oftheCouncil following thecontroversyoverhisallegationsthatTurkey for ayear-and-a-half;BirgitresignedinSeptember2012 was transportingweaponstoSyriaviaambulances. 18 15, 1966,discussedtheissueofwhetherself-regulation law. by stressingthedangers on avoluntarybasiswascontinuouslybeing recommended, During thelifeofPressHonorCouncil, needtooperate status, issimilartoWesternexamples. Council, whichrestsuponacontractandlackslegalentity Associations. Ithasbeennotedthatthestructureof on alegalentity,specificallythankstotheLaw based entity,fromlegalpressurethatcouldbeimposed The goalherewastoprotectthecouncil,asacontract- 1988 inordertomeetthefinancialneedsofcouncil. Council” wasestablishedasalegalentityonAugust9, the case,“AssociationforSolidaritywithPress organized asanassociationinthelegalsense.Thisbeing The PressCouncilisnotalegalentity,asit April 2018. Türenç wasre-electedtothepostforthirdtimein election inJune2013bythePressCouncilSupremeBoard. by journalist, columnist, and academic Pınar Türenç after an The post,whichhadremainedemptyforawhile,wasfilled 22 21 20 renc-secildi/ 19 sed April11,2018) Onthistopic, seeGölcüklü,1970,p.204.

Dönmezer,1968, p.16. İçelandÜnver,2012,p.226. http://www.haber7.com/gundem/haber/926537-basin-konseyinde-iki-istifa http:// 22 The“PressSeminar,”heldinIstanbulonJanuary 10- basinkonseyi.org.tr/basin-konseyi-baskanligina-gazeteci-pinar-tu (accessedApril11,2018) 21 facinginstitutionsboundby 20 18 (acces - 19 -

081 082 İpekçi voiced organs shouldhavea“legalgarb”;well-knowneditorAbdi the problemathandwasoneof“professionaldiscipline.” government inputtingpressureonthepressandsaidthat (December 2014).RobertSchumanCentreforAdvancedStudies ResearchPaperNo. tutory MediaSelf-Regulation:BeneficialorDetrimental forMediaFreedom? (Sınar, p.21).Foracomprehensivediscussionofthetopic, seeHulin,A.Sta self-regulation organsestablishedbylawinsomecountries (i.e.,Denmark) ya ÖzgürlüğüTemsilciğiDairesi,2008,p.52.Nevertheless, wedocomeacross Öz-Denetimi RehberKitabı(publishedbyMiklosHaraszti), Viyana:AGİTMed 25 entity status.(p.198). 24 23 Council SupremeBoard. foundation hasaseparateexecutiveboardfromthePress Council), againwithlegalstatus,inlateryears foundation (theFoundationforSolidaritywiththePress be notedthatthisassociationwastransformedintoa expenditures, andexpensesforinspection.Itshouldalso was abletopresentthestate’sregulatorsitsincome, Solidarity withthePressCouncil,beingalegalentity, However, thecouncil’s“sub-institution”Associationfor press councilstobelegislatedintoexistence. International literaturealsonotesthenecessityofavoiding the elementthatmakesself-regulationconstitutional. the constitutionalrighttofreedomofpress,willbe occupational discipline,stayingwithintheparametersof According toÖzkanTikveş,the“voluntary”basisofinter- Supreme Board also serveontheExecutive Boardofthefoundation. org.tr/basin-konseyi-vakfi-yonetim-kurulu/ However,someofthemembers ofthe 27 (accessed April11,2018) 26 RSCAS 2014/127 Forthecurrentmembersof theExecutiveBoard,seehttp://basinkonseyi. Zlatev,O.“BasınKonseyi–BirÖz-DenetimKurumunaTemel Örnek”in:Medya Tikveş,1968,p.190. Forthedeedoffoundation, see Tikveş,1968,p.190.However,hesupportedthisvoluntaryorganhavinglegal https://ssrn.com/abstract=2554260 concerns thatdoingthiswouldassistthe 27

http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/vakif-senedi/ (accessedApril11,2018) 25 26 . This 24

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and theFormation oftheCouncil Texts3. Primary Governing theWorkings oftheCouncil 2018) 28 (BKYK). Themembersof theSupremeBoardareasfollows: Article 7establishedthePressCouncilSupreme Board annual ordinarymeetingsoftheassociations. is similartothesituationthatatplay inthe Professional EthicsofthePress.”Ascan be seen,this Board’s actsanddecisionsconcerningthe Code of BKÜK is“nottocommentonthePressCouncil Supreme the PressCouncil.”Accordingtosame article, the general informstheBoardofMembersaboutwork takes placeonceayear.Atthismeeting,thesecretary- according toArticle6,“TheBKÜK’sordinarymeeting Article 3specifiesthecompositionofBKÜK,and The organsofthe According toArticle2, and theircomposition,election,duties,authorities. that regulatesthestructureandboardsofcouncil, a. PressCouncilContract: texts: The workofthePressCouncilrestsonthreelegal

http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/basin-konseyi-sozlesmesi/ employees subordinatetothesecretary-general. secretary-general andan The PressCouncil 2- PressCouncilSupremeBoard(BKYK). 1- PressCouncilBoardofMembers( PressCouncilare: has anofficeheadedbya 28 Thisistheprimarytext adequate numberof BKÜK), (accessedApril 11,

083 084 1970, p.205). remained more objective andinclusive hadabroadervision(Gölcüklü, 29 Inclusionofmemberswhowere notjournalistswastoensurethecouncil Members, 12ofwhomaremembersthepress A- 26memberselectedbythePressCouncilBoard selected bythe highest membershipfigures,orarepresentative G- ThePresidentoftheJournalistsUnion with a representativeselectedbytheExecutive Ethics ofthePressand outlets thathaveagreedto Associations withthe F- ThePresidentsofthethreeJournalists Improvement Foundation, E- deemed acceptablebythePressCouncilSupremeBoard, and ofonlinenewspaperswithaminimumnumberviews and/or videooutletsauthorizedtobroadcastnationally D- Anowner,generalmanager,orrepresentative broadcast nationallyfor to atleast with adailyaverage audio, engaged injournalism,ofagenciesthatproducewritten, C- Owners,ortheirrepresentativeswhoare circulation ofover100,000onaverage engaged injournalism,of B- Owners whom arenotjournalists, The PresidentofthePressCouncilSolidarityand or videomaterialtoatleastfivenewspapers , ortheirrepresentativeswhoareactively two audioorvideooutletsauthorizedto Executive Board, circulation ofover100,000or mostmembersfromamongthe mediaoutletswitha 29 a reasonableprice,

PressCouncilContract,or theCodeofProfessional perday, Board, actively , and14of ofaudio the of

outlets havebecomemembersofthecouncil inrecent attempted coup.Ontheotherhand,anumber ofnewmedia be shutdownbythestatefollowingJuly 15,2016 subsequently decidedtobecomemembersagain; for beingclosetotheGülengroupthathad withdrawn reasons. other outletsalsowithdrewfromtheCouncil forvarious in thesecondhalfof2000s.Independently ofthis, being closetothegovernmentendedtheirmembership agency official statechannel almost alloftheleadingmediaoutlets,including Until relativelyrecently,thePressCouncilincluded 32 31 30 in thepastatPress Councilisthatitdominatedby years. Forexample, Zaman newspaperandBugünTV. TheSözcünewspaper isoneexamplefrom 2018. Forexample,NTVandTV8. or unionrepresentingmediaemployers(ifthereare H- ThePresidentorrepresentativeofanassociation (…) to group onlyhavetherighttosendonerepresentative article, pressorgansbelongingtothesamemedia J- Accordingtothe(B),(C),and(D)clauses membership Executive Boardsofthethreebarswithhighest Associations andrepresentativesassignedbythe I- Arepresentativefromthe Supreme Board, separate category)specifiedbythe or videooutlets,theneachis associations representing 32 Ifanassessmentmust bemade,onecriticismlodged theBKYK. Anadolu 30 Ontheotherhand,agroupofoutletsknown Ajansı figures, . However,mediaoutletsknownfor TRT andtheofficialstatenews ownersofwritten,audio, Union ofTurkishBar tobecountedasa PressCouncil 31 ofthis onlyto

085 086 at thecurrentcompositionofBKYK,wecanseethat one specificmediagroup(DoğanMedya). However, whenwelook only oneofthe40-membercouncilhailsfromthisgroup. concerning breachesofjournalisticprinciples. Unlike on itsownaccordwhennecessary,allcomplaints most importantbeingthatitmustaddress, orinvestigate The dutiesoftheBKYKarelistedinArticle 11,withthe eligible forre-electionthereupon. elected membersaretoserveathree-yeartermand General representsthecouncil.”AccordingtoArticle10, and iftheVicePresidentisabsent,thenSecretary- President isabsent,theViceassumeshisrole, represents thePressCouncil.Ineventthat and vicepresidentfromamongthemselves.ThePresident Supreme Board“electthroughasecretvotepresident According toArticle8oftheContract,members outside ofIstanbul,inthevariousregionsTurkey. need arises.Furthermore,someofthemeetingstakeplace that, itisalsopossibletoholdspecialmeetingsasthe months ofJulyandAugust,itonlymeetsonce.Havingsaid The SupremeBoardconvenestwiceamonth;however,inthe included), jurists,andbusinessmen. ministers, deputies,etc.),academics(rectorsanddeans world includeformerpoliticians(theparliamentaryspeaker, Members oftheSupremeBoardfromoutsidemedia Bayraktar, 2016, p.408. having members frominstitutionsrespected bythepublic,seeDönmezer and Press HonorCouncil(Dönmezer, 1968,p.8).Onthesubjectofbenefit only comprisemembersofthe mediawasalreadyvoicedintheperiodof 34 33 http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/yuksek-kurul-uyeleri/ Theviewthatthemembership oftheself-regulationmechanismshouldnot 34 33 an independentorgantoaddressclaimsofviolations. the manyexamplesinEurope 35 listen tothepartiesandmaycalluponwitnesses.” or ifitreceivesarequestfromtheparties involved,will unless decidedotherwise.TheBKYK,if it deemsnecessary “Every detailoftheBKYK’sgatheringsand votesissecret, at themeeting.”AccordingtoArticle17of thecontract, can bechangedwithatleasta2/3voteof thosepresent complainee has not been assessed” and “theinitialdecision examination orevidenceprovidedbythecomplainant grounds thatamaterialerrorhasbeenmadeintheinitial days followingtheannouncementofdecisionon an extraordinaryappealcanbemadewithinthefirst15 second paragraph,theBKYK’sdecisionsarefinal;“however, cast them.Abstentionisnotpermitted.”Accordingtothe holds onevote.Votesonlyreflecttheviewsofthosewho Decisions aremadebythemajoritypresent.Eachmember least ninemembersmustbepresentforthecounciltomeet. According toArticle16ofthePressCouncilContract,“At of thecode. is currentlyunderwayonupdatingandwideningthescope of complaintsconcerningpublicationsbymediaorgans.Work the PressCouncilrestson,canhelpdeterminelimits of ProfessionalEthicsthePress,otherlegaltext b. TheCode council havebeengiventotheSupremeBoard. can besaidthatallofthedutiesandauthorities 38 37 these membersattendthecouncil’s meetings. bers (Zlatev,2008,p.60).The BKYKhas40members;however,around15-20of 36 politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2017-11/Regulating%20the%20Press.pdf) Tocomparethesituation,seeFielden,2012,p.26.(https://reutersinstitute.

Thebodythatwouldaddress complaintsshouldideallycomprise7-11mem İçelandÜnver, 2012,p.228. http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/basin-meslek-ilkeleri/ of ProfessionalEthicsthePress: 35 , thecouncildoesnothave (accessedApril 11,2018) 37 38 TheCode

36 It -

087 088 the partybeingcomplainedabout, If acompromiseisnotreachedbetweenthecomplainantand 1968, pp.197-198.OnthebacklashagainstPressHonor Council’seffortsto 41 40 ment may,likeotherdecisionsitmakes,beannouncedto thepublic.” The BKYK’sviewsanddecisionsconcerningmattersthat have endedinagree sides reachanagreementdoesnotpreventtheBKYKfrom takingupthematter. 39 are publishedonthewebsiteofPressCouncil. decisions arenotpublished.However,allofthe Professional EthicsofthePress.”But,inpractice,these requirement ofthepledgetheymadetoabidebyCode of decisionsconcerningthemselvesisconsideredtobea members ofthePressCouncil.Publicationbymediaoutlets to besentallpressorgansandmediaoutletsthatare According toArticle19,“ThedecisionsoftheBKYKare the principlesandgoalslaidoutinthosestudies. is structuredasrecommendedinacademicstudies,andabidesby never changed. internalized bythePressCouncilsinceitsveryinception,has “moral” innaturewhenprofessionalethicsareviolated,aview measure. embarrassment throughexposure”servingasasanction only carrytheweightofexposure,withaim“causing this regard,itcanbesaidthatthePressCouncildecisions members ofthepressand/ororgans(Article18).In “warning” or“condemnation”decisionmaybemadeconcerning cessed April11, 2018) 44 43 fines (Sınar,2008,p.64). 42 recognize the“compelling” nature initsdecisions,seeTikveş,1968,p.194. SeeErkelliKızıl,1998,p.124.AlsoİçelandÜnver,2012, p.224;Tikveş, However,seeContractArticle17/2.3:“TheSecretary-General helpingthe Forexample,inSweden,the Councilhastheauthoritytoissuemonetary İçelandÜnver,2012,p.225.

Onthistopic,seeArvas,2011,p.87. http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/category 40 Theidea 42 TheliteraturestatesthatthePressCouncil 41 thatthemostappropriatesanctionis /haber-panosu/basin-konseyi-kararlari/ 39 a“complaintunfounded,” 43 44 (ac - - c. PressCouncil’sRulesandProceduresforEvaluating No differentiation is made between media outlets engaged in majority ofthemediaoutletsaremembers ofthecouncil. members only;however,inthesecountries, the(vast) press councilsareabletoexamineapplication involving It shouldbenotedthatapproximatelyhalf oftheEuropean both mediaoutletsthataremembersandthose thatarenot. As canbeseen,thecouncilacceptscomplaints concerning accusations involvingthefollowing: to decideonapplicationsconcerningthepracticesand According toArticle10oftheprocedures,BKYKis complaints enteringthePressCouncil’sfieldofwork. the detailsofdecision-makingprocessconcerning Applications 45 only regulateprintmedia. take alookattheEuropean examples,halfofthecouncils written oraudio-visual broadcasting.However,ifweareto

Zlatev, 2011,p. 23. above. journalists andmasscommunicationoutletsdescribed authorities) e. Otherparties(suchaspublicinstitutionsor d. Professionalpractices c. Broadcastsofindependentjournalists, broadcasting, b. Allmasscommunicationoutletsengaged and video a. Allpress(media)outletsproducingwritten,audio, : Thisdocumentisakindofbylawandarranges contentpublished/broadcastinTurkey, who implementmeasuresconcerning 45 of journalists, inInternet the

089 090 4. ActivitiesofthePress Council amendment pushedthroughin2002included“websitesthat Likewise, Internetbroadcastsarealsoincluded;an 4.1. ExaminationsofProfessional Ethics Violations headings. The activitiesofthePressCouncilcanbedividedintotwo which theyfilecomplaint. personally beenharmedbyapublicationorbroadcastabout violation ofpersonalrights,doesnotneedtohave Finally, theapplicant,apartfromallegationsofa the mediaoutlet’sofficialpage/accountisinquestion. course, mostofthecouncilsdoinvestigatecomplaintsif social mediaplatformssuchasFacebookandTwitter.Of do notacceptcomplaintsstemmingfrommaterialsharedon of today,morethanhalftheEuropeanpresscouncils Press specificallyaddressesInternetandsocialmedia.As work onupdatingtheCodeofProfessionalEthics engage injournalism.” level individualshaveappliedtothecouncil. Among In recenttimes(2010andlater),alargenumber ofhigh- in mediapublications. violations oftheCodeProfessionalEthics ofthePress that themainactivityofcouncilis to examine self-regulation ofthepress,perhapsone might conclude Since theprimarytaskofPressCouncil istopromote ask thattheapplicant bepersonallyaffected insomeway(Fielden,2012, p.98). 47 46 parliament, the National Police Department, a leading sports them wecancountthe president,ministers,membersof There is no common approach to this topic in Europe; some of the councils may Thereisnocommon approachtothistopic in Europe;someofthecouncils may

Girgin, 2006,p.56. 46 Asnotedabove,someoftheongoing 47 figures (suchasbusinessmen,artists,andmodels), club (Galatasaray),judgesandprosecutors,variouspublic 50 pers, seeParlak, 2015,p.186. 49 600, Switzerland80-100,United Kingdom30,000. 60, Macedonia(FYRO)100,Norway 400-500,Russia25-30,Serbia120,Sweden500- Netherlands 120,Ireland250-300, Montenegro45,Cyprus(Greek)30-35,Kosovo (Flemish region)70,BosniaandHerzegovina500,Estonia 85,Finland470,the CE), 2018,pp.2-3):Germany1,800-2,000,Austria300,Azerbaijan 400-450,Belgium Annual MeetingoftheAllianceIndependentPressCouncils inEurope(AIP independence ofpressandmediacouncils-Ananalysis realizedforthe2017 cils areasfollows(AdelineHulin,Ensuringthefinancial sustainabilityand 48 thereafter waslikelycausedbythefollowing: to thecourts. many oftheapplicationstoPressCouncilbeforwarded principles fallingundervariouslawshasopenedthewayfor regulated inTurkeyandmanyviolationsofjournalistic when comparedwithEurope. to 63in2016,and302017. applications weresubmittedin2015,whereasthisnumberfell following theJuly15,2016coupattempt.Atotalof146 Furthermore, therewasasignificantdropinapplications journalists. Sınar,2008,p. 65. Averagefiguresforapplicationssubmittedtosomeof theEuropeancoun Onthelownumberofapplications comparedtonumberofoperatingnewspa complaints inthecurrentatmosphere. the government,applicantsmaybehesitanttosubmit applications wereagainstmediaoutletscloseto > violations ofpressethicsasamatterpriority. of thereasonscouldbethatpublicdidnotsee for twoyearsbetweenJuly2016and2018,one >

Considering thatalargepartoftheprevious With astateofemergencythatremainedinplace 50 More specifically, the fall seen in 2016 and Morespecifically,thefallseenin2016and 49 The press being comprehensively Thepressbeingcomprehensively 48 These numbers are very low Thesenumbersareverylow

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091 092 the Press andTeaching Ethical Values 4.2 “External”ActivitiesFocused onProtectingFreedom of To thisend,thefollowingeffortscanbe cited: carry themout.” newspapers andjournalists,toexpose those who its goalswassettobe“toinvestigateattacks on When thePressCouncilwasbeingestablished,oneof to representthemediaasawholeagainstgovernment. in fact,toprotectmembersofthepresswhenneededand level. Oneofthedutiesamodernpresscouncilis, rights andfreedomsofjournalistsontheindividual principle andontheneedtoprotectfundamental hard toraiseitsvoiceonfreedomofthepressasa The PressCouncilhasinthelastfewyearsworked haber-panosu/basin-aciklamalari/ 53 52 51 DönmezerandBayraktar,2016, p.408. Arvas,2011,p.86. Thepressreleases areavailableat media outletsbyemergencydecreeshaseliminated > target thepressorjournalists. political, administrative,orjudicialattempts to > outlets theyfollow. to violationsofjournalisticprinciplesthe and politicization,theymaybecomedesensitized publication isexposedtoprolongedpolarization their perceptions:whentheaveragereaderofany perceptions ofthereadershipandchangein > applications concerningtheseoutlets.

The matterathand,generallyspeaking,isthe The naturalresultofshuttingdownopposition It issuedmanypressreleasescriticalof 52 (accessedApril 11,2018) http://basinkonseyi.org. 53

tr/category/ 51

2017 (130pages). 57 56 occupational principles: Activities werealsocarriedouttoprovidetrainingon 55 İstanbul 2015(206pages). 54 Thisproject produced thefollowingpublication: MedyaveEtik,İstanbul,

Forexample,seeZorYıl2014 –BasınÖzgürlüğüRaporu,Konseyi, http://basinkonseyi.org.tr/faaliyet-raporlari/ CFCU/TR2012/0123.01-2 Yolsuzluğun ÖnlenmesiveEtiğinTeşvikiHibeProgramı. as theMinistryofJusticewouldallow.Areporton > of Turkey. communication ofsevenuniversitiesinsix regions media ethicstostudentsinthedepartments of as partofaprojectfinancedbytheEU, > seen online. restrictions ofthepressduringyearcanbe reports documentingtheattemptedattacksonand difficulties facingthepress. > journalists whohadbeenimprisoned. also soughttoprovidemoralsupportallofthe the prisoninSilivriwheretwowereheldbut Gül andCanDündar.Thewatchtookplaceinfrontof “Hope Watch”afterthearrestsofjournalistsErdem council tookituponitselftocoordinateprolonged of thepress.Forexample,secretariat various meetingsordemonstrationsconcerningfreedom human rights.ThePressCouncilorganizedorjoined > media. their viewsandimpressionswassubmittedtothe

It publishedreportsthatdocumentedthe It displayedanactivistattitudeonthetopicof It visitedasmanyarrestedmembersofthemedia The Councilcarriedoutaneducationalprogram, 57

55 54 (accessedApril11,2018) Partsofthese 56 toteach

093 094 Council 5. Difficulties Encounteredby andObstacles Faced by thePress 5.1 ProblemsRelated tothePolitical Situation Turkey. Turkey” project between2016and2018 as aparticipantfrom UNESCO’s “BuildingTrustinMediaSouthEastEuropeand invited tovariousinternationalmeetingsaspartof regularly since2016.Likewise,thePressCouncilwas in 2017. Council joinedtheAllianceofIndependentPressCouncils Furthermore, inapositivedevelopment,theTurkishPress of dialoguewiththegovernment.Andthis reduces the circles, thereisnocontinuousandsustained channel individual meetingswithvariouspeoplefrom government At thesametime,althoughitispossible to have as awhole. it nolongerhasthepossibilityofrepresenting themedia government arenolongermembersofthecouncil. Thismeans As notedabove,themediaoutletsknowntobeclose as andtooffer andreceiveadvice.” for PressCouncil representativestodiscuss topicalissues,toexchange ide for bothpressandbroadcast media.Itsannualconferencesprovideaforum 58 possibility ofhandling issuesthroughdialogue. http://www.aipce.net/“AIPCE isanetworkofindependentcontentregulators headquarters in2017seekingtoeducateyoung > of freedomthepress. seminars, andthelikewereheldtoaddresstopic > journalists usingamulti-disciplinaryapproach.

58 Numerous academicorprofessionalconferences, A free-of-chargeprogramwasheldatthecouncil’s Theformerhadattendedeventsofthelatter

- in Turkeyhassignificantlyreducedthenumberof As mentionedpreviously,thepoliticalsituation Media EthicsCouncil,establishedi the councilfromtimetotime.Oneexampleofthiswas There havebeenattemptstoformalternativeorgans professional ethics. applications tothecouncilconcerningviolationsof these countriesjustifythisbynotingthat thecouncil the presscouncilreceivesstatesupportas well.Bothof partially paidforbytheMinistryofJustice. InGermany, example istheFinnishPressCouncil,whose expensesare varying degrees-receivepublicfunds.An interesting sources, mostofthecouncilsinEurope- albeit to independence, andimpartiality. is alsocloselyintertwinedwiththequestionsof problem experiencedworldwide.Thesourceoffunding Financial problemsfacedbypresscouncilsareageneral 5.2 FinancialDifficulties no longeroperational. effective enoughamongtheTurkishmedia.” Council.” Council was[established]tocounteractthecurrentPress bilateral meeting,indicatedthatthe“MediaEthics work ofthePressCouncil,” that oneofitsgoalswasto“supporttheself-regulation president, HalitEsendir,stressedinaprivatemeeting government.” together representativesofthemediawhosupport 63 titution, see pp. 8-10;alsoseeParlak,2015, p.185. 62 61 60 59 Ayten,2013,p.6. Ayten,2013,p.6. Ayten,2013,p.7.Forthevarious foundationaldeficienciesofthisins Fielden,2012, p.22. Ayten,2013,p.6. 61 Intheend,it“hasbecomeneitherpopularnor 59 Regardlessofhowstronglyitsfirst

60 AtillaGirgin,inanother 63 Onthetopicoffinancial n 2007by“bringing 62 Thisbodyis -

095 096 resolving casesreducesthecaseloadoflegalsystem. 67 66 funding isillegal. 65 address legalmatters(p.95). different, withtheself-regulationorganaddressingethics whilethecourts Fielden, 2012,pp.25-26.Butitshouldbenotedthatthe dutiesofthetwoare 64 very fewofthemembercouncilsAIPCEhavesources funds cannotadequatelycarryoutitsduties. since the1960sthataself-regulationbodylackingsecure engage inlong-termstrategicplanning. of guaranteed future income makes it extremelydifficult to As notedbyUNESCOrepresentativeAdelineHulin,thelack being influencedbythefunders. concern thatreceivingfundinginthiswayopenstheto press councilinquestion. media industryoroutletsthataremembersofthe financing ofmostthecouncilsistakencareby is supportedbyindividualdonationsaswell). the media;infiveBalkanstates,systemoffinancing financing modelinvolvingcontributionsfromthestateand Finland, andBelgium[Flemishregion],thereisamixed financed byamixtureofpublic-privatefunds(inGermany, there isstatefundinginvolved. naturally concernsaboutgovernmentinterventionwhenever from thestate(GreekCyprus,Russia,Austria). In threecountries,themajorityoffundingcomes the paleof reasonableconsideringthe currentpoliticalsituation inTurkey. Press Advertising Agencyshouldprovidefinancial assistance,butthis is beyond 71 70 69 68 Dönmezer,1968,p.16;Tikveş, 1968,p.195.Columnistshavesuggestedthatthe Hulin,2018,p.6. Hulin,2018,p.6.Furthermore,animportantreasonfor this isthatforeign Hulin,2018,p.2. Hulin,2018,p.5. Fielden,2012,p.22. Fielden,2012,p.22. Hulin,2018, p. 5.For furtherdetail on themodelsintwocountries, see 68 Thisbeingthecase,thereisa 66 69 Manycouncilsare 70 Ithasbeensaid 65 71 67 Thereare Furthermore, However,the 64

sustainability. of fundingwithwhichtheycanmaintaintheirfinancial in 2018amounttoapproximately170,000liras. totaled approximately200,000liras.Itsprojectedexpenses approximately 167,000liras.Attheendof2017,itsassets 226,000 liras,butitsexpendituresthatsameyearwere problems. In2017,thePressCouncilobtainedapproximately The councilinTurkeyalsohasveryseriousfunding donations toremainafloat. countries admittedthattheywerefullyreliantonoutside Budapest in2017,presscouncilsfromsomeEasternEuropean 400,000, Montenegro30,000,Cyprus(Greek)22,000,Kosovo 70,000, Macedonia(FYRO) vina 160,000,Estonia11,000,Finland390,000,theNetherlands 165,000,Ireland 235,000, Azerbaijan12,000,Belgium(Flemishregion)200,000, BosniaandHerzego nominated ineuros,areasfollows(Hulin,pp.2-3):Germany 700,000,Austria 74 73 72 calculation method. The mostprevalentmethodinEuropeisthisproportional ratings andfromnewspapersbasedoncirculationfigures. charge” iscollectedfromtelevisionstationsbasedon liras werereceivedfrommembers.An“ethicalservice funding theCouncilobtainedin2017,approximately185,000 application withtheCouncilisfreeofcharge. Unlike thecasewithPressHonorCouncil,filingan cations/violations theyareresponsiblefor (the“payasyoupollute”principle). ber payinganequal share,ormemberspaying inproportiontothenumber ofappli 76 75 zerland 300,000,UnitedKingdom 280,000. 60-80,000, Norway850,000,Russia 130,000,Serbia120,000,Sweden600,000,Swit Hulin,2018,p.7.However,there arealsodifferentsystems,suchaseverymem Forexample,the2017budgetofsomepresscouncils inEurope,de Hulin,2018,p.11. Sınar,2008,p.39.Europetakes thesameapproach(Fielden,2012,p.97). Hulin,2018,p.1. 72 SpeakingatanAIPCEmeetingheldin 76 73 74 75 Ofthe - - - - -

097 098 member mediaoutlets,thiscouldaffectimpartialityand The concernthatwithalmostalloffundingcomingfrom independence wasvoicedatAIPCEmeetings. 77 From theperspectiveofCouncil,secretary-general Yet, theiremploymentrepresentsaseriousbudgetary problem. daily basisinordertoaddresscomplaints on aregularbasis. There isaneedforadministrativepersonnel toworkona the hittoPressCouncilcouldbefatal. outlets decidesnottomakethefinancialpaymentsitowes, sale andtransfer. an agreementwithDemirörenHoldingA.Ş.regardingtheir outlets ownedbyDoğanŞirketlerGrubuHoldingA.Ş.reached As thisarticlewasbeingpreparedforpublication,media council anditsdecision-makingovercomplaints. and thatitisimportanttoseparatethefinancingof transparent mechanismsforthewaycouncilsfunction, ensured throughputtinginplaceclearmethodsand It isagenerallyacceptedviewthatindependence council cannotvoteonthematter. outlet thatisthesubjectofanapplicationwith voting rights.Furthermore,themember/employeeofamedia only onerepresentativeontheSupremeBoardwithequal financial contributionisofeverymediagroup,theyhave the foundingdocumentsrequirethatnomatterwhat of theTurkishcouncil’sactivities.Thisisbecause said thatthisdoesnotposeaproblemtotheindependence 81 22, 2018( 80 79 and document,totheextent possible (Sınar,2008,p.67). 78 Zlatev,2008, p. 59. Onceagain,seeSınar,2008,p.23. Onthispoint,itisimportant topublishonlineeverypieceofresearch Zlatev,2008,p.61. Seetheannouncementmade to thePublicDisclosurePlatform(KAP)onMarch https://www.kap.org.tr/en/Bildirim/669782 80 However,ifthenewmanagementofthese ) (accessedApril 11,2018) 77 Butitcanbe 79 78

is 81

Work Rules,thesecretary-general“…istoreachan the criticalemployee.AccordingtoArticle14of task. is strugglinginemploying someonetocompletethis longer enjoysatisfactory compensation,thecouncil means, andbecausethe secretary-generalcanno because the council no longer possesses the financial command acompetitivesalaryforthistask. But a largerbudget,thesecretary-generalwas ableto in previousyearsthereweremanymoremembers and has traditionallybeenajurist.Moreover, because Given thenatureoftask,personselected who istorecordtheSupremeBoard’sdecisions. As canbeseen,thesecretary-generalis person reasonable --andannounceittothepublic.” consideration theobjections--ifs/hefindsthem general] istopreparethefinaltext,takinginto conveyed byaspecificdateandtime.[Thesecretary- that ifobjectionsareraisedtothetext,theybe soon aspossibleandinwrittenform,request to allofthememberswhoattendedmeetingas to forwardthedraftofSupremeBoard’sdecisions according toArticle29,“[Thesecretary-general]is her ownviews,allofthistotheBKYK.Furthermore, preparing dossiers,andpresenting,togetherwithhis/ dealing withcorrespondenceconcerningcomplaints, the secretary-generalispersontaskedwith or herownrecommendations.”Fromthispointofview, Supreme Boardexplainingthematteralongwithhis he istopresentareportthePressCouncil is notfoundwithinareasonableperiodoftime,s/ help bringthesidestoacompromise.Ifsolution applications. To thisend, the secretary-general is to this beinghis/herprimarydutyasconcerns amicable solutiontotopicsraisedinapplications,

099 100 administrative secretary. For thesamereason,councilnolongerevenhasan members oftheSupremeBoardcovertheirownexpenses, president andvicearenotpaid,allofthe full-time. tors (full-time),Switzerlandonefull-timeandpart-time, UnitedKingdom22 two full-timeandpart-time,Swedeninvestigators and twoadministra nia (FYRO)threefull-time,NorwayfiveRussia part-time,Serbia Cyprus (Greek)onefull-timeandpart-time,Kosovofive full-time,Macedo the Netherlandstwopart-time,Irelandthreefull-time,Montenegro onefull-time, one accountant,Estoniafull-time,Finlandthreefull-time andonepart-time, me andonepart-time,BosniaHerzegovinathreefull-time, threeconsultants, and onepart-time,Azerbaijanfourfull-time,Belgium(Flemishregion)full-ti follows (aforementionedreport,p.3):Germany10full-time,Austriatwofull-time 82 languages anddistributeit. makes itimpossibletotranslateresearchintoforeign publish anddistribute.Furthermore,thelackofpersonnel Financial difficultieshavemadeitquitedifficultto financial situation. pose anearinsurmountableproblemgiventhebody’scurrent or thecouncilisaskedtovacateproperty,thiswould for thecouncil,butifrentweretobeincreasedand/ for aminisculeamount.Thisofficeisnotsuitableplace operates outofasmallofficeitrentsfrommunicipality At thispoint,itshouldbestressedthatthePressCouncil current budgetisonlyenoughtocoverbasicexpenses. every meeting they attend.Formoreonthis topic,seeHulin,2018,pp. 4-5. Herzegovina, members ofthecomplaintcommittee receive100eurosper dayfor per meeting,andtheremaining fourmembersreceive45euros.InBosniaand example, intheNetherlands, thepresidentofcommitteereceives113euros evaluating complaintsreceive a“betterment”payfortheirefforts.For 83 WhenwesurveythepresscouncilsinEurope,numberofemployeesareas However,inmostofthepress councilsinEurope,themembersofbody 82 Despitethefactthat

83 - - the - 5.3 Difficulties ConcerningtheEffectsofDecisions 2017 AIPCEmeetings: principles. Thefollowingpointscameupat the2016and deliberately andsystematicallyviolatejournalistic acute inTurkeyishowtoapproachmedia outlets that A notableproblemseeninEasternEuropethatisespecially 5.4 OutletsthatRegularly ViolateMediaEthics obligated todoso. concerning itselfeventhoughtheyarecontractually again thatnomemberoutletregularlypublishesdecisions in fullonitsownwebsite.However,itshouldbenoted the TurkishPressCouncilpublishesallofitsdecisions the wholedecision,preparedbycouncil.Asnotedabove, media organsthemselvesregularlypublishasummary,ifnot countries (forexample,Belgium,andBosniaHerzegovina) Macedonia, wherethedecisionsareneverpublished.Insome Interestingly, thereareexamplesofplaces,suchas whether atleastthedecisionsarepublishedisimportant. that effectivenessofitssanctionsmaynotbegreat. inherent defectofavoluntaryself-regulationmechanism how “seriously”thesedecisionsaretaken.Itisanalready common viewisthatitnotpossibletomeasureexactly and respectfordecisionsmadebypresscouncils.The One topicdiscussedatAIPCEmeetingsistheeffectiveness 84 SeeGölcüklü, 1970,p.203;Dönmezerand Bayraktar, 2016,p.408. considered a“newspaper.” good. Anoutletthat does notdothiscannotevenbe consideration ifitis beneficialtothepublic should decideonwhat topublishwhiletakinginto whether thegovernment’sinterestsarebeing metbut What iscalleda“newspaper”shouldnotlook at >

The conceptofa“partisan”newspaperis wrong.

84 But

101 102 6. InternetandSocialMedia sion &UNESCO, AdahanIstanbulHotel,October 27,2017. Self-Regulation inMediaTurkeyRoundtable Meeting),P24&European Commis 85 Herzegovina in2016and attendedbyrepresentativesfrom Two separatemeetings wereheldinFinlandandBosnia its steadygrowthattheexpenseoftraditional media. councils shouldplayinregulatingsocial media,given press councilsoperatinginEuropeiswhat rolethepress The maintopicbeingdiscussedoverthepast fewyearsby One currentdebateconcernstheregulation ofsocialmedia. kind ofstructureunderthepresentconditions. It isnotpossibletoapplytheideaofself-regulationthis pressure onlocalauthoritiesinordertobenefitpersonally. media outlets,especiallyinAnatolia,whosesolegoalistoput One topicoftendiscussedatprofessionalmeetingsisprovincial support throughignoringjournalisticprinciples. disinformation, arefinancedtothatend,andmaintainpublic debate mediaethicswithoutletsthatexisttospread and UNESCO. in IstanbulwithsupportoftheEuropeanCommission organized bytheP24PlatformforIndependentJournalism journalistic principleswasraisedatameetingthat that somemediaoutletsoperatinginTurkeycomplywith The viewthatitisanexerciseinfutilitytotryensure Türkiye’deMedyanınÖzdenetimini EtkinleştirmeToplantısı(Promoting council, thenitsmembership(orthatofmembersin > abide byprofessionalethics. the systemandtherewouldbenowaytoensurethey or individualsinquestionwouldbepushedoutsideof view isthatthisnotasolutionbecausetheoutlet question) shouldbereconsidered.However,thedominant

If suchanoutletisevenamemberofthepress 85 Iagreewiththisview:Itisfutileto - and academicsjournalistsfromWesternEurope.Among Eastern Europeanpresscouncils,UNESCOrepresentatives, Series onInternet Freedom,UNESCO,2015, pp. 54-57. see “Principles forgoverningtheInternet –AComparativeAnalysis,” UNESCO national instrumentsandbasic ethicalrulesonInternetusage.Onthistopic, 86 Kosovo). TheTurkishPress Council,asnotedearlier,includes adapted forthespecificnatureof“online media”(suchas that believetherulesshouldfundamentally bethesame,but journalism (forexample,Finland).Thereare alsocountries everyone involvedinanyactivitythatcould qualifyas for socialmediaandthatthesamerulesshould applyfor few councilshavesaidthereisnoneedfor specialrules they havedecidedtodosoinfuture.Onthe otherhand,a for socialmedia;andwhileothershavenot donesoyet, more, somecouncilshavealreadycomeupwithspecialrules do havearoletoplayinregulatingsocialmedia.Whatis However, thedominantviewappearstobethatpresscouncils Rules forSocialMedia.” in Finland2014ontheetiikka.fiwebsitetitled“Just show theway.Infact,universitystudentspreparedaguide oversight.” for socialmediaistocreaterules“voluntaryself- responsibility. Accordingtothisview,theonlysolution other words,eachpersonshouldexerciseindividual prospect onthistopicis“self-regulation”;in practice toregulatesocialmedia.Theonlyrealistic According tooneview,itisnotgenerallypossiblein 6.1. IsRegulation ofEthics Possible? and towhomprofessionalethicalguidelinesshouldapply. journalism,” andifso,shouldtheyapplydifferentrules, press councilsshouldregulateonlinesourcesand“open the issuesdiscussedweresuchquestionsaswhetherornot Furthermore,therearerecommendations onputtinginplacevariousinter 86 Theroleofmediaoutletshereisperhapsto -

103 104 current legislation,whichregulatesworkingprinciples, online activitiesinitsscope.However,becauseour Within the Purview ofthePress Council’sWithin thePurview Authority? 6.2. WhoonSocialMediaandWhatTypes ofSharingFall principles. as partofourongoingefforttoupdateprofessional to theInternetandsocialmediaarebeingevaluated media. Fromthispointofview,specificrulespertaining is old,itonlytookintoconsiderationtraditional form, itissubjecttojournalisticprinciples. criticism ornews,irrespectiveofthemedium orthe is shared.Ifajournalistsharescontent that includes (i.e., thattheyareajournalist)andthecontent ofwhat a criterion.Whatisimportantthesharer’s identity medium throughwhichtheydisseminatework cannotbe are oftheopinionthat:incasejournalists, the Some ofthepresscouncils,andIagreewith thisview, publish articlesonFacebookorsharenewsviaTwitter. Included inthisgroupareprofessionaljournalistswho 6.2.1. Journalists WhoSharePosts onSocialMedia mentioned. authority presscouncilsdoandnothavecanbe media. Threemaintopicsofdebateconcerningwhat it comestotheregulationofInternetandsocial broadcast fallunderthepurviewofcouncilwhen There isadebateoverwhoandwhattypeofpublication/ 87 professional ethics, we will have accepted the existence content sharedviasocial mediaassubjectto The reasonforthisis simple:Ifwedonotconsider Onthistopic, seealsoFielden,2012,pp. 101-102. 87 traditional media,whichwouldneedtopreparenewsand of twoseparatemediumsforjournalists.Onewouldbethe html 88 share, isthatthere is nosuchdesignationasablogger; The dominantopinion at AIPCEmeetings,andwhichIalso consequences. business maysufferveryseriouscommercial andfinancial restaurant intheirownsocialmediacorner, theplaceof untrue anddefamatoryinformationabout,for example,a West evenmillions,offollowers.Whenablogger shares accounts sometimeshavehundredsofthousands, andinthe views (bloggers,vloggers).Asisknown,these typesof maintain ablogthroughwhichtheyshare their personal the debateareindividualswhonotjournalistsbut The primarygroupinthiscategoryandthecausing Matters viaSocialMedia Be ConsideredNews orWhoRegularly CommentonSocial IndividualsWhoShareContentThatCan 6.2.2. Ordinary committed aviolation. who hadsharedinformationviatheirTwitteraccount example ofthis;adecisionwasmadethatonejournalist compliance withprofessionalethics.Infact,wehavean a journalistsharesviatheirTwitteraccountisin regulations areadequatetoassesswhetheranewsarticle According totheTurkishPressCouncil,current clear thathavingthisdualityisnotacceptable. established orviewsthatconstitutedefamation.Itis insult or,forexample,ornewswhoseveracityhasnotbeen with theseprinciples.Thiswouldallowfortheairingof the otherwouldbesocialmedia,whichneednotcomply criticism inaccordancewithjournalisticprinciples,and

http://www.medyagunlugu.com/Haber-2569-gazeteciler-twitlerinden-de- (accessedApril 11,2018) 88 sorumlu.

105 106 If abloggerisjournalistandusingtheirright and thereisnopointincomingupwithsuchadesignation. and, inthe eventofalegaldispute, strengthenstheir something similar, increasesthe prestigeofthesepersons that receivingaccreditation bywayofapresscouncil,or with itsometangible benefit.Itcanbesaid,forexample, “accreditation” tothe websitesinquestionmustbring for thisimplementation toseeanydemand,providing could serveasasourceofadditionalincome. Ofcourse, ethics guidelines.Ifpresscouncilstake on thistask,it not toawebsitethatvoluntarilyabides by professional press councils)shouldgiveanytypeofaccreditation or this secondcategoryiswhetheraninstitution (andalso One topic of discussion concerning individuals who fit into commenting onEkşisözlüktoabideby“journalistic ethics.” no discussionabouttheobligationofananonymousperson EkşiSözlük wasrejectedforthesamereason:Therecanbe denigrating commentsmadeaboutacommercialbusinesson an applicationsubmittedtothePressCouncilconcerning they arenotmembersoftheprofessioninquestion.Thus, these individualsabideby“professionalethics”because regulation. Therecannotbeanydiscussionofwhether fall intothiscategoryarenotsubjecttomediaself- dominant view,withwhichIagree,isthatindividualswho a placeofbusinessonEkşisözlük(awikiwebsite).The who makesatangibleorintangiblevaluejudgmentabout politician ontheirFacebookaccount,oraregularperson something theysawontheroad,orsomeonewhocriticizesa for exampleapersonwhosharesonTwittervideoof not boundbytheprofessionalrulesofjournalism.”Take This beingthecase,wecansaythat“bloggersarepeople bound byjournalisticethics. “blogger” orwhilepublishinga“blog”cannotevadebeing category; ajournalistwhopresentshimorherselfas to publishnewsorcriticism,theyfallintotheearlier in thiscase,besubjecttobothself-regulationand standing intheeyeoflaw;andbecausetheywill, 6.2.3. IndividualsWhoFall TheseTwo Between Categories the effectivenessofcouncilsonnationallevel. hate speech, the presenceofcertainviolations(incitementtoviolence, social mediaplatformsremovespecificposts,atleastin the councilsshouldacceptauthoritytodemandthat On theotherhand,accordingtoanarrowersuggestion, “media source.” there isbenefittoacceptinganddeclaringbloggersasa condition thattheyagreetoabidebythecouncil’srules, According toanevenmoreambitiousproposition,withthe bounds oflawandethicswillincrease. external regulation,thelikelihoodofstayingwithin journalists ornewgraduateswhohavenot foundworkyet. for anymediaoutlet.Sub-categoriesinclude unemployed shared byjournalistsonsocialmediawho donotwork The otherexampleinvolvesthestatusof material common agreementexistsyetonthistopic. be theobligationsofmediaoutletsinthis instance?No above, theyarethemostproblematicgroup. What should not journaliststhemselves.Ofthethreecategorieslisted “blog” ontheofficialwebsiteofanewspaperbutwhoare and EuropebutlesssoinTurkey,arebloggerswhohavea The clearestexampleofthispractice,widespreadintheUS ne HateSpeech, UNESCOSeriesonInternet Freedom,UNESCO,2015. Iginio Gagliardone/Danit Gal/ThiagoAlves/Gabriela Martinez,Countering Onli 89 beneficial toadopta policydecisiononthisissue. What isthestatusof theseindividuals?Itwouldbe Forrecommendationsonhow tocounterhatespeechontheInternet,see 89 discrimination).Thisauthoritywillincrease

107 108 7. forReader Responsibility Comments ficant (SeeTezcanetal.,2016,p.516). are lightandtheeffectonbusinesslifeofapplicant isinsigni taken afterthepublicationofcommentsareinsufficient; thesanctions not possibletoholdthosewholeavecommentsresponsible; themeasures professionally runandenablesreadercommentsforcommercial gain;itis 90 shortfalls, inmyopinion: in Turkey.However,thisapproachhastwoimportant published. AsfarasIknow,thisisalsocommonpractice In otherwords,onlycommentsapprovedbyeditorscanbe in manycountriestoadoptthemodelofpre-moderation. particular case, Although thisdecisionwasbasedonthespecificsofa published, thenewsportalneedsalsotobefined. containing illegalcontenttoberemovedafterbeing The decisionstatesthatitisnotenoughforcomments news portalresponsibleforpublishedreadercomments. Rights (DelfiASv.Estonia)datedJune16,2015holdsthe websites. AdecisionoftheEuropeanCourtHuman responsibility forreadercommentspublishedonnews An importanttopicthatneedstobediscussedis 2016, p.156. ber statesto implement notification-based liabilitylegislationseeAkdeniz, responsibility ofintermediaries butalsomadeitmoredifficultforEUmem 2013, p.16.Formoreonhowthe ECtHRdecisiondidnotresolvethematterof third parties,seeInternetIntermediaries: DilemmaofLiability,Article19, 91 Forrecommendationsonmodels ofresponsibilityforcontentprovidedby Criteriatakenintoconsiderationincludethefollowing: Theportalis approved andchosetopublish. responsible” whenitcomestoviewsthenewsportal the personalviewofreader.Icannotbeheld editor. Itisnolongerpossibletostate“This outlet responsibleformessagesapprovedbythe 1- Itisnolongerpossiblenottoholdthemedia 90 thisapproachwillpushnewsportals

91 - -

8. Journalistic PrinciplesAdaptingtoNew Developments entirety a news articleprepared bysomeoneelse,even if is appropriate, fromanethical perspective, tousein its violation fromthevery start.Wemustdiscusswhetherit source withoutitsapproval orpermissionisanethical opinion, duplicating the newsarticle/contentfromanother in question,listing the sourceisnotsufficient.Inmy is done.Infact,whenthiskindof“integral” transferis Sometimes thesourceislisted,butsometimes noteventhis copy-paste theworkofothersinlargepart orinfull. First ofall,manyInternetportalsinTurkey simply recommendations. to atleastbringupsomeofmyownpersonal viewsand While consultationsinthisregardcontinue, Iwouldlike on updatingtheCodeofProfessionalEthicsPress. I havealreadystatedthatthePressCouncilisworking is opentodebate. responsible inthisinstance,butcriminalresponsibility law mayholdthenewsportallegallyandfinancially and announcesthattothepublic?Inmyopinion,Turkish publishes itsreaders’commentswithoutbeingmoderated On theotherhand,whatisstatusofanewsportalthat of the17millioncommentsitreceived. meeting, example, accordingtotheauthoritieswhojoinedanAIPCE regulation, whatexpertisethispersonpossesses.For who andhow(accordingtowhatcriteria)isinchargeof that arepublished,thereasonsforrejectingcomments, publicly announce the following: the percentage of comments Websites usingthesetypesofmoderationmodelsneedto readers’ views,andthisclearlycreatesaproblematic 2- Editorshavebecomeanewsortof“censor” situation intermsoffreedomspeech. The Guardian declinedtopublishonlytwopercent

109 110 Council hasadoptedaruleallowingatmostthirdof the sourceismadeclear.Forexample,SerbianPress specific content withcommercial concernsinmind. entice readers throughdishonest meansanddirectthem to goal ofthispractice, commonlyknownas“clickbait,”isto article andonlyserve torousereadercuriosity.Theonly social media)thatdo notreflectthecontentofnews false, exaggerated,or sensationalheadlines(especiallyon There shouldalsobeaprovisiontoprevent theuseof ratings, orviews. should notbeusedtosimplyincreasecirculation numbers, curious readers.Inparticular,picturesof thehumanbody the contentofnewsarticlebutonly serve todrawin is usingvisualmaterialsthatareentirely unrelatedto Another ethicalviolationfrequentlyseen ontheInternet presented asfinalornearlyexact.” hope shouldbeavoided.Preliminaryfindingsnot that canleadtobaselessfearandgivereadersfalse “When reportingonmedicalissues,asensationalapproach 12 ofthejournalisticprinciplesenforcedinPakistan, draw inmorereaders.Forexample,accordingtoArticle faith indoctorsandfromresortingtosensationalism provision topreventthesearticlesfromshakingpatients’ attention, isunethical.Therefore,thereshouldbea exaggerated andsensationalfashion,alltoattractmore presented. Inmyopinion,presentinghealthnewsinan Another problemisthewaynewsconcerninghealth academia orevenpettytheft. their permissionisanydifferentfromplagiarismin say thattakingsomeoneelse’sworkandusingitwithout “acceptable” inTurkeyanddoneoften,itisdifficultto on thismatteraswell.Evenif“duplication”isseen needs tobelisted.Ithinkwecanalsointroducealimit an articletobeusedasis,andeventhen,thesource

seen inTurkeyishighcirculationnewspaperspresenting What’s more,oneunethicalpracticethatisveryfrequently that isremoved fromanarticle: Itmustbemadeclear there must also beanexplanation concerninganycontent changed mustbemade clear. Accordingtothesamestudy, first informingthepublic: Whenandwhereanarticlewas media,” itisnotpossible tochangeanewsarticlewithout recently preparedstudy containingguidelinesfor“online explanation. InSerbia,forexample,according toavery out tobefalsearejustremovedsilently, withoutany and inpracticearticlesthatcontainmistakes orturn false information.Thereisnoregulation requiring this, accord ofarticlesthatarelaterdiscovered tocontain Media outletsshouldalsopublishcorrections ontheirown victim andisagraveerror. the crimeshiftsfocusfromperpetratorto the victimortheirpersonallifedemeanortoexplain “stories” is unacceptable. Also,bringingup the identity of Furthermore, eroticizingsexualcrimesbyturningtheminto exaggeration andvictimblamingshouldnotberesortedto. on crimesagainstsexualinviolability,sensationalismor of theperpetratororvictim.Likewise,whenreporting there isnobenefitforthepublictoknowidentity against orbychildren.Asarule,inallofthesecases, the sameprinciplemustapplyforallcrimescommitted would makeiteasiertoexposethevictim.Furthermore, name, photograph,educationallevel,andthelikethat inviolability shouldnotincludeinformationsuchasthe are reported.Newsarticlesoncrimesagainstsexual assault, sexualabuse,harassment,andthelike One importantissueisthewaycrimessuchassexual of commercialconcernsgoesagainstthe“publicgood.” it moredifficultforreaderstoaccessnewsarticlesout solely toincreasetheclickcount:Itisclearthatmaking articles ontheirwebsitespiecemealin“slide”format

111 112 practice inDenmark,forexample,theneedcorrection if andwhycontentisremoved.Accordingtothecodeof be published withouttheapproval oftheoriginalauthor.” substantially modifiedbytheeditorial departmentshould the conditionsinTurkey, “Noarticlethathasbeen Lastly, evenifitmay soundlikeadreamconsidering organ thats/heworks for.” his orherjournalisticendeavor,exceptfrom themedia accept orrequestanybenefitforproduct thatresultsfrom impression ofaconflictinterest.Ajournalist mustnot relationship thatcouldarousesuspicion or givethe should notbeinvolvedinanyoccupation, job orpublic According totheIsraelicodeofconduct, “A journalist is alackofprovisionstopreventconflict ofinterest. Another important pointthatshouldberaisedisthere is tobeexplained.” criminal investigationorprosecution,thefinaldecision then theprosecutionanddefense).Ineventofa equally theviewsofparties(ifinacriminalcourt, the durationoftrial,caremustbetakentoconvey objectively. AccordingtotheDanishcodeofconduct,“For of them.Thecoursejudicialcasesshouldbepresented at thedefendantsandconveynodetailthatisinfavor about court hearings that only contain accusations directed intentionally biased.Anexampleofthisisnewsarticles in awaythatwouldswaypublicopinionandis especially, weseesomemediaoutletsconveyinformation news ispresented.Inlegalcasesofpoliticalimportance Another painfulprobleminourcountryisthewaylegal information. easily understandthemistakethatwasmadeandcorrect presented insuchawaythatthereaderorlistenercan spotted inapublishedarticle.Thecorrectionshouldbe arises assoonanerroronmattersofimportanceis 9. ConclusionandAnalysis the publicintheirname.Iamawarethatthiskindofrule This isbecausesomethingonedidnotsaypresentedto to restrictfreedomofthepress. this opensthewaytocorruptattemptswhosemaingoalis state authoritywilltakeituponitselftodoso;and press cannotregulatetheseabusesonitsown,thenthe As longasapressexists,therewillbeabuses.Ifthe The importanceofself-regulationinthepressisclear. will notbeacceptedbyeditorialdepartmentsinTurkey. of thegovernmentwillnotcontributeanything positiveto of self-regulationthateveryoneaccepts is independent press isunderparticularthreat,removing aninstitution current politicalsituationinTurkey,where freedomofthe the PressCouncilfromscratch.”Itisclear thatinthe Furthermore, therearealsosuggestionsto “restructure receives mostlycomefromcirclescloseto thegovernment. reasons andscopemaydiffer,todaythecriticisms it since thefirstyearsofitsestablishment.Although The PressCouncilhasbeenthetargetofvariouscriticism prestige. press isundoubtedlydoomedtolosebothitsfreedomand notes, effective self-regulationmechanism. have longvoicedthegreatimportanceofestablishingan professional violations.Turkey’smostimportantjurists the mosteffectivesystemwhenitcomestodealingwith widely acceptedintheWesttodaythatself-regulationis 94 93 p. 216.AlsoseeGirgin,2006, p.49. 92 the press.Likewise,recent experienceshowsthatattempts Forsimilaranalyses,seeGölcüklü, 1970,pp.201-202;İçelandÜnver,2012, Dönmezer,1968, p.4;Tikveş,1968,198. ErkelliKızıl, 1998,p.130. 94 whenjournalisticethicsarenotprotected,the 92 Inthisrespect,itis 93 Asonecolumnist

113 114 or educationsystem),whose“reform”wasdemandedbecause to “rejuvenate”variousinstitutions(suchasthejudiciary norms weakenstheauthorityofeachother. one ofthem;likewise,conflictsarisingamongstthemin having thesamedutyreducespowerofeachandevery existence in a disorganized manner of multiple institutions basic institutionfromexisting.Fromthispointofview, will, inmyopinion,hinderarespectedandauthoritative Attempts tocreatedifferentself-regulationinstitutions result. they nolongermetexpectations,havenotproducedabetter 95 and evaluatingtheworkofcouncilmade public.Itis But, othersneedtovoicetheircriticism after monitoring Council clearlyneedstoexplainandmakes itscasebetter. as welltheircurrentmembersandprojects. ThePress assessed basedontheircurrentstructure andfunction baggage” fromitspast.However,institutions shouldbe past mistakes.Everyinstitutionnodoubthas“emotional group). (such asthatitisunderthecontrolofaspecificmedia that arenolongervalidandstemfromearlierperiods The PressCouncilinTurkeyremainssubjecttocriticisms regulation mayperhapsmeanthe“absenceoforganizations.” having a“pluralityoforganizations”inthefield self- each institutionwillremainweak.Fromthispointofview, of oneanother,alltheireffortswillfallshort,and many institutionsalldoingthesameworkindependent per atthetime, servedasitspresident for alongtime(Arvas,2011, p.90). ased becauseOktay Ekşi,whowasthechief columnistattheHürriyet newspa 96 lexity ofthelocalmediascene.” riate forTurkeythanacouncil model,giventhesize,diversityandcomp argument thatanews-ombudsman modelofmediaself-regulationismoreapprop CompareZlatev,2011,p.38:accordingtotheauthor,“This reinforcesthe Forexample,thePressCouncil wasaccusedofbeinganti-democraticandbi 96 Furthermore,therearehurtfeelingsfrompossible 95 Ifthereare - - - - of experienceandestablishanewonefromscratch.Itis not feasibletoignoreaninstitutionwith30-oddyears to allkindsofprevailinggovernments.” types ofinstitutionsrestontheirabilitytostandup columnist noted,“Thesuccessandeffectivenessofthese Press Councilforbeingan“opponent.”But,asone Today, segmentsclosetothegovernmentcriticize this efforttogether. all ofthesestakeholderscometogetherandcarryout from mediastakeholders.Butwhatisimportantthat principles, andthelikeinlightofcriticismcoming organs, theircompositionandelectionofmembers,work always possibletochangethePressCouncil’sstructure, of principle,thefollowingevaluationshave beenmade: there areshortcomings.Infact,fromthe point ofview carried outthedutiesithasassigneditself, though brought acertainlevelofrecognitionto itselfand It isundeniablethatthePressCouncilin Turkeyhas legal casesfiledagainstjournalistsand mediaoutlets. other officialinstitutions,andreducethe numberof prevent interventionsthatcouldcomefrom thestateor in themedia,encourageincreasedstandardsofquality, press councilshavethesebasicfunctions:buildtrust When welookatcomparativeapplications,seethatthe executive-judicial). presented bythethreepillarsofstate(legislative- the mostimportantthreatsfacingfreedomofpress being inacontinuousstateofstruggletheface nothing more naturalandnecessarythan the PressCouncil 97 effective, themostactive, andplacesthegreatest together, wecansay that thePressCouncilismost “When weanalyzeall of theself-regulationmechanisms Ayten,2013,p. 14. 97 Therecanbe

115 116 importance ontheprincipleofgoodjournalism” le journalism.” outside pressureandinterventionsbutalsothepublic goodfromirresponsib be saidthatthePressCouncilaimstoprotectjournalists fromirresponsible nalists failedtocarryouttheirresponsibilities the publicgood.Itcan the tramplingofjournalists’professionalrights,and also exposedwhenjour condemned theassaultandassassinationofjournalists, reactedstronglyto ports ofthePressCouncilpublishedsinceitsestablishment, theCouncilhas 98 these platforms(andithasbegunworkonthisalready). faces. TheCouncilmustfindaneffectivewaytoreach the difficultiesandpressureTurkey’sconventionalmedia become themostcommonwaytoinformpublicinlightof Internet portalsinitssystem.Onlineplatformshave An importantchallengeforthePressCouncilistoinclude The councilneedstoshowsomeeffortontheseissues. difficult forthecounciltopromoteitselfnationwide. Press Councilhaslimitedsourcesoffunds,makingitmore that thereareshortfallsinreachingawiderpublic. of theapplicantstoPressCouncil,itshouldbenoted freedom ofthepress.” everything itcantocarryoutitsmission“toprotect activities, itcanbesaidthatthecouncilhasdone we lookatthegoalsofinstitutionanditscurrent an unparalleledself-regulationinstitution.” its workunremittinglyandretainedcharacteras “despite allthesecriticisms,theCouncilhascontinued 102 101 Sınar, 2008,p.61. press, contraryto,forexample, theexampleseeninUnitedKingdom,see 100 99 Parlak,2015,p.185.AlsoseeArvas,2011,86:“Looking attheannualre Arvas,2011,p.90. Parlak,2015, p. 186. Sınar,2008,p. 63. OnhowtheTurkishPressCouncil hasstronglysupportedfreedomofthe 100 However,consideringtheprofile 99 Andwhen 98 and 101 The 102

- - - that itshouldhaveanarmcomprisingtechnocrats Another recommendationforthePressCouncilis colleagues shouldbeanimportantgoal. At theveryleast,increasingtrainingandawarenessof knowledge thatsetsstandardsinprofessionalpractice. council partiallytofulfillitsroleasacenterof employees increases,suchaneffortwillenablethe and researchers.Undoubtedly,whenthenumberofits and inourotherInternetsearches,itcanbeseenthat noresearchhas the TGC[TurkishJournalistsAssociation],andMedia EthicsCouncil sible tosolvethematter.Lookingatwebsitesof PressCouncil, problem somethingthathasnotbeenmeasuredis,itis similarly impos (Parlak, 2015,p.195):“Justasitisnotpossibletoknow howbigofa 104 103 lobby GoogleconcerningitsoperationsinTurkeyandwork held inTurkey, effectiveness ofthecouncils.Forexample,inonemeeting matter benefitsboththepublicgoodandincreases it remainunknown.Cooperatingwiththecouncilsonthis has itsownfiltrationsystem,butthecriteriabehind articles aresharedonthismassiveplatform.Facebook meetings withFacebook.Hundredsofthousandsnews journalistic ethics.Animportantexampleofthisis also seemtoengageinlobbyingonmattersthatconcern Another currentissueisthatpresscouncilsinEurope its typology. Press Councilandtoexamineeachviolationaccording to classifybycategorytheviolationsidentified 105 figures.” principles; andhowbigof an effecttheyhaveonnewspapers’circulation tic principles;forthosethat donot,thereasonsfornotabidingby the reasonsbehindit; percent ofnewspapersthatabidebyjournalis been undertakenconcerning the publicationoffalsenews;itsprevalence; Seefootnote 85. Ayten,2013,p.14. Infact,thefollowingdeterminationhasbeenmadein the doctrine 104 105 it was suggested that the Press Council itwassuggestedthatthePressCouncil 103 Itisuseful - -

117 118 or entirely removed from the results page. I also believe that or entirelyremovedfromtheresultspage.Ialsobelievethat to ensurethatoutletspublishfalsenewsberelegated freedom ofspeech,andthepressareupheld. media canonlyworkinasocietywheredemocraticvalues, Lastly, itisworthnotingthatself-regulationwithinthe these effortsarebeneficial. always facegreatdifficulties. these principles,anyattemptsatself-regulationwill as thegovernmentandsocietyinTurkeydonotfullyabsorb From thisperspective,wemustadmitthefollowing:Aslong 106 Sınar,2008,p. 22. 106

İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi,27, pp.47-62 İlkeleri ve BasınKonseyi.” İstanbul Üniversitesi Girgin, A.(2006).“Yazılı İletişimdeMeslek the Study ofJournalism. Press Councils.Oxford:Reuters Institute for – AComparative Study oftheInternational Fielden, L.(ed.)(2012).Regulating thePress Mecmuası, LVI (1-4),pp.115-131. İstanbul Üniversitesi HukukFakültesi Saygınlığın SağlanmasındakiRolü ve Önemi.” Bağlamında BasınAhlâkınınMesleğinde Erkelli Kızıl,N.(1998).“Hukuk-Ahlâk İlişkisi Hukuku. İstanbul: Beta. Dönmezer S.andBayraktar, K.(2016). Basın Mecmuası, 34(1-4),pp.3-16 İstanbul Üniversitesi HukukFakültesi Dönmezer, S.(1968).“BasındaOto-Kontrol.” Dergisi Akademia,2(2),pp.82-92. Özdenetim Uygulamaları.” Erciyes İletişim Anlayışı BağlamındaGünümüzTürkiye’sindeki İ.S.(2011).“BasındaSosyal Arvas, Sorumluk İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi,44(1),pp.1-17. Medya Etik Konseyi.” İstanbul Üniversitesi Ayten, A.(2013).“BirÖzdenetimAracı Olarak İstanbul BilgiÜniversitesi Yayınları Akdeniz, Y. (2016).İnternette Irkçılık. İstanbul: Bibliography sustainability and independence of press andindependenceofpress sustainability Hulin A.(2018).Ensuringthefinancial Centre forAdvanced Studies Media Freedom? Schuman Florence:Robert Regulation: BeneficialorDetrimentalfor MediaSelf-Hulin, A.(2014).Statutory Ankara: Sevinç Gölcüklü, F. (1970).HaberleşmeHukuku. Seçkin Seçkin R. M.(2016).İnsanHaklarıElKitabı. Ankara: Tezcan, D., Erdem,M.R.,Sancakdar, O., Önok, Print MediaLaw. İstanbul: BasınKonseyi the Self Regulation Systems inTurkish and UK Sınar, H.(2008).AComparative Approachto Internet Freedom, UNESCO, 2015 Comparative Analysis, UNESCO Serieson Principles forgoverning theInternet–A Dergisi, 118,pp.163-198 Önlenebilmesi Sorunu.” Türkiye BarolarBirliği 'Yalan HaberNeşri've Yalan HaberNeşrinin Düzenlemeler İleBasınEtik İlkeleri Işığında Parlak, T(2015).“Ulusalve Uluslararası Yasal Hukuku. İstanbul: Beta. İçel, K.andÜnver, Y. (2012).Kitleİletişim (AIPCE). (onfilewithauthor) of IndependentPress CouncilsinEurope for the2017AnnualMeetingofAlliance and mediacouncils-Ananalysis realized

119 120 Temsilciği Dairesi Haraszti), Viyana: AGİT Medya Özgürlüğü denetimi Rehber Kitabı(publishedby Miklos denetim kurumunatemelörnek”inMedya Öz- Zlatev, O. (2008).“Basın Konseyi –Biröz- (1-4), pp.184-200 Üniversitesi HukukFakültesi Mecmuası,34 Kontrol Sisteminin HukukiYönü.” İstanbul Tikveş, Ö. (1968).“BasındaKendi Kendini Eski Açmazlar. Paris: UNESCO Güneydoğu Avrupa ve Türkiye’de Yeni Medya, Profesyonel Gazetecilikve Özdenetim– Avrupa ve Türkiye’de Uygulanması” in Sistemleri (MAS) ve BunlarınGüneydoğu Zlatev, O. (2011).“Medyada Hesap Verebilirlik In Turkey, theOfficeofOmbudsmanAlsoHasItsLimits Tuğba Tekerek state controlandprosecution. comprising journalists,servesasastrong shieldagainst has itsownself-regulationmechanism.This mechanism, actionable inacourtoflaw.Thisisbecause themedia the circlehedrewalmostnothingisforbidden or report onalmosteveryaspectoflife,and thatwithin that accordingtoSwedishlaw,themediais ableto he madetojournalistsfromvariouscountries. Hesaid Sweden, drewalargecircleonboardatpresentation Second: In2015,OlaSigvardsson,apressombudsmanin and readytobeheldaccountableatalltimes. side gohandinhand,andthatthereisaneedtobejust understanding howthefinalarticlewill affect the other I understoodmuchbetterthat“gettingthescoop”and left tofacetheconsequences.Itwaswiththisthat can havesuchanegativeeffectonperson,andIwas and ridicule”him.Ilearnedfirsthandthatanarticle representative. HesaidthatIhadtriedto“defame published, thepersonIinterviewedemailedreaders’ up alargespotonthepage.Butafterarticlewas the editorwaspleased,andmyarticleendeduptaking I foundabigstory,interviewedthepersoninquestion, First: Intheinitialyearsofmyjournalisticcareer, “media self-regulation”bringsthreethingstomind. Working asIdoajournalistinTurkey,theconceptof On theother hand,alargesegment ofthemediahas and dozens of mycolleaguesare beingsenttoprison. media shoulddiscuss are beingdiscussedincourthouses through, ontheonehand, thejournalisticpractices And lastly:Inthecurrent periodthatTurkeyisgoing

121 122

spread hate,toflingmudatpeopleandpresentthem usurped thepublic’srighttobeinformedandbegun four newspapers: when thisarticlewaswritten,istobefoundat in 1999at The officeoftheombudsmanfirstbeganinTurkey something? Dotheyinfactwanttoholdonanything? are theymakingtoshowthatwantgrabon have practicallyfailedholdonto?Whatkindofeffort the mediahurlingdownasteephillandwhosebrakes called inTurkey,readers’representatives?Whatcan where aretheombudsmenor,astheyfrequently We mightaskourselvesinthemidstofallthis, regulation mechanismestablishedbythemediaitself. as targets,unrestrainedbyanyeffectiveandstrong do? Whatdotheyfocuson?isinstore forthe ways. Howdotheyidentifythescopeof jobthey with thepeoplewhocarryoutthistaskin various the stateandmediaowners,itisimportant totalk self-regulation ispossibleinTurkeyindependent of column inthisperiod)Whendiscussingwhether media change wasmadeto finalized whilethisarticlewasbeingcompleted. No to DemirörenHolding,whichalsoowns the practicesoftheirombudsmen.(Thesale of journalism.Andthisissubsequentlyreflectedin proximity tothegovernment,andtheirunderstanding one another,consideringtheirpoliticalstance, Milliyet of themedia. representatives standwithrespect toself-regulation into consideration,seek todeterminewherereaders’ of theoffice ombudsman, andtakingthis to paintabroadpicture ofthemeansandlimitations office oftheombudsman? Theinterviewsbelowattempt . Theseareverydifferentnewspapersfrom Milliyet Sabah Hürriyet newspaper,and,asofApril2018 , Hürriyet ’s readers’representative , Cumhuriyet Milliyet , and , was Hürriyet

Sabah: OmbudsmanasaTechnical Job with İbrahimAltay,theombudsmanat In theone-and-a-half-hour-longinterviewIconducted articles thatonepersonalonecouldnot regulate: representative’s attentionarticlesfromthe hundredsof ombudsman possiblebecausetheybringto the readers’ grant theombudsmanlegitimacy,andinpracticemake According toAltay,inthiscase,readercomplaints serious legitimacyproblem.Altaysays: office oftheombudsmanhasatitsfoundationavery the limitsisnecessarybecause,accordingtohim, Altay, a“technicalman,”firstdrawsitslimits.Drawing technically.” Inexplainingtheofficeofombudsman, man,” “Ourjobisverytechnical,”“Weneedtowork “media ethics”but“technical”:“Iamaverytechnical word thatcameupoftenwasnot“freedomofspeech”or supporter ofthegovernment’spoliciesinmedia,one around it. complaints fromreaders. I needed issomethingelse. We every dayorshouldsomething and analyzeeverysingle on theInternet.This 200-250 articles newspaper, notincludingthesupplements, publishes A giantmechanismisinquestion gives risetoa from thecontract don’t elect decided regulate, butwhogaveusthisauthority?Or We regulateinthenameofreaders,weself thatwehavethiscompetence?Thereaders us.Inessence,wereceivethisauthority legitimacyproblem. every day. Almost 800 are published wesignedwithouremployer.This beingthecase,shouldIread oneofthemformistakes don’tseeanyother way mustbeabletoact on elsebedone?Whatis Sabah here.The , thestrongest -

123 124 usually startsfromcomplaints;heseesproblemswhen This iswhyAltay,inordertonot“abusehisauthority,” the anti-governmentGeziprotests. Sabah accordance withinternationalstandards,wasdismissedfrom of theombudsmantoTurkeyforfirsttimein1999 News Ombudsmen(ONO)foronetermandbroughtthepractice Baydar, whoservedaspresidentoftheOrganization Baydar wasdismissedandreplacedwithAltay. back tothedayswhenSabah’spreviousombudsmanYavuz This “leavingasideone’spersonalviews”businessextends “Real Readers’ Representative” reads thenewspaperbutprefersnottoaddressthosetopics. explaining theimportanceofindependentself-regulation. It,too,wasnot published onJuly23,titlingit“Whatisthepurposeof thiscolumn?”and a leaveofabsencethereafter.Uponhisreturn,hesent inhiscolumntobe citing itasanexampleofaletterfrom“realSabah reader.”Baydartook Editor-in-Chief ErdalŞafakranalettercriticizingBaydar’s columninstead, testers. Baydar’sarticlethefollowingweekwasnotpublished; Newspaper's dealt withthetopicofpoliceinterventionagainst theGeziParkpro paper’s leadstory,whichwastitled"GünaydınGezi"[Good morningGezi]and published inSabahincludedmessagesfromreadersthatcriticizedthenews 1 use hiscolumntovoicepersonalviews”: readers’ representativeandannouncingthathewould“not Baydar withİbrahimAltay,introducinghimasa“real” dia BossesAre UnderminingDemocracy.” published anarticle inTheNewYorkTimes onJuly20titled“InTurkey, Me channels spokenabouthisviews onthemediaandself-regulationinTurkey, York Timesbeingtheprime example. Baydar,whohadmanytimesthroughvarious ous timeshe“insulted”the newspaperthroughvariouschannels,withTheNew published. Thenewspaperthen terminatedBaydar’semployment,citingthevari YavuzBaydarinhisreaders’representativecolumndatedJune17,2013and

in2013aftercriticizingaleadstoryconcerning 1 Thenewspaperreplaced - - - - instructions fromKandil,wrotehisnewsarticles included thesentence,“Yücel,whoreceives his of DenizYücel,Merkel’scutechild,”which also Take, forexample,thearticletitled“The Stunts complaints.” ran intothesamewall:“Therewerenoreader believe didnotfaceself-regulatoryscrutinyall in termsofjournalisticprinciplesandthatI before theinterviewthatareextremelyproblematic This iswhythedozensofexamplesIprepared by thereactionsfromreaders”: to dosomething”as“actingwithinthelimitsdrawn interview, hedescribed“nottakingitupononeself upon himselftodosomething.” a taskbythereader,notsomeonewhotakesit readers’ representativeas“someonewhoisassigned Indeed, Altayinhisfirstcolumnintroducedthe zi-okuyacak (accessed March6,2018) www.sabah.com.tr/yazarlar/okur_temsilcisi/2013/08/05/gazeteniz-de-si 3 2018) com.tr/medya/2013/08/05/iste-sabahin-yeni-ombudsmani (accessedMarch6, 2 “İşteSabah’ınyeniombudsmanı,” August5,2013https://www.sabah. “Gazetenizdesiziokuyacak,” İbrahimAltay,August5,2013https:// at Sabah There is finally a real readers’ representative using authoritiesyoudon the newsin When he willbesensitiveto he willserveasthe his columnto youpickupthenewspaper,andevaluate starting fromtoday.Hewillnotuse termsofethics,youfindyourself voice hisownpersonalopinions, voice ofthereaders,and media ethics. 3 ’t necessarilyhave. Alsoduringthe 2 -

125 126 has noconcreteevidenceandincludesresponsefromYücel, accordingly.” abides byjournalisticprinciples,herespondedasfollows: hs. HewasreleasedinFebruary2018afterahastilyproduced indictmentin working forDieWeltwhowasheldinpre-trialdetention forsome12mont lin-marifetleri https://www.sabah.com.tr/gundem/2017/03/14/iste-merkelin-cici- 4 despite therebeingnosuchchargeintheir indictment. arrested onBüyükadaandputinprison July18,2017, of theword“agent”concerninghumanrightsdefenders not betakenintoconsideration?Takeforexampletheuse So, whataboutcomplaintsraisedonsocialmedia?Canthey examples. a reader,butthiswidenedscopedoesnotencompassmy scope oftheevaluationafterreceivingacomplaintfrom suicide -openeduponearliercomplaintsorwidenedthe dossiers -suchasthedossieronarticlesreporting Altay sayshehasattimesevaluatedarticlesaspartof si-basliyor (accessed March20,2018) lıyor,” October 25,2017,https://www.sabah.com.tr/gundem/2017/10/25/buyukada-dava 5 Kandil MountainsinIraq.] Kandil isshorthandforthe KurdishseparatistPKKwhichhasabaseinthe what waslargelyreportedto beapoliticaldealwiththeGermangovernment. “Büyükada’dayakalananajanlarla ilgilisondakikagelişmesi!Davalarıbaş “İşteMerkel’inciciçocuğuDenizYücel’inmarifetleri,” March14,2017 in verytechnicalterms. allowed tomeinthenewspaper. this topicasthereaders’ complainant. Intheend,Ineed reporter, andthenrelaywhat a complaint,compare about thisarticle In orderfor (accessedMarch11,2018)[DenizYücelisaGermanjournalist 4

When IaskedAltaywhetherthisarticle,which me tohaveanythingconcretesay or anyotherImustfirstreceive the articles,speakwith representative inthespace they saytothe to explainmyviewson As youcansee,Ithink cocugu-deniz-yuce 5

- - - - Altay commentsonthisasfollows: Certain segmentswidelycriticizethisandsimilartopics. “Subordinate totheExecutive Board” himself hesimplysays,“Icomefromthis school.” journalistic principlesontheirowninitiative, for representatives evaluatenewsinaccordance with Even ifAltayacceptsthatsomeoftheother readers’ happens.” Respectabilityiscompletelysubjective,hesays. “Experience canalsosullyyouanddesensitizetowhat legitimacy fortheroleofreaders’representative.Hesays, I askifworkexperienceandrespectabilitywouldprovide supplement editorat work experienceatanewspaper,andworkedastheweekend became thereaders’representative,hadthreeyearsof İbrahim Altay,bornin1980,was33yearsoldwhenhe “I ComefromThisSchool” ask. Hisanswer:“Allcomplaintsareimportant.” “Do youhavenocriteriatoselectfromamongthese?”I prepares the news articles he evaluates. According to Altay, the Executive Board,andnotto the editorialteam,which “system atSabahisone ofthebest.”Heissubordinateto the powerhiscontract giveshim.Hehimselfsaysthe one ofthemostpowerful ombudsmeninTurkeyconsidering Altay, whotookover the workcontractofYavuzBaydar,is important toyou. the readers’representativetoaddresstopicmost one theyarewritingaboutatthatmoment Sabah. Themostimportanttopicforthepeople 20,000 peoplecommentonsocialmediaevery Sabah . . Youwant dayabout isthe

127 128 regulated.” Ifheweretoleavethenewspaperbeforehis “The ExecutiveBoardinfactwantsthenewspapertobe following inourinterview: of interceptinginjusticetothereader,he stressedthe direct orindirectinjusticetothereader.” Onthetopic wrote thattheprimarydutyofanombudsman isto“redress valuable piecesfromafire.”Inoneofhis columns,he to sanction,seesitashisjob“savea coupleof Altay, whostressesthattheombudsmanhasnoauthority Saving aCoupleofPiecesfromFire ombudsman thatthegovernmentwouldnotbepleasedwith. question ofhowpossibleitisforSabahtohaveatype is extremelyclosetothegovernment.Thistieraises evaluates, buttheExecutiveBoardheissubordinateto editorial teamthatproducesthejournalisticcontenthe Turkuvaz Medya.Therefore,Altayisindependentofthe Kalyon Grup,knownforitsclosenesstoErdoğan,owns Erdoğan’s son-in-lawandMinisterBeratAlbayrak.The Serhat Albayrak,thebrotherofPresidentRecepTayyip of TurkuvazMedya,onwhoseBoardDirectorsserves has tiestothegovernment. Executive Boardthat“wantsthenewspapertoberegulated” On thispoint,itisalsoimportanttonotethatthe remainder oftheterm. is up,hewouldstillbeabletoreceivehispayforthe term, whichhiscontractstipulatestobethreeyears, maybe Ican preventsomeinjustices media order inthisway,butif I used atall?”Iknow that Icannotchange one aggrievedperson?”, “Canweimprovethe sensitive onthisnews topic?”,“Canwe property fromafire?”, “Canwebe I approachitthisway:“Canwerescue Sabah worksundertheumbrella domyjob well, alittlemore andensure that apieceof helpatleast theentire language kelere-dikkat-edilir (accessedMarch11,2018) https://www.sabah.com.tr/yazarlar/okur_temsilcisi/2018/01/01/dilerim-2018de-bu-il 6 is nomentionoffreedom ofthepress.Whilecriticizing However, amongtheconcerns Altayhasbroughtupthere Speaking ontheeffecthiseffortshavehad,hesays: information, notactingasjudgeorjury,andthelike. incorrect articlesorincludingunverified not beingracist,orxenophobic,preparingfactually relations companiesthatisbasedonmaterialinterests), press trips,notenteringintoarelationshipwithpublic “compromised journalisttrap”(notgoingonexpensive what mattershefindsimportant The wishesAltayvoicedatthestartof2018show are basedonmutualinterests. news orrelationshipsbetweenreportersandcompaniesthat such asthepresentationofpressreleasesexclusive of mistakes” areanimportantpartofthecriticismshemakes and sometimesallowsformessagesfromreaders.“Simple topics suchaschildabuseorviolenceagainstwomen, İbrahim Altaygenerallywritesinhisweeklycolumnon Success on the“CompromisedJournalist” Issue “Dilerim2018’debuilkelere dikkatedilir,”İbrahimAltay,January1,2018 Sabah saying isI’mnosuperhero. articles onsometopicsarepreparedproperly relations companiesandjournalists. made improvementsintherelationsbetween public on the“compromisedjournalist”matter… I be abletoseeresultson to changesomethingsatleastfor If youseriouslyfocusononetopic, . Furthermore,healsofollowsanddiscussestopics a certainlevel,including 6 : notfallingintothe some time.Youwill will beable think we’ve . What I’m -

129 130 newspaper, hedoesnotlookatissuesthatcouldbe the shortcomingsofexclusivenewsarticlesin praise thenewspaperforreportingfromfield. using nationalistandmilitaristlanguage,butonlyto newspaper’s articlesontheoperationsinAfrin,written pressure. Hediddiscussonceinhiscolumn closely relatedsuchasself-censorshipandpolitical with thearrivalofnewmedia. to him,theclassicalombudsmanislosingitsfunction ombudsman withAltayduringtheinterview.According We spokeaboutthefutureofoffice Office oftheOmbudsmanIsLosingItsFunction de-izleyen-tek-gazete (accessedMarch11, 2018) https://www.sabah.com.tr/yazarlar/okur_temsilcisi/2018/02/05/harekti-yerin 7 “Harekâtıyerindeizleyen tek gazete,”İbrahimAltay,February5,2018 rights function becauseeveryoneisclaimingtheir own understanding ofthetermhasbegunto this kindofsystem,theombudsman it weseewritten“Thisis that “Thisarticle they don’t, own needs;ifthey been replaced find someonewho have gotten reporting anddistributingthenews.Thereaders since lostitsauthority,bothwhenitcomes today. Takethemandreadthem!”The say, “Opeople,wehavechosenfor demigods, usedtositatopa In theolddays themselves. stronger.“Idemandmyrights,letme witheveryonetakingcareoftheir “dislike”it.Whenacallismade , journalists,likethemythological cantakecareofitforme”has iswrong,”immediatelyunder likeit,they“retweet”if whatiscorrect.”In mountainandwould youthesetopics intheclassic mediahas loseits to 7 - Hürriyet: ThePossible Ombudsman ombudsman tobebasedonreadercomplaints,itisnot According toAltay,whoconsiderstheofficeof Neither thereadernorlimitsareat center of possible tocopewithcomplaintsinthenewmediaorder. the ombudsman.Bildiriciseesombudsman assomeonewho ombudsman FarukBildirici’sunderstanding of theoffice “multitude ofviews.” the newmedia,developingindigitalworld, heseesa think alike,”“jokingly,”addingthatwhenhelooksat in Turkey?Hefirstlaughedandthensaid,“Greatminds President Erdoğan’sspeechesnotpointtoauniformmedia with thesameheadline,wordforword,whenreportingon So, doesthefactthatmanynationalnewspaperslead regulation, butithasmuchgreaterproblems,”hesays. make someimprovementsthroughthediscussionsonself- such asFacebook.“ThemediainTurkeymaybeableto various countries,ortheadscirculatingviacompanies international companiessuchasGoogleandthelawsof is experiencingareissuesliketheconfrontationsbetween According toAltay,themainproblemsmediainTurkey turns mistakesmadein anewspaperintoaddedvalue: added transparent waypossible.Otherwise, thereisno value formynewspaper andjournalismin I worktoturnallof the address andfinda infinite, making infinite. Andthecomplaintsthemselveshavebecome be thesurfaceareaofnewspaper,butnowit The fieldyouaretaskedwithregulatingusedto valuetojournalism ifIwere to say,“There’s itimpossibleforonepersonto solutiontothemall. mistakesintoadded themost Hürriyet is

131 132 out hisduty. when readers react,andaddsthat thisishowhecarried journalistic principles ontheirowninitiative,notonly needs toregulatethe newspaperinaccordancewith and, ofcourse,credibility.” Bildiricisaystheombudsman specific experience, knowledge, interestinthesetopics, Hürriyet years beforehebecamethereaders’representative at the media,togetherwithhiscolleagueDoğan Tılıçtwo chief, hosted various roles,includingasareporterand Ankarabureau Bildirici, whohasbeenajournalistfor38 yearsin the functionsofombudsman. past eightyearstakenimportantstepsininternalizing interruption –andthatthemediaingeneralhasover Hürriyet of theombudsmanhasnowbecomewell-establishedat within theTurkishmedia.Bildiricisaysoffice when rulesandregulationmechanismswereestablished principles (2002)-inotherwords,itwasaperiod and theDoğanMediaGroupannounceditspublication ombudsman officeat Responsibilities ofTurkishJournalists(1998),the Association preparedtheDeclarationofRightsand 2002. ItwasatthistimethattheTurkishJournalists the ombudsmanatnewspaperwasfirstestablishedin representative at newspaper toDemirörenHolding,hasbeenthereaders’ Bildirici, whomIspoketobeforeDoğanHoldingsoldthe this inaverytransparentmannersothatthe a typohere,”“There’sanerrorthere.”We medium forqualityjournalism,notreaders. am amediumthatensuresqualityjournalism newspaper. Thisiswhatit’sabout.Tosum mistake isnotrepeatedinmynewspaperorany . AccordingtoBildirici,theombudsmanneeds “a afteraperiodof16years–excludingbrief

Çuvaldız Hürriyet Milliyet , atelevisionprogramcriticalof foreightyears.Theofficeof wasestablished(1999), itup,I approach . Iama same other principles oftheOrganizationNewsOmbudsmen(ONO) Bildirici basesthedefinitionofhisjobon10 responsible, high-qualityjournalism.” Second, “toworktoprotectpressfreedomandpromote awareness ofresponsibilityathisownnewsoutlet.” he pointstotheseprinciples:First,“toincrease – andwhenhefallsintoconflictwithhisnewspaper, 8 duty ofallombudsmen,”hesays. will andImustwriteaboutit.Thisismyduty.It’sthe very important;“Ifacolleagueofmineisimprisoned,I Bildirici, thepointabout“freedomofpress”is The10articlesofONO’snewsombudsmanmissionstatement: 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. About ONO,http://newsombudsmen.org/about-ono (accessedApril1,2018) public andthe responsibilitiesofjournalists. The ombudsmanactsasamediator betweentheexpectationsof the public. The ombudsmanexplainsthe roles andobligationsofjournalismto create aconflictofinterest. The ombudsmanrefrainsfromengaginginanyactivitythat could The ombudsmanstrivestoremaincompletelyneutraland fair. rests ofnewsconsumers. The ombudsmanisanindependentofficeractinginthe best inte resolve issuesraisedincomplaints. The ombudsmanrecommendsthemostsuitablecourseofaction to ints aboutnewsreportingonbehalfofmembersthe public. Part oftheombudsman’sroleistoreceiveandinvestigate compla sible, high-qualityjournalism. The ombudsmanworkstoprotectpressfreedomandpromoterespon within his/hernewsorganization. The newsombudsman’sprimaryobjectiveistopromotetransparency course aboutjournalism’spracticesandpurposes. quality ofjournalismbyencouragingrespectfulandtruthfuldis The newsombudsmanisdedicatedtoprotectingandenhancingthe 8 Accordingto - - - -

133 134 mention ofimprisonedjournalists Thus, Bildirici,whoinhis2018NewYear’smessagemade (accessed March 11,2018) hurriyet.com.tr/yazarlar/faruk-bildirici/tik-avciligi-ve-galeriler-40724450 10 2018) com.tr/yazarlar/faruk-bildirici/gazetecinin-dilegi-40695916 (accessedMarch11, 9 online. individuals inchargeofmistakesthatneed tobefixed need tobewrittenabout.Healsoimmediately informsthe internal deliberation,andwritesaboutconcerns hedeems to thoseatthenewspaperwhocouldaddress themfor receives fromreaders,conveysthoseheconsiders important Bildirici, whoworksalone,firstanalyzestheresponseshe number beingonlyslightlylowertoday. approximately 350viewsandcriticismsamonth,withthis readers wouldwriteinabout,andsaysheusedtoreceive an ombudsman,heprepareddetailedreportsonthetopics is easytofindhisphonenumber.Whenhefirstbeganas In additiontohisemailaddressandTwitteraccount,it as viathe contact himviahisTwitterandFacebookaccounts,aswell newspaper’s callcenter.Furthermore,itispossibleto He receivesareportonreadercomplaintspreparedbythe Bildirici’s primarygoalistobeaccessiblereaders. He Doesn’t Only Write aColumn Hürriyet a listinhiscolumneveryweekofnewsarticleson court decisiontothatend. he allegedlyhadtiesto“FETÖ,”despitetherebeingno about alocaljournalistwhosepropertywasseizedbecause “Gazetecinin dileği,”Faruk Bildirici, January1,2018http://www.hurriyet. “Tıkavcılığıvegaleriler,” FarukBildirici,January29,2018http://www. ’s websitethecourtshaveblockedaccessto. Hürriyet websiteandhisownpersonalwebsite. 10 Furthermore,heprovides 9 , wroteinhiscolumn initiative oruponarequestfromthemanagementof Bildirici alsosayshepreparedreportsonhisown From PlacingaProducttotheRightBeForgotten engage inprostitution. baby Aylan,whosebodywasheduponshore, ormigrantswho being preparedondisputedtopics,suchas Syrianrefugee especially asconcernsphotographs,while the articlesare other ombudsmantodosoatthenewspaper,voiceshisviews, in thepre-publicationprocess,he,seeingasthereisno Furthermore, thoughhebelievesshouldnotbeinvolved Publishing Principles,andsharedhisviews. established tooverseetheimplementationofDoğan the meetingsofDoğanBoardPublishingPrinciples, pages.” Inadditiontothis,Bildirici says healsoattended football teamispresentedinabiasedmannerthesports are representedontheeconomypages”or“ifnewsabouta for example,“howmuchthevarioussegmentsofsociety the managementwantshimtoconductresearchfindout, also beatopicofanalysisforBildirici.Occasionally, issues inthepastthathavenowbecomecontroversialmay government Geziprotests.Thepaper’scoverageofspecific the changeinreactionsofreadersduringanti- reports onreactionstothefiringofacolumnistor his columnwouldbedistasteful.”Forexample,heprepared not fallunderself-regulationor“whosepublicationin forwarded themtothemanagement,coveringtopicsthatdo newspaper whenitwasstillownedbyDoğanHoldingand Bildirici writesaboutverydifferenttopics inhiscolumn, conditions. Inthecolumnhedissects hisnewspaper’s its wayout, andindicateshowthis istiedtopolitical articles onwhathappens inthecorridorsofpowerison to beforgottenonthe Internet.Hetalksabouthowwriting engaging inproductplacement onsocialmediatotheright from thewell-knowninterview writerAyşeArmanallegedly

135 136 principles andmediaethics.Hemakesspaceinhiscolumn articles andanalyzesthemaccordingtojournalistic other columns beforetheyarepublished?” Hereplied: “Do yourarticlesneed togothroughthesameprocedureas one,” hesaysaboutan ombudsmancontract.IaskedBildirici, be suchacontract.That iswhatright.Buttherenot after hetookontherole ofombudsman.“Ideally,thereshould took onhispreviousroleatthenewspaper remained inplace he regulates?No,doesnot.Thecontract he signedwhen him tobeforcefulagainstandindependent of thenewspaper and howfarcanhego?Doeshaveacontract thatallows So howfreeisFarukBildiriciwhileengaging inallofthis No OmbudsmanContract effect hiseffortshave,hesaysthefollowing: ethical principles, andpresentsthem for discussion. On the to writearticlesontrafficaccidents,”inthecontextof such as “obscuring names and blurringphotographs” and “how of theweek.Bildiricipreparesdraftguidelinesontopics column fromtheperspectiveofanombudsmanatstart criticism onsocialmediaduringthepreviousweekinhis Bildirici analyze for shortmessagesfromreaders.Infact,wecansee create awealth the guidelines.I way the news example, if not not includethisdetail”after I write“Detailsshould if say? Of attention towhat I thinksome a colleagueofminesays“Farukwarnedus,letme that wouldfurtherhervictimization.Weprepared be includedinarticlesonchildabuse.”For course not.Itwouldbeanachievementforme article doesnotneedtobepresentedina the topicathandisavictimizedwoman, things havechangedandsomepeoplepay Hürriyet of knowledge. believe allofthishasandwill I say.Butdotheyeverything newsarticlesthatreceivemuch from theperspectiveofgovernment. prime minister’sexpectationsandreportedon developments day foramonth. the logoframe. following day,featuringatankwithitsgun protrudingfrom meeting, publishedthe“OperationOliveBranch” logothe Hürriyet people thatcouldpaintTurkeyinanegativelight.” in articles;heexpected,forexample,“noquotesfrom prime ministerwanted“nationalintereststobeguarded” 15 “expectations”ofnewsarticlesontheoperation. had attendedthemeeting,thatprimeministerlisted website ofOdaTV(odatv.com),arepresentativewhich the dayafteroperationbegan.Welearnedfrom administrators ofmediaoutletsonJanuary21,2018, the thenprimeminister,metwitheditorsand Turkey’s operationinSyria’sAfrin.BinaliYıldırım, the issueofarticlespublishedby In anattempttounderstand“whatispossible,”Iraised The LimitsofThatWhichIsPossible 12 2018) com/odatv-en-kritik-toplantidan-bildiriyor-2101181200.html (accessedMarch11, 11 “Odatvenkritiktoplantıdan bildiriyor,”January21,2018https://odatv. http://t24.com.tr/basin/2018/01/22 (accessed March11,2018) not. Icannot They arenot realities inmycountry,journalism,and but Iamdoingthatwhichispossible in thefuture,Iwouldhavealottobe Turkey. Ifsomeoneweretoaskmecriticizemyself Because thisdoesn’tsitwellwiththerealitiesin as Ipleaseandthattheyarealwayspublishedasis , whichsawnoneedtoreportonthispartof the 12 Thislogowasincludedonthepageevery Hürriyet subjecttothesameprocedure.Ofcourse saythatIam100percentfreetowrite ’s articleswereinlinewiththe Hürriyet inlightofthe criticalof, mediaoutlet. on 11 The

137 138 meeting inhiscolumn.However,hedidcriticizenewsarticles Ombudsman FarukBildiricididnotmakementionofthis the ground”publishedin one abouta“Turkishpilotwhocamecloseto20metersfrom praise andaccomplishments,” they wereutteredbythesameperson,”“theyarefullof the secondhenotedthatarticlesinmedia“looklike sources havebeencited,” if providedbytheofficialauthorities--especiallyno he said,“Wemustnotreportunconfirmedinformation,even on theAfrinoperationintwoofhiscolumns.Infirst, informed ofthis?Bildiricisaysthefollowing: deaths ofchildren?Whatabout civilians inAfrinandUNICEF’sofficialstatement onthe statements putoutbytheUnitedNations on thedeathsof And whatabout a fewsentences,heresponded: tried tosay.”WhenItoldhimhiscriticismwaslimited outrageous asthis,whatelsewillwebelieve?That’sI a pieceofwarpropaganda.Ifwecanbelievesomethingas In our interview, Bildirici said, “News articles have become tr/rakili-fotograf-40731379 (accessedMarch 11,2018) 14 (accessed March20,2018) hurriyet.com.tr/yazarlar/faruk-bildirici/cocuk-istismari-haberleri-40753480 13 “Çocukistismarıhaberleri,” FarukBildirici,February26,2018http://www. “Rakılıfotoğraf,” FarukBildirici,February 5,2018http://www.hurriyet.com. something completelydifferent. The peoplehearonethingand almost impossibleforit aside foramoment-that in suchanenvironment-even Yes, Iknow.I’mdoingwhat Hürriyet notcoveringtheofficial 13 Hürriyet referringtoafactualerror.In 14 anddubiousarticleslikethe to beunderstoodcorrectly. when wesaysomething,itis Hürriyet is possiblebecauseweare , areablightonjournalism. twist yourwordsinto if weputthenewspaper readersnotbeing political newsarticles,butsaysthefollowing: question onthechallengesofwritingcritical pieceson In theend,Bildiriciisunabletodirectly answermy unfortunately notpossible.”Hisresponsetothis: when theybecometoolsoftheprevailingideology,thisis questions butmustalsotakeonaleadershiprole.But journalist shouldnotonlylimithimorherselftoasking on peacejournalismheheldatBoğaziçiUniversity:“A I remindedBildiriciaboutwhathehadsaidataseminar

should ofcourseberelayedtothe If thereisanincidentthathas football teams, andevensomeartists. This isalsothecase forlarge concern you;itconcerns your will confrontthecenters of be powerfulyourself. Youneed In ordertowriteabout this todefend this absolveme?Iknowthat atmosphere intoday’sTurkeyis do notstandbywhattheysaid I stillthinkasdidbackthen. write aboutit. this relayed for Turkey.Whateverhappens,informationneedstobe falling onpeople.Ishouldofcoursesaythe stars inadarksky.Whenrealitythosebombs War, warwasdescribedasifitweremereshooting cannot makeacorrectanalysis.DuringtheFirstGulf people from whom correct information has been with alloftheinformationfromsides is ashortcoming.ButI’mstilllookingathow on everytopicandfromallsides.Ithink myself… ButthisistherealityIface. centers ofpower,youmust power. Thisdoesn’tonly it doesn’t.I’mnotsaying institution aswell. to beawarethatyou back thenandthe not likethat.Does companies, politics, taken place,it But thepoliticians readers together as is.The same withheld were to

139 140 criticize?” Bildiricihasastraightanswer: When asked“Whatnewsarticleisthemostdifficultto identity. Bildiricistressedtheimportance ofstyle,saying: consideration thereaders’sensitivitiesand thenewspaper’s explains thathewroteonthistopicinpieces, takinginto Hürriyet “Turkey belongstotheTurks,”whichstands nexttothe Bildirici, writingonquiteadifficulttopic --thephrase within thelimitsof“thepossibleombudsman”: Bildirici triestodohisjobusingtacticsthatstay Tactics toMake ItPossible toContinue http://www.farukbildirici.com/index.php?Did=489&Page=1 (accessedMarch 11, 2018) 15 “Ortakpaydamız Türkiye,”FarukBildirici, June18,2012 saying thempolitely, sayingthemwithmaybe not amatterofsaying some messages andbeingable tocontinue.Thisis I placeimportanceonbeingabletodeliver another topic,inreturn makes itpossibleforme back sometimesononetopic allows metoskipastep.IfI for backtrackingonsomepoints.Butit To behonest,this“possible”partcan those is moredifficult. views on criticizing thegroup’sothercompanies,makingyour fields outside of publishing, writing about that field, outlet youworkforalsooperatesina News articlesconcerningaffiliates…If logo--hassaiditneedstoberemoved. topics. Ihave,butinalimitedfashion. that clearinnewsarticlesconcerning I’m notsayingIdidn’twriteabout forhavingtobacktrack. towritemuchmorefreelyon , aftersometimeitalso acceptthatitholdsme things,butabout bethereason alsosometimes number of the media 15 theright He avelvet whyit’s the futureofjournalisminTurkey. According to Bildirici, the ombudsman’s role is critical for obviating theneedforanombudsman”: “readers nowmaketheircriticismsknownonsocialmedia, secretariat. However,hedoesnotagreewiththeviewthat in onlinenews,shouldbetransformedintoanofficewitha responsibility andthenecessitytoimmediatelyintervene of theombudsman,consideringincreaseinarea follows reportersonsocialmedia.Hethinkstheoffice area ofresponsibilityhasincreased,andthathenowalso the officeofombudsman,saysfirstandforemosthis Bildirici, speakingontheeffectsofnewtechnology inNew“Ombudsman Still Media” ofCriticalImportance future inwhich journalismhas regained itsreputation, an A fewweeks afterIinterviewed FarukBildiriciabout a important tosayitornot fist insteadofanironfist…Ilook to itcoming and Journalism haslosta lotofcredibilityinTurkey, [the matter]. it possibleforthemtocarebytalkingand target, orthatthereportercolumnist cares. I social media]doesn’tmeantheyreachtheir Second, justbecausecriticismsareraised those criticismsandturn and turningit criticism It’s notjustaboutvoicingcriticism…Notevery make. Inevertalkcondescendingly. when writingabout a mistake theombudsmenwillmake animportantcontribution isfounded…It’saboutanalyzingcriticism back. intosomethingofvalue.Ianalyze themintovaluedviews.… . Itakethesameapproach ajournalistshouldnever atwhetheritis there[on intended discussing make

141 142 Cumhuriyet: OmbudsmanonTrial The DoğanMediaGroup,ofwhich event of historical importance in Turkish media took place: these allegations,Özhadbeeninprisonfor ninemonthsand reactions anduneaseexpressed[byreaders].” Asaresultof that Öz“hadnotattemptedtoconveythe managementthe Cumhuriyet readers’representativeGürayÖz. Itwasclaimed Criminal Courtdirectedaverysimilarquestion to Before ourinterview,ajudgeattheIstanbul 27thHigh What do Demirören Holdingwillnotdiverge. this lineandtheof line Ihavebeenfollowing.”Onlytimewilltellhowlong ombudsman inthesamewayasbefore.Iwillprotect this sale,hereplied,“Iwillcontinuetodomyjobasan newspaper viewsthefutureofombudsmanfollowing independence andcriticaljournalism. and placeinthemainstreammediathrougheditorial that When thissalehitthenews,Bildiriciwroteinhiscolumn observed inhiscolumns. his articlesduringthe transition andnochangeshavebeen serious level.Bildiriciwasabletocontinueprepare way governmentcontrolofthemediareachedamuchmore which isknownforitsclosetiestoErdoğan.Andinthis to theownerof to press.(ed. n.) ment. Thenewspaper didnotyethaveanombudsman columnwhenthisbook went 17 (accessed April19,2018) hurriyet.com.tr/yazarlar/faruk-bildirici/hurriyetin-ortak-degerleri-40791361 16 GürayÖzleftCumhuriyetin September2018,followingachangeinmanage “Hürriyet’inortakdeğerleri,” FarukBildirici,April2,2018http://www. Hürriyet readersaskyou? willonlybeabletomaintainitsrespect Milliyet Hürriyet newspaper,DemirörenHolding, 17 Hürriyet undertheumbrellaof 16 Whenaskedhowthe isapart,wassold - of July2017.Accusedaidingaterroristorganization,he his columnremainedemptyfromNovember2016throughtheend the newspaper’sdecisionasfollows: and underwentchangesshortlyafterdoingso.Özexplains Turkey tosetasideacolumnforreaders’representative, since March2013. Güray Özhasbeenthereaders’representativeatCumhuriyet “I’m Independent” interview. Soitpaystobeprudent! like afewmonthslaterinthecasefileofpersonyou line,” “whoshouldbecalledaterroristandwhen,”the you useinaninterviewsuchas“reactiontoeditorial In thiscountryitis,afterall,possibletoseesentences verdict, andthecaseweighedheavilyoverourdiscussion. but beforethelocalcourthadhandeddownitsfinal The interviewtookplaceafterÖzwasreleasedfromprison was sentencedtothreeyears,sixmonthsinprison. was themanagingeditoratnewspaper before becoming as Güray Öz,whohasbeenajournalistfor49 years,served newspapers in Turkey,alsooffers adifferentexample of Cumhuriyet the ExecutiveBoardof theCumhuriyetFoundation. weekly onpoliticaltopics andalsoservedasamemberof the ombudsman.Andafter becomingombudsman,hewrotetwice Cumhuriyet filled thisgap. primary jobofthereaders’representative. Andwe principles aretwoseparatethings.This of thenewspaper but a Cumhuriyet hasacloserelationshipwithitsreaders, relationshipwithone’sreadersandregulation , whichhas auniqueownershipmodel among ’s Europerepresentativeforalongtime. He Cumhuriyet forconformitywithjournalistic wasthelastnewspaperin isthe

143 144 Öz, contrarytotheombudsmenat an ombudsmanindependentofthenewspaper’sadministration. half ofallthereactionshereceives. complaints aboutfactualerrorsandtypos compriseabout proper useofTurkishtothecrosswordpuzzle. Özsaysthe messages aday.Thesespanevery topic fromthe active astheysendthereaders’representative 60-70 According toÖz,thereadershipof “I amluckyinthisregard,”Özsaysofhis independence. Cumhuriyet what thebosssaysgoes,andexplainssituationat Öz statesthatinalmostallofthenewspapersTurkey, Cumhuriyet was establishedsolelyforthepurposeofpublishing to beacompany.TheCumhuriyetFoundation,incontrast, editor-in-chief buttotheowner,thoughthatownerhappens with thecaseat inspects, cannotremovehimfromthepost.Comparethis in-chief. Thisiswhytheeditors,whosearticleshe newspaper’s shareowner,andnotbytheeditor- was appointedbytheCumhuriyetFoundation,whichis use inplace ofwordsrootedin Arabic innewsarticles. is aneedto usewordsofTurkish originthatarestill in discussions oftypos, Öz alsostatesinthecolumnthatthere aside spaceforthese matters everyweek.Besideshisweekly When welookatthecolumn, wecanseethathedoesset fashion. Iamaone-maninstitution. ombudsman thenworksina It selectstheombudsmanin way interferein the newspapertohim editor-in The ExecutiveBoardoftheFoundationselects asfollows: newspaper. -chief andleavestheadministrationof Sabah thepreparationofnewspaper. , whoseombudsmananswersnottothe orher.Itdoesnotinany completelyindependent thesameway,and Milliyet Cumhuriyet and isvery Hürriyet ,

readers, Özalsoissuesgeneralremindersinhiscolumnon In additiontoincludingthecomplaintssentinby “FETÖ.” Özrepliesasfollows: uses thistermtodescribethosewithlinksthePKKand language usedinthesekindsofsituations.Cumhuriyet conform tothegovernmentlinewhenitcomes news articles.ThemainstreamnewspapersinTurkeyusually column discussthewayword“terrorist”isusedin can.” Iaskifhewouldinhisreaders’representative published byhisnewspaperandsays,“IdothebestI short inevaluatingethicalviolationsnewsarticles journalistic principles.Hedoesnotagreethathefalls have beenconveyedtothepartiesinquestion muchbetter. readers’ representativepositionwasestablished, criticisms readers’ representativeseriouslyandthat eversincethe Öz saystheeditorsat period and discuss oft-recurring mistakes,hesays. he says.He maycometogetherwith theeditorsin next person alonecaneasily do,butonehastotrykeepup,” errors shouldnotmake itthrough.“Thisisn’tsomethingone looked atmuchmoreoften, andthateventhesmallestof Moreover, heisofthe viewthatthenewspapershouldbe paying attentiontothe Turkey. Thisis do notleave definitions ofterrorismandaterroristorganization careful, you’lllosethatwhichyoualreadyhave.The does notmeanabandoningthestruggle.Ifyouaren’t to facethejudiciaryandgovernment.Nodoubt,this must that not, youmustabide from averygeneralview, This isaverydifficult be carefuloncertaintopicsifyoudonotwish Turkey isademocraticcountry.Thiswhyyou the mediamuchspacetomaneuverin why wemustworkobjectivelywhile Cumhuriyet by thelawinTurkey.Noonecansay specifics ofeveryevent. topic. Iapproachthesetopics but whetheryoulikeitor takethewarningsof

145 146 Milliyet: AnOmbudsmanThatKnows ItsLimits important functioninimprovingthemedia,butan According toÖz,theofficeofombudsmancanservean point needstobekeptinmind: the media.Akçura,asanombudsman,addresses suchtopicsas “photograph oftheweek,”independent criticismsof of secondaryconcern.Theweeklycolumnpresents alarge that readercomplaintsandthenewspaper’s mistakesare A glanceatthe“MedyaAnalizi”columnis enoughtosee summarizes herjobdefinitionasfollows: ledger ofhercolumn,andisillegibleonline.Akçura Representative” iswritteninsmall-pointfontonthe the Sundaysupplementof role withher“MedyaAnalizi”(MediaAnalysis),publishedin the mostexperienceinthisfield.Shecontinues seven yearsandanombudsmanforsix,isajournalistwith Belma Akçura,whohasservedasanassistantombudsmanfor by and what’s more, thatarticleneed nothavebeenpublished article israrelyand inaverylimitedfashionbroughtup, applications journalists canuse.Aprobleminaspecific the mediaconductedin theUnitedStates,andsmartphone violent languageinfootball articles,researchrelatedto Milliyet order ingeneral. readers, butitismainlyto ones andifthereare mistakes inthenewspaper What isexpectedofmenow newspapers difficult forombudsmentobeindependentwhenthe themselves needtobeindependent.Itis In orderforombudsmentobe . Theheadline ofthearticleand whowroteit themselves arenotindependent. complaintsaboutthemfrom Milliyet , iftherearereallyserious is,yes,towriteaboutthe writeaboutthenewmedia effective, thenewspapers newspaper.“Readers’ very mentioned, noristhedateofpublication.Akçuraactsas are notmadeclear,whatnewspaperpublisheditis mentioned twojournalisticpracticesat engages inageneralevaluationofnewsarticles.Sheonly if sheisnotthe Demirören andthen-PrimeMinisterErdoğan inwhichthe his closetieswithErdoğan.(Aphoneconversation between the controlofErdoğanDemirören,abusinessman knownfor representative, whichitdidin1999.In2011, itcameunder Milliyet follows: on thereaders’criticisms.Sheexplainsthatperiodas “great feeling”forher and thatsheplacesmuchimportance she acceptedtheroleof ombudsman becausejournalism wasa Akçura, whohas32yearsofexperienceinthefield,says in thisperiodsawnodirectornegativecriticismatall. 2018, andbothwerepositive.Inotherwords,hernewspaper mentioning thenewspaper’snameinfirsttwomonthsof current status oftheinstitution oftheombudsmanat the quickly became pro-governmentafter this.Speakingon the was leakedviasocial mediain2014.)Thenewspaper I getmyselfintothis business?Forwho?”whilesobbing a dressing-downfrom Erdoğan onanewsreport,“Howdid former referredtothe latteras“boss”andsaid,after properly. an approachthatmadeit the officeofombudsman and theywould.They able toask respectful or misrepresentedapolitician.Thenewspaperwasvery articles thathadmarginalized,discriminated readers’ When I wasthefirstnewspapertointroduceareaders’ first began,Iwasabletoaddress[inthe representative column],forexample,news of havingthatinternalregulation.Wewere the editorstodefendtheirdecisions, Milliyet were theoneswhointroduced ombudsmanbutapersonwho possible forittobedone at Milliyet,andtheyhad Milliyet while against,

147 148 following: newspaper, Akçurainotherpartsofourinterviewsaidthe criticism ofpolitics: animals, andtheenvironment,thatthis isinfacta articles concerningwomen,children,theLGBT community, Akçura sayssheisabletolevelserious criticisms in was censored: opened, andthenumberofwebsitesthathavebeenblocked journalists havebeenimprisoned,howmanycases An articlebyAkçuraprovidingstatisticsonhowmany politics. while looking atthesedimentand mudleftbehind criticize politics;you canalsowriteyour if youaskme.Itis not Criticizing anyofthese sexual abuseof people are the profile The serious problemathand. present withoutcommentisturneddown, Quite simply,ifanannual other that wouldupsetamediaowner.Wesubconsciouslyfind about something aboutabusinessmanoutthere.Canwewrite Today, we presenting [theaccusations]asiftheyweretrue. its headlinedidnotusequotationmarks,thereby able tocriticizethisbeforeifthe targets orinsultsamemberof Let’s considerthatsomeone political identityofacountryisreflected in it?No,wecannot.Wecannotwriteaboutanything topics towriteabout.

can nolongerdothat.Let’ssaythere’s nurtured bypolitics.Howwomenareviewed, of thepeopleonstreetbecausethose 9-year-old children, domestic abuse… necessary todirectly is criticizingpolitics, media analysiswhichyou from therulingparty parliament. Wewere newspaper in there isa article

by “You CannotObjectIfYou Live Only offYour Paycheck” been abletocarryout,says: Akçura, addressinghowmanyofherombudsmandutiesshe’s Facing uptoOne’s Self the lackofreactionasfollows: supplement. Akçurasaysshewas“disappointed”andexplains began towriteher“MedyaAnalizi”columnintheSunday any explanation.Whenshereturnedfivemonthslater, November 2016.Thecolumnwasthendiscontinuedwithout newspaper inher“Readers’Representative”columnupuntil Akçura wasabletodirectlycriticizenewsarticlesinher against Kavala wereincludedin news articlesheadlined is knownfor hiscivilsocietyactivities: Accusations concerning thearrest of businessmanOsmanKavala,who I broughtupnewsarticles publishedon actively actingasan ombudsman say, “No,itdoesn’t.”Wecansay this whatitmeanstobeanombudsman?”I’ll is whyItryto job atall”isbeingdisrespectful nothing butcheatthepeople.Andsaying“I properly, saying“I’manamazing In aperiodwhen accept effort and to saythisisn’t have theluxurytoquestion financially dependentononly not havethechance he foundthistobethe It wastheeditor-in-chief’s whatever issaid. labor can’tbewastedlikethis.Youmust dothebestIcan.Butifyouask,“Is journalismcannotbeperformed right, tosaythatyour15yearsof to objectbecauseifyouare best courseofaction.Idid this, totakeastand, decision; hesaidthat your paycheck,youdon’t thatIamnolonger ombudsman”does . Milliyet toone’sjob.That ’s website can’tdomy haveto

149 150 in Turkey," "Asimder (accessed March 11,2018) http://www.milliyet.com.tr/tutuklanan-osman-kavala-ile-bomba-gundem-2547491/ 20 la-gezi-organizatoru--gundem-2547886/ (accessedMarch11,2018) 19 rin-igdir-yerelhaber-2511009/ (accessedMarch11,2018) ary 5,2018http://www.milliyet.com.tr/asimder-baskani-gulbey-kavala-dis-gucle 18 these topics,shepoursherheartout: And whensheaddressesherownresponsibilitiesconcerning criticize this?”Shesays: not becriticized?Canyouanombudsmanifdon’t took upnomorethanoneline.IaskedAkçura,“Shouldthis and theexplanationsprovidedbyhiswifefriends accusations aboutarrestedOsmanKavala, “AsimderBaşkanıGülbey:KavalaDışGüçlerinTürkiye’deki Adamıdır,”Janu “Kavalageziorganizatörü,” November2,2017http://www.milliyet.com.tr/kava “TutuklananOsmanKavalaile ilgilibombaiddialar,”November1,2017 circle offriends.Onlyyoufaceuptothat reality doesn your consequences -thatyouhaveto faceon with principles...Thisreckoningcanhavevery whether ornotapersonis Left alonewithone’s must. And your columnifit must writeabout them as-is only defamed. Ifyou innocence. Furthermore,there This isa President Gülbey:Kavalamanofexternalforces ownandthatresultinself-punishment.Maybe this theaccusationsleveledagainstthemandpresenting ’t reflectonthesocietyoryournewspaper, or your 18 "KavalaorganizedGezi[protests]," ifyou’renot,thenthereisaproblem. validquestion.Thereisapresumptionof , thentheombudsmanshouldbeinvolved.You arenotlookingataperson’sdefensebut this.Thenewspapermaynotpublish doesn’tfititseditorialline.Butyou thoughts,oneseriouslyconfronts actinginaccordance isalsotherightnottobe 20 " buthisdefense 19 "Shocking heavy . - - -

on herwhenitcomestowhatandhowwriteatopic: According toAkçura’sexplanation,thereisnodirectpressure they openlydiscusstheseissuestoday: said, andreiteratedtheriskmanyjournalists facewhen ombudsmen, noneofusareabletodoourjob fully,”she and newspaperswereinthesamesituation. “Ofthefour reacted, sheveryoftenstressedthattheotherombudsmen she spokeaboutthepressuresfacedandhow ombudsman isapartofthis.”Duringourinterview,whenever “We’re inaperiodTurkeyallmediaislosing…The journalism, says,“Iftheylose,we’lltoo,”andadds, Akçura, quotingfromthemovie A Period inWhichEveryone Loses Turkey’s journalists andombudsmenfind themselvesin: This paragraph summarizeswhatAkçura hassaidaboutthesituation lost theirjobs, will quietlybeadded get onethingin matter attheexpense journalism has At a of fear.”Youdrawtheredline criticize myself.Everyonecreates but theyarenotvisible…This the politicians.”Of I assertthat criticize the That iswhyI cross a they do write this,”or Even ifyoudon’t time whenallrightshavebeenviolatedand dangerousline,youriskfacingsanctions. teachyouself-censorship.Assoonas “thiskindofpressureiscomingfrom editoriallineofthenewspapernorcan don’tbelieveIhavetherightto ifyourarticleisn’treturnedtoyou, been subdued,ifwe“personalize”this gettold“Writethis”or“Don’t nothing more… return: Anotheroneor twopeople course,thesepressuresexist, to thelistofpeople whohave of theombudsmen,wewillonly The Post iswhyIcanatmost yourself. theirown“empire , whichfocuseson

151 152 Conclusion: Approaching20Years women andchildabuseespecially,helped establish the languageusedinarticlesonviolence against Furthermore, theombudsmenhaveplayedarole inchanging readers’ representative. that mostreadersarenowfamiliarwiththe conceptofa important newspapers.Atthispoint,itis possibletosay the country’shighestcirculationandhistorically most 40 newspapersdistributednationwide,itisfoundin representative positionislimitedtojustafewofthe already spanssome20years.Andeventhoughthereaders’ The storyofthereaders’representativeinTurkey discussion. and goingon luxurypresstours hasbecomeatopicof ombudsmen thatjournalists’ receivinggiftsfromcompanies marginalization. Wecan alsosaythatitisbecauseof raised awarenessabout hatespeech,discrimination,and specific standardsfor thesenewsarticlesaswell only In Turkey,censorshipandself-censorshiparenot but know beyond, to you workfor.The relationships and You areobligedto the president,they’ the boss’ about someone. and theyknow they canwrite…They journalists knowthelimits is insufficient,ifyou topic through all of themediaisundersiege,discussingthis the problemsofombudsmen.Atatimewhen

s favoritecolumnistoranypolitician your limits!” use Rumi’swords,“Writewhateveryouwant, what willhappentothemiftheywrite the mediaombudsmenmakessense,but For example,ifoneweretowriteabout office oftheombudsmanherewon’tgo the editorialpolicyofoutlet ll betold,“Stoprightthere!” keep aneyeoutfortheboss’s know whothebossdoesn’tlike, ask me…InTurkey,almostall of who,what,andhowmuch representative columnat On theotherhand,let’sreiteratethatreaders’ paper’s ownoutput.Thischangeat Analysis) andthatitdoesnotcriticizedirectlythe newspapers, hasbeenrenamed“MedyaAnalizi”(Media that haveledtoapublicoutcry. in hiscolumn,donottouchuponanyethical violations authority, andthey,atleastasmuchthey arereflected the newspaper.Readers’complaintsform limitsofhis newspaper agreeswiththegovernment,and he agreeswith boss, editorialboard,orthepoliticalauthorities. His Sabah the government.” specific topicsifyoudon’twishtofacethejudiciaryand also saysthesituation“requiresthatyoubecarefulon ombudsman GürayÖzhasnobosstoworryabout,buthe editorial policyoftheoutletyouworkfor.” to keepaneyeoutfortheboss’srelationshipsand centers. readiness oftheoutletheorsheworkstoconfrontthese about centersofpoweristiedtoboththeombudsmanand readers’ representativeat are notasconstricting.AccordingtoFarukBildirici,the allow verylittleroomtooperate,andforothersthey they canengageinself-regulation.Forsome,theselimits All oftheombudsmenhavespecificlimitstohowmuch of Hürriyet well forthefutureofreaders’representativeat less frequent. often. But criticism oftopicsthat touchuponpolitics is power deemacceptable tocriticize,arecriticizedmore children, whichallsegments ofsocietyandcenters The pictureweseeis thatnewsarticlesonwomenand Milliyet ombudsmanİbrahimAltayhasnoproblemwith the , whichwassoldtotheDemirörenGroup,owner Milliyet .

’s BelmaAkçurasays“youareobliged Milliyet Hürriyet , oneofthefour Milliyet , beingabletowrite doesnotbode Cumhuriyet

153 154 important currenteventsinthecountrywasAfrin As thisarticlewasbeingwritten,oneofthemost are actingasabraketothedegreethattheyresist. downhill atthesamespeedasfree-fallingmedia,and degree thattheyacceptthissituation,areheading of thesiegemediaisunder.Theombudsmen,to Indeed, thesituationofombudsmenisnotindependent presented. in Turkeydoesnotfullydiscusshowarticlesonwarare to confrontthefactthatinstitutionofombudsman reasons werecited.)Attheendofday,weareforced for fiveweeksafterthestartofoperation;health Cumhuriyet in alimitedfashion.(Weshouldnoteatthispointthatthe one readers’representativediscusseditintheircolumn-- been discussedfromtheperspectiveofmediaethics.Only military operationinnorthernSyria,whichshouldhave readers’representativecolumnremainedempty Regulation andSelf-Regulation inTelevision inTurkey Introduction Suncem Koçer Yamaç’s relationship.Thischaracter,from reported ofawholenewcharacterpopping to getmarried.Inthelastweek As thestorydevelopedfurther,Sena So afteronlyafewmonths, kiss] betweenBihterandBehlülonAşk time somethinglikethiswasseen[onaTV scenes werenolongerverycommon,andthat“the the firstepisode.Manyviewerscommentedthat social mediaandbecameatrending scene leftitsmarkonthe pointed outhowYamaçand something quitelikethisfora the firstepisodeconfirmedthat The headlinesofInternet to headhisfamily Yamaç Koçovalı,who story instantly It wasfirstbroadcastinOctober2017,becamepopular Çukur, oneofIstanbul’smostnotoriousneighborhoods. Koçovalı familyanditsbattletosecurecontrol broadcast on The televisionseries, du-10164860-haberi/ (accessed https://www.haberler.com/ 2 2018) 1 “Çukur,” “AteşliöpüşmesahnesiÇukur dizisinedamgavurdu,”October27,2017 oftenrevolvesaroundthepassionatelovebetween http://www.showtv.com.tr/dizi/tanitim/cukur/ andcontinuestoattractawideaudience.The Show TV atesli-opusme-sahnesi-cukur-dizisine-damga-vur affairs,andthelove-interest,Sena. aftermanyyearsreturnedtoÇukur , tellsofthedarkpast April28,2018) Çukur Sena’s“passionatekissing newssitesreportingonthe show.” , producedbyAyYapım Çukur longwhile.”Newsitems ofFebruary,newspapers “viewershaven’tseen ’s 2

fan-basewassecured. topicafterjust Çukur andYamaçdecided -ı Memnu.” 2076 (accessedApril28, blazonedon theotherside upinSenaand show]was[a ofthe kissing last of and - 1

155 156 of theFourthWall,wasRadio safety], andwewillactaccordingly.”Andin thisway camera, told itself via well known,will This sceneimplies seeing RTÜKbeingnamedand its symbolicpresenceonourTVscreens shape ofasecuritycamera.Eventhoughweare sanctions, wasphysicallyrepresentedinthisscene often duetoitscontinuousoversight,successive and thelike.RTÜK,whichscreenwriters with headlinessuchas“ The followingdaymanynewspapersand other andYamaçkisses is undervideosurveillance.” camera isasignthat the securitycameraonwall And Sena,asiftosilentlysay,“They’ll but Ican’ Just thenSenatellsYamaç,“ Public Hospitalandhugas in thenews,SenaandYamaç,stand actively seekingthemout.Inone watching SenaandYamaç immorality amongtheyouth, kissing scenesin RTÜK whichhadon Council (RTÜK). ma http://t24.com 3 protects theyouth,Turkish familyvalues,andsocialmorals. internalized andaffirmed thatRTÜKisaninstitution “Çukur’danRTÜK’egönderme: Senişimdiburadaöperdimama”February27,2018 ,12499 (accessed April28,2018) t.” Yamaçthenlooksather,asiftoask,“ thischaracter.SenaandYamaç,smilinginto the .tr/video/cukurdan-rtuke-gonderme-seni-simdi-burada-operdim-a RTÜK,“Youarehere;youobservingus[for our beaddressedinthestorylineofshow thatRTÜK’ssanctions,whichhavebecome Çukur many occasionsfinedShowTVforthe reads, “Foryoursafety,ourhospital Çukur Sena onherforehead. , arguingthattheshowpromoted everywhere, observingthem,and givenaroleintheshowitself. they bideachotherfarewell. has nowitselfsecuredapart, alludesto I wouldkissyouhereandnow, The twoloverssmileateach of thehospital.Below andTelevisionSupreme scene widelyreported in frontoftheKoçova Internetsiteslead , wearenotusedto RTÜK[decision]” viewershearfrom fine us,”pointsat usedtosensing fines,and

Çukur the Why?” 3

Seen studies areneededinordertograsp well astomakeitclearthat of regulationandself-regulationin to openawindowonto addressing familyissues,and media productions painted byethnographerswhosefieldworkhas focusedon This articleconsidersasveryimportantthe picture ethnographic approachtothetelevisionsectorin further bolsteredbytheanalysesofacademics conclusions reachedthroughthese as welltodefine understand the with membersof This articleis to the background relations to politics are all important factors shaping the The establishmentofRTÜK,thewayitoperatesandits not limitedtoregulationturningintoself-censorship. induces self-censorship.Thiscomplicated to theideathatRTÜK in contentafteritisaired, regulates TVproduction,content, is agoodexampleof of regulationandself- This scene that “weareregulatingourselves.” viewers representative. journalist Tayfun Ertan,ethnographerHikmet Kocamaner,andBernaKürekçi, a za Akınerdem,ethnographerJosh Carney,RTÜKrepresentativeİsmetDemirdöğen, 4 Amongtheexpertsandpractitioners IinterviewedareethnographerFey inthisway, coin-- theownershipstructureofTurkishmedia. of thiscomplexsituation.Thereisanotherside from complicated background I mentioned above complicatedbackgroundImentionedabove the press and with experts and seeks to thepressandwithexpertsseeksto basedonin-depthinterviewsIconducted Çukur Çukur’s such as marriage programs, daily shows suchasmarriageprograms,dailyshows the rules of self-regulation. The therulesofself-regulation.The the complicated background situation thecomplicatedbackgroundsituation the sanctionspracticedbyRTÜK,which embodiesthecomplicatedsituation does notimposecensorship,and allusiontoRTÜKinfact regulation onTurkishtelevision.It TV series. This article seeks TVseries.Thisarticleseeks comprehensive and detailed comprehensiveanddetailed all ofwhichrunscontrary interviews have been interviewshavebeen and infactintervenes thebiggerpicture. Turkishtelevision,as situation is based on an basedonan onlystates Turkey.

- 4

157 158 What IsSelf-Regulation? the in Angela is regulation is It is an actor’sactions.Regulationis Regulation involvesthe events andpractices. institutions formedofmany self hereisthemedia. part ofthetermself- to thequestionofwho components. The“self”hereimplies the termself-regulationmayneed In ordertosimplifythisdefinition 5 the mostimportantone, totheactors(inthisinstance leaves the complementary elements: legislation,implementation,and Campbell,1999, p.714 order toexplainthevariousdiscussionstakingplacein problematic asthereareawiderangeofdefinitions. abilitytosanction. Self-regulationisasystemthat US onthetopic: to levelthemarketplayingfield-- its ethical beliefs, to reason-- torespond perceives the oversight regulate, asinthedelegationofsecuritiesindustry the governmenthasformallydelegatedpower narrowly, toreferonly At oneendofthespectrum, only naturalthatweshoulddefinewhatself- , ifnotallthreeof theseelementsthenatleast J. Campbell,aprofessoroflaw,saysthefollowing spectrum, thetermisusedwhenprivatesector at thestartofthisarticle.Butdoingso the needtoregulateitselfforwhatever to thestockexchanges.Atotherendof regulation israthercomplex.The correctionandcontrolof And themediainessencecomprise to consumerdemand,carryout actor isintheregulation layers ofviewers,individuals, enhance industry reputation, or those instanceswhere madeupofthree the termisusedquite to besplitintoits the actor.Theanswer to addressthemedia, and doesso. 5 to

the media),andifgovernmentistobeinvolved Jackson’s clothing,exposing on-stage dance,JustinTimberlake singers JanetJackson The halftimeshow every year. The matchbringsinmillionsofdollars commercials specificallytobeairedduring famous performerstaketothe the eventarealsointerested 170 millionpeoplewatchedthe is themostwatched championship gameof that tookplaceinthe broadcast of the 2004 An exampleofthissituation separately from definition ofmediaself-regulationanditsregulation and politicalculture.Asaresult,creatinggeneral can mediabeconsideredseparatefromhistory to separatemediapracticesfromthe the conceptofself-regulationisthat Another reasonwhyitisdifficult structure. of measurablestandards,publicparticipation incentives, theabilityof its relative operational definitionofaself-regulatingsystemand then onlyinalimitedmanner.AccordingtoCampbell,an 2018 7 6 April per-bowl-2018-ne-zaman,GvBV3zsrfUiRaM3Tk7Fltg/SBBHjPptnkS0ix2bNulxsQ (accessed “14MilyarDolarlıkSporKarşılaşması: SuperBowlnezaman?”February2, Campbell,1999,p.772 28,2018) https ://www.ntv.com.tr/galeri/spor/14-milyar-dolarlik-spor 6 7 effectivenessrestonfivefactors:industry intertwinedsocialeffectsisdifficult. of the 2004 Super Bowl featured the ofthe2004SuperBowlfeatured mediaeventworldwide.Forexample, theUSNationalFootballLeagueand and Justin Timberlake. Following their andJustinTimberlake.Followingtheir Super Bowland subsequent discussions media.TheSuperBowlisthefinal governmenttoregulate,theuse her breast on live television. herbreastonlivetelevision. canbeseeninthelive stage.Variousbrandsprepare inthehalftimeshow,when 2017SuperBowl.Viewersof ripped off a piece of Janet rippedoffapieceofJanet tocategoricallydefine socialbackdrop,nor itisnotpossible intotheUSeconomy theSuperBowl. , andindustry -karsilasmasi-su , economy, ,

159 160 for afewseconds,and Millions ofviewerssawJanet the FederalCommunicationCommission( Immediately afterthelive followed onlymakesensein reactions fromthepublic.The Janet Jacksonforalongtimeandthereplacement aired onTVchannels.Thechannels’decision to prevent self-regulationconcerning overturned the a finefollowingviewerreaction,theSupreme Court making in widespread practiceofbroadcastdelayonUStelevisions happen. Irrespectiveofthat,thiseventgavebirthto the producersofshowhadknownwhatwasgoing Janet Jacksonconsciouslystagedtheeventandwhether US mediastilltalksaboutwhetherJustin case. performance, andthatfreedomofthepressapplies of question wasbroadcastlive,butwithoutthe FCC in2008,statingthatthe to theSupremeCourt.The FCC’s largestfinetodate.However, CBS thousands ofcomplaints.TheFCCdecidedto charge ofregulatingtheUSmedia, sobscura.com/articles/how 9 Nhc3Rpbmc (accessed Z0aW1lX3Nob3dfY29udHJvdmVyc3kjQ2Vuc29yc2hpcF9hbmRfcmVndWxhdGlvbl9vZl9icm9hZG php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2kvU3VwZXJfQm93bF9YWFhWSUlJX2hhbG 8 EricGrundhauser, “How‘live’isliveTV?” February5,2016 “Super BowlXVIIIhalftime show controversy” ordertobeablepreventinappropriate contentfrom CBS subsidiarystationsatotalof$550,000. management,thatitwasanunexpectedpart ittoTVscreens. decision.Thissituation,however,didnot April28,2018) -live-is-live-tv (accessedApril28,2018) the wardrobe malfunction drew heavy thewardrobemalfunctiondrewheavy 9 ButdespitetheFCCissuing thecontextofUS. airing ofthe2004SuperBowl, Jackson’s breast, if only Jackson’sbreast,ifonly legal process and results that legalprocessandresultsthat inappropriate contentin Court ruledagainstthe inappropriatecontent received hundredsof http CBS FCC), thebodyin ://www.wiki-zero.com/m/index. appealedthefine Timberlakeand 8 fine twenty

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- - - RTÜK: ItsExistence a the dance routineswithtraditionalmusicalperformancesduring it isnecessarytotakealookattheFCC of looking atregulationandself-regulationinthecontext The firststeptoanalyzeconcreteexamplesrequires self with manydevelopingnation-states,television inTurkey newcomer totheTurkishradioandtelevision Turkey-- somethingrarelyseenelsewhere. It producers andbroadcasters,but RTÜK isapreoccupation the regulatorymechanismandpolitics. the mediaownershipstructureandrelationship self-regulation practices.Atthetopof innate problemsofTurkey’smediaandreveal The conflictspresentintheoperationofRTÜK for coordinationandregulation,theway analyze theestablishmentofRTÜK, practices ofTurkish Therefore, communication fieldformthewiderbackdropofthistopic. its history ties betweenthemwithintheirparticularcontext.The public debatesthatresultedinself-censorship,and self-regulation practicesthatbecamethe türel iklimve televizyoniçerikleri,Ütopya Yayınevi,2005. 10 identity. a criticalroleinthe formationofthemodern has beenapartofthe nation-buildingprocessand Example:Sevilay Çelenk,Televizyon,temsil, kültür: 90’lıyıllardasosyokül one’s ownsocietalbackground.And,intheexampleabove, SuperBowlhalftimeshowcanbeconsideredinstancesof -censorship. operation, aswelltheUSlawsthatgovern of USmedia,theestablishmentFCCand 10 Themonopolyofthe Turkish Radioand in ordertounderstandtheself-regulation Problem,ItsAbsenceaWound television stations,wemustfirst in dailyconversationofnotjust also regularviewersin the unitresponsible these problemslie norm thereafter, as wellthe is arelative the natureof it operates. scene. As national display the Television served between the -

161 162 until thetransitiontocommercialbroadcastingin1990, Corporation ( requirements. Between1967and1980, continued tobeshaped so that 11 several months broadcasting afterestablishingacompany inLichtenstein, and businessmanCemUzanbeganpreparations for private TVbroadcasting. be consideredacrimeandopenlysignaled broadcasting inTurkeyfromabroadvia January 1990,President broadcasts constituencies withaccesstothesechannels. satellite dishesthemselvesinordertoprovide dishes, andinfactsome stations began TRT institution likeRTYK. in termsofduties, process, commercial differ today’s RTÜK,thoughitsstructure,operationandfunction Council ofBroadcasting.Thisservedasthepredecessor Television HighCouncil(RTYK)andalsoknownasthe regulating bodywasestablished,calledtheRadio by in-houseorganizations. 14 13 function inthisbookdetail. the formationofTRTregulation systemandtheRTYK’sduty,operation Üniversitesi Yayın,YayınNo: 519,İstanbul,1993,p.98.Sarmaşıkdescribes 12 Sarmaşık,1993,p.98. Sarmaşık,RadyoveTelevizyon YayınlarınıDenetimYöntemleriMarmara Aziz,1999 Yengin,1994, p. 116 ’s monopolyendedinthe1980sTurkey.Foreign markedly fromRTÜK. the legalframeworkoftelevisionbroadcasting beganin1990.Speakingtojournalists TRT broadcastinginTurkeyviasatellite beforeTurgutÖzalwaselectedpresident ) lastedfromitsfirstbroadcastin1967 authorities andcapabilitiesforan television posedtoobigachallenge TurgutÖzalannouncedthat and amendedtoreflectthese municipalitiesevenacquired 14 Thepresident’s 12 11 After1980, Givenitspainfulbirthing TRT satellitewouldnot wasregulated a moresenior son,AhmetÖzal, thebeginningof 13 Commercial television their and High to broadcastingfrom in 1989. framework for private radio and television the Article133ofConstitution for privatetelevisionandradio The Constitutionwasamended followed by similar cases.” the ruling“setstagefordefacto how inadequatethislawwasintheageofsatellite because itbroadcastviasatellite,andirrespectiveof court ruledthat stations canonlybeestablishedandrunbythe the Constitution,whichstatesthat“radioand the AnkaraProsecutor’sOfficerelyingon the RTYK, thebodythatwasestablished because itwasbasedoutsideof despite targetingTurkishviewers television Star consequences inradio-televisionbroadcasting.” Germany, therebystarting“anew by MagicBoxIncorporated broadcast butwasjoinedby 15 no rules. an atmosphereofchaosreignedandwhere broadcasting introduced, RTÜKwasestablishedintheattempt to 19 18 17 16 le-kurulan-ilk-ozel-televizyonlar (accessedApril net, December19,2014 Maraşlı,2017,p.388 “Özal’ınSinyaliyleKurulanİlkÖzelTelevizyonlar,”Ayda ÖzlüÇevik,Bia Çatalbaş,2009, p.369 Öztekin,2007, p.62 Öztekin,2007,p.61 TRT 1 , runningwiththeslogan“Turkey’sfirstprivate , filedacriminalcomplaintagainst 15 19 After

[channel],”wasexemptfromlegalsanctions, Show TV 18 thepresidentstated,“thereisnoobstacle Thus,atthestartof https://m.bianet.org/bianet/medya Star 1 , abroad”,the Kanal didnotviolate . TheybroadcastinTurkishfrom 6 theTVchannel andothernewprivatechannels. threeyearslatertoallow Turkey. periodwithunforeseeable broadcasts.In1994,after withprogramsinTurkish, TRT primarilytoregulate wasamendedandlegal continuedto 28,2018) the1990s, 17 theConstitution /160908-ozal-in-sinyaliy Regardless,the Article133of broadcasting was recognitionof MagicBoxat Star 1 television 16 state”The Star 1 , owned reignin dishes, knew

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163 164 Republican People’sParty(CHP)RTÜK 4756 putsforthimportantregulationsconcerning and short-livednessoftheregulation percent.” group atabroadcasting holdings ofonereal one radiostation 2002 statedthat entering publictenders.Once Demirdöğen says.The fairly strict “When RTÜKwasinitiallyestablished,itsregulationswere broadcasting license. intelligence and reintroduced requirement of a security certificate from the of EUharmonizationefforts.Oneexamplethisisthe relative democratizationachievedin2011-2012aspart pruned thedemocraticgainsmadeduring five executiveordersissuedduring political andeconomicstructures self-regulation andthat 1994 havebeen out that debate amongthepartiesinvolved,Demirdöğenalsopoints fact thatRTÜKwasestablishedwithoutanymeaningful broadcasts. (Interview,February12,2018)Aside the breakupofstatemonopoly resulted fromthe philosophical discussion”,forcedbythechaosthat Demirdöğen confirmsthatRTÜKwasformed“withouta 20 to surpass(Article29), renderingthelaw and withtheupperlimit placedsohighthat in ordertopreventconcentration withinthemedia it placesannualviewer andlistenerratiosas Öztekin,2007, p.62 revisionsinlegalcodesconcerningRTÜKsince 20 SözeriandGüney intheirattempttopreventamonopoly,” madewithoutanyfundamentaldiscussionon “onecompanycanonlyestablishandoperate securityservicesinordertoacquirea andonetelevisionstation;…thestock liberalizationofbroadcastingfollowing originallawpreventedmediaownersfrom orcorporatepersonaninvestment corporationshallnotsurpass50 thosechangeswerebasedonthe describethepracticalpitfalls again,thelawputinplace onradioandtelevision ofthetime.Forexample, representativeİsmet thestateofemergency asfollows:“LawNo. incapableof theperiodof itisdifficult ameasurement fromthe mediaowners, sector,

(d preventing concentration.Furthermore,Article29sub-sections and principledmediastuckinthecapital- disadvantages thatitpresentsfor Benefits thatthissituation organizations and sector, andfinance in Holding companiesinTurkeythathavebusinessinterests media ownersfromenteringpublictenderswerechanged sector turningintoaholdingwereremoved,and one byintheperiodthatfollowed,obstaclesto that president the ConstitutionalCourtfollowingapetitionfiledby for had expired,RTÜK’sconcessiontothegovernment regarding, facto continuationofRTÜKmemberswhoseterm ofoffice the controversialsituationthatemergedfollowing the RTÜK followingitssuspensionby of anewlawonelection produced bythereintroduction media companies,the been reached and media ownershipstructure,RTÜKastheregulator, are built,inhisanalysisoftheintersectionbetween to characterizetherelationshipsuponwhichTurkish the 2004RTÜKcrisis,usesterm“ are evident.ÜmitAtabek,inanarticle bianet/bianet/50682-dehset-dengesi (accessed April 22 21 companies werebenefitting TRT managingboard, SözeriandGüney,2011,p.21 ) and(e),whichalsogovernthismatter,weresuspendedby “DehşetDengesi,” ÜmitAtabek,Bianet,December 18,2004 such fieldsasconstruction,energy,theautomotive thelawsthatsoughttopreventamonopolywerepruned politics. example, requestsconcerningtheelectionof the , andstruckdownin2004.” 22 that protectstheinterestsofholding AccordingtoAtabek,anequilibriumhas be significantplayersinpublictenders. and thefactthat holdingmedia are abletoalsobecomeownersofmedia government, andtheRTÜK.Theconfusion and appointmentofmembers from thissituationin accordance offers fortheholdingsand and passageinParliament the ConstitutionalCourt, 21 an independent,neutral, İsmetDemirdöğenstates equilibrium ofterror” 28, 2018) which heanalyzes politics axis http://bianet.org/ lawsbarring themedia . media the de

165 166 terror.” AccordingtoAtabek,animportant with itsinterestsareelements forced into Cold Warera Atabek borrows frequency tender, has benefitedall politicians. companies andconflictswiththepoliticalinterests ofthe it runscontrarytotheeconomicinterestsofholding is required Despite significant equilibrium involvestheillusivechannelfrequencytender: bianet/bianet/50682-dehset-dengesi (accessed April 23 being multipolar,having Today, mediaandpolitical they possessedcould “DehşetDengesi,” ÜmitAtabek,Bianet,December 18,2004 accepting thepreviousgovernments’practices. is happywiththeRTÜK’s the variousmediagroups government, companies haveusedthefrequenciesforfree…The been madefromthenear10yearsholding It tenders andtradingonthestockmarketwereremoved… on ownersofradioandtelevisionstationsentering these legalamendmentswereinthe is anargumentover put toatenderwill fees tothePublic holding owners’ The holdingmediacompanies…arecertainthatthe is noexaggerationtosaythatalotofprofit astateofequilibriumbecausetheweapons to allot the frequencies, is unable to do so because to allotthefrequencies,isunabledosobecause The inability to complete the frequency tender The inabilitytocompletethefrequencytender . Thesuperpowersinamulti-polarworldwere theterm“equilibriumofterror”from completed in2013,wascanceledbycourtorder. afraid thattheequilibriumestablishedby of the sides of this equilibrium. The first of thesidesthisequilibrium.Thefirst damage to the public good, the RTÜK, which damage tothepublicgood,RTÜK,which destroytheworldseveral timesover. nightmare ofhavingtopaylicense comeunderthesole influence Treasury afterthefrequenciesare RTÜK members.Furthermore,while sceneinTurkeyisfar fromeven not materializesolongasthere ineffectiveness, implicitly will benegativelyaffected, of this“equilibrium 28, 2018) works, restrictions node inthis http://bianet.org/ 23 media has concerning RTÜKregulationsandfines of thegovernment. year. Ananalysisofwhatchannelsthesecomplaints The RTÜKreceivesonaverage150,000viewer Viewer Complaints between RTÜKandpoliticsleaveanegative impression RTÜK’s ownregulationexpertstructure triangle. Whetheritis between the RTÜK According toDemirdöğen,thesetwochannelsthatfeed these infractionsattheweeklymeetingof to thepresidencyofinstitution.The principles These RTÜK involves theexpertswatchingTVbroadcaststhemselves. report andsendittotheboard.Thesecondregulation viewers state RTÜK website the complaintsfrom on thebasisoffeedbackcoming RTÜK, whosemembersconveneonce Practice? RTÜK Regulation: How DoesItWork ruary 15,2011 25 has leftthemediainTurkey withasinglevoice. for $1.1billion.DoğanMedya joiningtheranksofpro-governmentmedia 24 “RadyoveTelevizyonların KuruluşveYayın HizmetleriHakkındaKanun,” Feb Whenthisarticlewaswritten, DoğanMedyawassoldtotheDemirörengroup expertswatcheverytelevisionchannel24hoursaday. regulationdonotworkseparatelyfromtherelations experts,iftheyfindanybroadcastinviolationofthe portal.RTÜKexpertsevaluateallcomplaintssentinby , andiftheybelieveaninfractiontookplace,preparea 25 laidoutinArticle8ofLaw6112, andotheronlinesystemssuchasthee-government https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k6112.html ( governmentandthemedia-politics-capital 24 This publicfiledviaAloRTÜKhotlineandthe viewerssubmittingcomplaintsor situationhasmadetheconflict viatwochannels.Thefirstis aweek,regulatesbroadcasting on Paper andin evenmorepronounced. presidency bringsup , therelationship RTÜK. accessed April 28,2018) forward areport complaintsa channel came .

167 168 through, thetypesofprograms,sanctions,andlike April 28,2018) www.dogrulukpayi.com/bulten/internet-platformlarina- 27 ri/3696/890/yillik-faaliyet-raporlari.html ( percent ofthecomplainantsweremen.Most of complaints camefromthe41-50agegroup. A total and suggestions86percentwerecomplaints. Mostof by viewers/listeners.Ofthese14percentwere December 2017,atotalof7,769complaints and notyetpublishedasofMay2018onthe According todataprovidedbyRTÜKmember İsmet Demirdöğen criteria submittedinthefirstninemonthsof2017: the followingisalistingofcomplaintsbyinspection periodically publishedontheRTÜKwebsite. 26 “ “YıllıkFaaliyetRaporları” İnternette RTÜKDönemi,”VerdaUyar,Doğruluk Payı,February8,2018 https://www. rtuk.gov.tr/faaliyet-raporla accessed April28,2018) rtuk-denetimi (accessed were registered 26 RTÜK website,in Forexample the complaints compliments of 75 - 27 are http:// the ,

168 in December2017concernedprogramsthatwas“contrary evaluates thecomplaintsinquestion Ertuğrul broadcast onStarTV,Show directed atsoapoperas.Thetop decree inApril2017.Mostviewer months of2017becausetheywere programs, sawadeclineincomplaints A frequenttargetof children and “programsthatcannegativelyaffectthedevelopmentof family.” Secondinlinewasthecallto“imposesanctions,” general morality,spiritualvaluesandtheprotectionof Of theshows ril 28,2018) 28 being oneoftheshows starting fromitsvery “Söz:GözünArkada Kalmasın” that denigratetheTurkishArmyandsoldiers, Complaints werereceivedforSözhavingscenes most notices]. to thenumberthreespot[of from viewers,204were the showDiriliş culture the youthaswellwronglyportrayedneighborhood show glorifiedthe mafia, rebellion,anddruguse vulgar speech.Furthermore,complaintsnoted received many violence. Second sanctions becausetheshowcontainedexcessive and incompetent;furthermore,therewere for showing . RTÜK’s and theyouth”cameinthird. . Forthis,viewersdemandedsanctions.As for mentioned above,RTÜK frequentlyfined December2017viewercomplaintreport SpecialForcesofficersaspassive complaintsforviolentcontentand complaints,marriage/match-making inlinewasShowTV’sÇukur,which Ertuğrul,ofthe244noticesreceived thatreceivedthemost complaints, first episode. https://www.startv.com.tr/ TV’s compliments,bringingthisshow Çukur threeamongthemwere bannedbyanemergency showsthatreceivedthe feedbackinDecemberwas andTRT1’s asfollows: inthefirstnine Söz 28 , eventhough dizi/soz (accessed Ap callsfor Diriliş thatthe Çukur among to Söz

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169 170 Parts ofthe did notevenmakeit as inspectorsofanyshow, use socialmediatojoin media. FeyzaAkınerdem particular show The regulatormorereadilyaddressescomplaints abouta taken up on social İsmet Demirdöğennotesthatviewers’opinions expressed RTÜK’s reportsorintheregulator’sdecisions feature excessiveviolence,arenowheretobeseenin learn aboutthenation’shistory.However,theseshows have theirchildrenwatchthisshowinorderforthem places afocusonviolence.Akınerdemstressesthatfamilies Ertuğrul not onlyshowsthatfeaturetheSpecialForces; machismo, afactorthathasbroughtinmanyviewers.It and beenreplacedbythoserevolvingaroundviolence storylines involvingsexhavevisiblydeclinedasof and areexpectedtosetthetone.”According Söz Ethnographer FeyzaAkınerdemdescribes warning should so muchblood. hold agrudgeagainst forces asweak,seen and includedinthe show’s violence sed 29 Akınerdem notesthat viewer complaints RTÜK canbeusedfor However, viewers’social media “HikayeveKünye” and April 28,2018) , oneofthemostpopularshowsaslate İsimsizler by RTÜKexpertsandincludedintheboard’s agenda. media affectwhetherornotthecomplaints are complaintsconcerning beissued-ComplaintID:574329.” Söz . However,complaintsdirectedatthisshow https://www.kanald.com.tr/isimsizler/hikaye-ve-kunye (acces if theybecometrendingtopicsonsocial makeslightofthis.It’sshameful.A 29 reportconcernedshowingthesecurity asshowsthat“address totheagendaofregulatorybody. thepolicespecialforces?Wespilled ulterior purposesby the government. inthisexample:“Dothepeople notes thatviewersveryeffectively the regulationprocessandact whether theywatchitornot. posts ortheircomplaints to Söz weredirectedatthe series suchas were usedas theZeitgeist toAkınerdem, . Diriliş , also late , which either to is

match-making programs.Wecanalsociteasanexample justification fortheemergencydecreecancelingmarriage/ were notauthenticandthatespeciallythose that Şendir toldusinaninterviewthatsome Kanal D a grouptosubmitcomplaintsand show commitsabroadcasting example, whenproducersofaprogram the RTÜKcomplaintsystemto According toDemirdöğen this as producers complaint hotlinecan always authenticviewer complaints RTÜK by variouscircles.Demirdöğenstatesthatthe150,000 ulterior agendas,RTÜK’scomplaintsystemcanalso be abused In additiontoviewers’complaintsbeingusedadvance broadcasts. article thatenvisionsallowingRTÜKtoregulateonline Oktar’s use ofviewercomplaintsregardingthetele-preacher,Adnan Parliament and becamealawatthetimethis articlewasbeingwritten. 30 groups”, addingcredence toDemirdöğen’s in thetextofcomplaint were close successiontoone anotherandused Thebillseeking toallowRTÜKregulate Internetbroadcastingpassed in among viewers,leadingtohigherratings.” and socialmedia.Andinthiswayincrease complaints withRTÜK.Youthenannouncethis put togetheragroupofpeopleand have agoodargument.Butyourratings “Let’s sayyouareproducingashow and A9 follows: channelasthereasonbehindanomnibus of newshows.Demirdöğenprovidesanexample 30 Teve2 receives onaverageeveryyeararenot viewerrepresentative be usedaspartofaPRcampaignby ’s findings,producersalsouse complaints. Asamatter of fact,the infraction, theycanorganize vilifyrivalprograms.For theworkof“organized have theprogramfined. findoutthatarival statement. have themfile thesamewords Berna Kürekçi for women.You viewer complaints are bad.You interest via media came in

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171 172 trailer for It ispossibletoseethisatplay are incapableofself-regulationbecause of RTÜK’spassivevieweras state. EthnographerHikmet to be the onehand,RTÜK state’s) imageofthe the complaintsystemisproofthat producers’ PRstrategyorameansto Whether thecomplaintsareauthentic,partof influenced byproducersof complaints increased show was and ledto would likely relationships inthepalaceweredeliberate.Thetrailer, for complaints. AccordingtoCarney, Yüzyıl ethnographer the complaintsweredirectedbyshow’sproducers, filed withRTÜK.Althoughrefrainingfromstatingthat 2011, whichbroketherecordfornumber complaint systemthatfeedsRTÜKdecisions holds try toapplyitintheirlives.”Onthe they seeontelevisionlikeaspongeand understanding, thepeoplesoakupanything large partofthepeopleare mechanism where self-regulationby viewersreplaced viewers conducted approach sharedbythe state/RTÜK.Accordingtoresearch television showsandinspect thatcontentwithanormative (some) viewerswhodistance themselvesfromthecontent Muhteşem Yüzyıl irritateviewers,becameaneffectivePRstrategy protected, educatedandhonedintoanacceptable usedelements to havebeendeliberatelypreparedinawaythat as apassive group,itinfactfavors aregulation evenaired.Carneysaysmediareportsonthese by Kocamanerin2012, even thoughRTÜKseesthe recordnumbersofcomplaintstoRTÜKbeforethe Muhteşem Yüzyıl Josh Carneysaysthetrailerfor sees theviewersasagroupthatneeds usingimageryimplyingsame- interestintheshow,anoutcome viewer isaparadoxicalconstruct.On that wouldinviteviewerstofile Kocamaner illustratesthisview theshow. follows: “RTÜKbelievesviewers (“Magnificent uneducated. Accordingtothis the introductorytrailer RTÜK’s (andthereforethe in theexampleof attain apoliticalgoal, other hand,the unquestioningly it thinksavery and everything Century”) in of complaints a show’s Muhteşem in esteem sex of underline theimportanceof regulation byRTÜK. are assignedtoparticularTVstations objective. Forexample,undernormal Regulation byexpertsisfora Experts formthesecondchannel Regulation by Experts representative Fox same broadcast them.Buteventhoughtheprograms followedthe decree, the marriageprograms giving marriage/ a singleinfraction.Demirdöğenexplainsthis situationby when particularly for İsmet Demirdöğenfindsthatfineshavebeensought stations whileinspectingotherswithaddedscrutiny. broadcasts. Thisbeingthecase,RTÜKprotectssome and financialinterests,ratherthanonthecontent system’s attentionisfocusedonastation’s suspension oftherotationsystemindicatesthat the stationstheyareexamining.Accordingto implemented. Atpresent,expertsremainona three months.However,thisrotationsystemis of theirbroadcastsaresupposedtobe his phonecalls oremails. sentatives for hisresearchprojectin2012 butreceivednoreplyto anyof Ethnographer HikmetKocamaner alsonotedthathehadcontactedviewerrepre for aninterview,onlytheviewer representativesofKanalD/Teve2replied. of thevariousTVstations for thisarticle.OfallthestationsIcontacted 31 Iwantedtoconductin-depth interviewswiththeviewerrepresentatives tobeinviolationofbroadcastingprinciples. Anexpert format, expertsonlyfoundstationssuchas it comestotheTurkuvazgroup,expertshavenotfound ATV , Star 31 mechanismandcivil match-making programsasanexample:“Before TV TV8 , The RTÜKexpertsKocamanerspokewith and Show TV were doneawaywithbyanemergency Fox TV , the roleplayedbyviewer numberofreasonsfarfrom Fox TV thatfeedsRTÜKregulation. inthislatestperiod.But conditions,expertswho society. and rotatedonceevery examinethecontent Kanal D politicalstance permanentbasisat Demirdöğen,the nolongerbeing usedto ofthe ofits Kanal D regulation and -

173 174 Fox report concerning morals, and of the Talent) found asongsung as partofthisstudy be thetopicofa conservative, addingthatthe as separatefromintentional İsmet Demirdöğensaysthe terming thismechanism“mineclearing,”explains groups’ broadcastswasnot RTÜK’s favoritism Esra Erol(airedon the protection ofnationalandspiritual values,general receivedheavyfines,buttouchingtheprogramhostedby the wayfor programs thatprecedethemareintimidated, opening new program…Thisalsoappliestosoapoperas. The was removed.AtjustthattimeEsraErolstarted They pressuredFoxTVandfinedit;the At thistimeEsraErolwaspreparinganew added aprogramaimedatwomenaheadofitsnews don’t stay a ratingof5andendswith though itendswitharatingof4.5 allows thenewsprogramtostartwitharating program andwithoutgoingtoacommercialbreak broadcasts itsnewsprogramrightafterEsra and ATVNewsarethemostwatched up thewayforotherprograms.For forcing ittogutthecontent means finingahighly to increase “Mine clearingmeansremovingcompetitorsinorder family values. Thereport,whichrefers tothe broadcast onTV8tobe contrarytotheprinciple tunedtoATVwatchthenews…FoxTVthen theratingsofsupportedchannels.This theprogramsonotherchannels.” throughitsexpertsshowntospecific by acontestanton separate research.Expert reportsexamined ATV ATV , forexample,nevercame. confirm this.Theexperts, forinstance, ) wasimpossible.” regulation byexpertscannotbeseen limitedtothis.Demirdöğen, ratedprogramwithsanctions, efforts tomakethesocietymore reports preparedbyexpertsmust a7,8oreven9.People andtherebyopening Yetenek Sizsiniz newsprograms.ATV example,FoxNews . Foxstartswith Kanal D program. : program Erol’s (Youare of7, . This and her hour.

infraction asit“usestermsinfluencedbyotherreligions.” Qur’an, these complaintsintothecouncil’sagenda.However the Presidencyofbroadcasting deputies filedcomplaintsabout by religion.Letthemeat -- they’llgetabeating…They cannot gooutandeatfoodjustbecause (Suhur TimewithBekirKöse)said“…those Akşit, speakingasagueston prepared referringtoanother evaluating reportsabout regulator doesnoteven Medya, which as bothan Demirdöğen describes times, stopping The regulator,citingthisreport,sanctioned represented inParliamentbytheparliamentary at atime,aredistributed democratic structure.Ninemembers by politicalpartiesbecause RTÜK membersare Council Evaluations good teacher”andadded,“Let’sfine present atthemeetinghadsaid,“WeknowCevatAkşit Demirdöğen saysJusticeandDevelopmentParty(AKP)members for thisprogramwasagreedtoatthe need toovercome inorder plurality, such as appearing tobedemocratic, impedimentstodemocratic reflect thedistribution ofpartiesinParliament,thereby years. Buteventhough thememberswhomakeup Assembly. Athirdof the membersarerenewedevery cites asevidencethattheterm“God,Father”is attempttopromoteconservatismandtameAcun ownsthetelevisionchannel.Furthermore, theprogramandgivingitamonetaryfine. chosenfromamongcandidatesputforth thehighelection thresholdparties theseandsimilarfinesgivento actinaconsistentmannerwhen anddrinkinsecret.”ThreeCHP TV8 toenterParliament, makethe amongthepoliticalparties . Anotherexpertreportwas thecouncilisseenasa ’ll getabeatingsanctioned Bekir Köse TV8 theprogramwithRTÜKand program watchdogintroduced , whoserveforsixyears

TV8 councilmeeting. forsomethingelse.” they’renotfasting ileSahurVakti menstruatingwomen . TheologianCevat TV8 thecouncil General three , nofine two ; he’sa TV8

175 176 party membersholdthemajority.Until system aproblematicone.At in itsdecisionswhiletheviewsofmembers members arefromtherulingpartyandthis is principles. Bycontrast,atpresent,themajority of that discussionsatthecouncilwerebased involving homosexuality)andfollowed certain issues(such as thevoiceof conducted hisresearch, with where asDemirdöğennotesthe“councilactsinaccordance decision-making mechanism.Incontrasttotoday’ssituation, meetings andthatthesediscussionsarereflectedin in 2012,saysthemembers’redlineswerediscussed Hikmet Kocamaner,citingmeetingshehadwithRTÜK separate fromtheirpoliticalparties’ the councilanddecisionsmade concerning infractions.Thediscussions broadcasting principles As seenin made upof HDP’s onemembergoingtothe members whosetermshadexpiredwere RTÜK membersturnedintotherightto election onNovember1,2017,theAKP’sright one bythePeoples’DemocraticParty(HDP).Following Party (MHP),twobytheRepublicanPeople’s and DevelopmentParty(AKP),twobytheNationalist council hadfourmembersselectedbythe operate independently ofpolitical andcapitalrelations. RTÜK regulation system,ontothe agendaofcouncildoes The processofbringing viewercomplaints,whichfeed deliberations. opposition partiesare hardlytakenintoaccountin party identity,”intheperiodwhenKocamaner fiveAKPandfouroppositionmembers. the examplesabove,councildoesnottake their partybutplacedanimportanceon as vulgarity,childabuse,orcontent RTÜK membersdidnotonlyserve as thebasisforitsdecisions thepresentcouncil,ruling AKP.Asofnow,thecouncilis by itsmembersarenot replaced,withthe havefive,andthree October2017,the them personallyand stance. Ethnographer that takeplaceat rulingJustice on broadcasting tohavefour reflected (CHP)and from the Movement members the at the the the the the not ignore viewercomplaints According to terrorism. AccordingtoDemirdöğen, vilifed bysomenewspapersandaccused and CHP’sRTÜKrepresentative who hadsubmitted against not it openlyviolatedbroadcastingguidelines,thecouncildid bitches,” adding“RTÜKwon’tfine[me]forthis.”Even in Beşiktaş,Istanbul,andcalledthebombers“sonsof Erman ToroğluaddressedabombingonDecember11, levels. Whilehostingaprogramon inspection isfarfromobjectiveon the ErmanToroğluincident, Another eventthatthe council a submitted acomplaint Ramadan program prepared byexperts.Forexample,theabove-mentioned capital groupisinvolved.Thisalsotrueforreports the infractionbelongstooppositionornotandwhat council decides how a while complaint might not elicita report explains theprotractedwaitcomplaint andrelated a finebecausethechanneliscloseto government. protection, it tamed. But because have beenissuedand to theagenda by anopposition the council pass apunitivedecisionbecausetheAKPmembersvoted experienced beforebeingbroughttotheagenda of ’s agendaistiedtowhetherthechannelinvolvedin afteritwasfiled.Thedeterminingfactorthat sanctions orabstained.CHPdeputyBarışYarkadaş, fullyearafterthefact. longbeforeacomplaintwillmakeittothe as follows: “Had this infraction been committed strongenoughreactiononsocialmedia;ora Demirdöğen,thepresidencyofcouncilmay immediately, themost severepenaltywould is notpossible toexpectthesame result.” on beincludedintheagendaofcouncil television channel,it wouldhavemadeit a complaintregardingthebroadcast, it happened toachannelseenworthy of TV8 onlymadeittotheagendaof the channel’svoicewould havebeen aboutwhichtheCHPdeputies council tookupfollowingadelay, onacertainmatterifitdoes clearly showedthatRTÜK İsmet Demirdöğenwerethen ASpor ASpor a numberofdifferent of supporting television, didnotreceive 2016 though He

177 178 which illustrates The other society moreconservative.For sanctions. Andthisin because publishersmodifythe censorship. Thisisn’ they areproduced, broadcasts, imposed byRTÜKleadtoself-censorshipinsubsequent terms “qualitycensorship.”Demirdöğensaysthesanctions of self-censorship,which economic toolof the factthat paper. However,thecontradictionsmentionedaboveand prior toitsbroadcast,censorshipseemsimpossibleon Because theRTÜKdoesnotregulate words. not shyawayfromfining and yourpresidency.” for the attackandgovernmentwhichheheldresponsible in anexclusivebroadcast.Theintervieweecriticizedboth were killed,spoketo Ankara’s lost arelativein are notbased turn leadsTVchannelstobluranyinstances ofalcohol saying they“encouragealcoholconsumption,” andthisin bottles onscreen,RTÜKstillfineschannels is nothingintherelevantlaw lan-hayatin-sesi- Akyol, Evrensel, February6,2017 32 screen, makingitanorm notbasedinlaw.

“KapatılanHayatınSesiTelevizyonuna ŞimdideDavaAçıldı,”Meltem theattack,saying“Tohellwithyourgreedforpower GüvenParkonMarch13,2016,inwhich35people exampleDemirdöğenofferedisthatofHayatTV, and becausetheyaffectthebroadcastsbefore televizyonuna-simdi-de-dava-acildi (accessed April28,2018) onbroadcastingprinciples.Apersonwho regulation hasturnedintoapoliticaland pressure setsintomotionamechanism thatthedecisionsmadebycouncil anattackbytheoutlawedgroupTAKat serve asa“highquality”meansof t self-regulationbutself-censorship 32 Hayat TV Thecouncil,inamajorityvote turn assiststheeffortstomake https://www.evrensel.net/haber/307137/kapati Hayat TV İsmet Demirdöğenironically atthesceneof content outofthefear example, eventhoughthere against showingalcohol solelybecause television content that do, theevent ofthese , did

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even though Censorship isimplementedthroughavarietyofmechanisms, the showportraysprisonpersonnelas asking thatthenecessary broadcast, theMinistryof even broadcastandas Avlu in aninstanceinvolvinga one inwhichbanalityreplaced through RTÜK.The August 6toTÜRKSAT,alongwiththeletter transcripts of these recordings,theprosecutorsentthis reportandthe expert hadpreparedapreliminaryreport on thebasis September 4,2015aspartoftheinvestigation andthat recordings hotline. StatingthatRTÜKhadbeenasked to provide İMC TV February 24statedthataninvestigationwasopenedinto prosecutor andsenttotheTÜRKSATGeneralManagement the satellitelineup.Thelettersignedby TÜRKSAT to cancelitsallottedfrequencyand TV letter inFebruary2016toTÜRKSAT down instages.TheAnkaraChiefProsecutor’s satellite carrierinFebruary2016and is thecaseof Another exampleofhowRTÜKhasbeenturnedinto assist theaimsofterroristorganizations prisons arecentersoftorture,andthat sed April28, 2018) t24.com.tr/video/adalet-bakanligi-avlu-dizisi- 33 propaganda foraterrorist group.”Thechannel,removed the phrase“itisunderstood that[ “AdaletBakanlığıAvluDizisi İçinRTÜK’eBaşvurdu”March19,2018 ofengagingin“terroristgroup , ashow followingacomplainttothe155police information ofall intheoryitcannotpossiblybeimplemented thatrevolvesaroundfemaleprisoners,was İMC TV İMC TV censorshipthatDemirdöğendiscusses,the , whichwas soonasitsintroductorytrailerwas broadcastsofJuly6,13and İMC TV precautionsbetakenbecause JusticesentalettertoRTÜK yet-to-be-airedTVshow.Before broadcastsbetweenMay3and quality,waslatelyatplay removedfromtheTÜRKSAT icin-rtuke-basvurdu,12977 (acces propaganda”andasked İMC torturers,thatthe whichitaccused TV thereaftershut allofthiswill ] disseminated . Theletterused therepublican . 33 remove it from Officesenta atool 14and http:// of on

an İMC

179 180 Self-Regulation: UnderWhatBasis? from TÜRKSAT’slineupon February 26,wasshutdown and capital,inwhichregulationhas atmosphere in which the media are themselves whenthesebroadcasters laid down Is there News Media directly intervenes journalistic atmosphereinwhichthepolitical power even todiscussself-regulationinanon journalism andself-regulation.Forhim,it is holds clearviewsonthebroadcasting Türk reporter for has editor was allowed bureaus atvariouschannelsafterprivatebroadcasting BBC Ertan isanexperiencedjournalistwhohasworkedforthe mechanism orforsuchatofunction.Tayfun working forTurkishmediatocreateaself 24-hour newsstation,itisnotpossible Tayfun Ertan,formereditor-in-chiefof multi-layered andgradualpressuremechanism?According executive decreeissuedunderthestateofemergency. with dozensofotherbroadcastersinOctober2016by ye-37513869 (accessed Kamer, BBCTürkçe, September30,2016 34 guided a tool “KapatılanTV’lerinYöneticileri KararıNasılDeğerlendiriyor,”Hatice duringhisjournalisticcareerworkedas anIstanbul , whoreturnedtoTurkeyestablishanumberof , NTV bytheireconomicinterests. Ertanaddsthatthe ofpolitics,andmedia ownersbehaveinamanner of ground forself-regulation in line withprinciples viewerrepresentative byRTÜK,mediaorganizationsorbroadcasters NTV , andwhotookontheroleoffoundingmanaging

CNN International afteritsestablishmentin1996.Ertan,who April 28,2018) inthemedia,RTÜKhasbeenturnedinto http://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turki , and CNN squeezed between politics findthemselvesinan representativeat NTV principlesof radioprogrammer, forjournalists NTV turnedintoa -democratic -regulation , Turkey notpossible together ’s first news an 34

CNN to -

itself whendone mechanism we According toErtan,broadcasting The situationErtan practice ofjournalismthatisemptiedout. that “ the importantquestionsofjournalism.Ertan termsthisthe time internalize these secondary principles and stop follows theprinciplesofjournalism,they, in asimilarfashion.Iftherehappens positions. Andthosepeopleinturnform the sameconcerns,andwhoactin Media patronsplacepeoplewhothinklikethem, principles areadheredtobyeveryonefromthetop of theseunwrittenandunspokenprinciples.And limits ofhowfarnewscoveragecango. Media Group,identifytopicstobecoveredand define issuessensitivetointerestsof,say, principles andjournalismis the “ journalism. Asforthesecondcategory,Ertantermsthem another, theymoreorlessembodythebasicprinciplesof the small bookletsor, to DemirörenHolding publishers suchas Press Council,theTurkishJournalists’Association,and the writtenbroadcastingprinciplesputforthby media fallintotwocategories.Thefirst İMC TV added to Ertan’s government’s official narrativeis which isininteraction withtheother between themedia,capital, andpolitics the degenerationinjournalism what isyourviewjournalism”--thatis, a journalism wall ofnewspapers.Evenifthesemaydifferfromone is farfromuncoveringthefactsbehind events,a real principles.”Therelationshipbetweenthese , abroadcaster term self-regulation is indeed good journalism model of two-category broadcast principles. inademocraticjournalisticenvironment. as inthecaseof describesisthecriticalresultof the DoğanMediaGroup,whichwassold thatisnot amongthemedia in March2018,thatarepublished minimal. Theseprinciples causedbytherelationship principles inTurkish takenasabasis,can be Hürriyet twoandinwhichthe to beanyonewho . Athirdcategory, Everyone isaware their ownteams consists of way incritical too, aftersome , arehungon the Doğan set the these down. have asking

181 182 independently oftheunwrittenprinciples outlets ownedbyholding broadcast to observetheself-regulationmechanisms used bythe in 2011-2012.Duringthisresearch,shehad the matrimonial/match-making programhostedby EsraErolon Feyza Akınerdemconductedfieldresearch on thesetof perspective ofentertainmentmedia we definethe sees viewer representative BernaKürekçiŞendiralsoconcursthatRTÜK with RTÜKinterventionbeingthelastresort. channel viewerrepresentatives,andbroadcastersthemselves, primary self-regulationmechanism Kocamaner conductedin Demirdöğen and current actively In Media Entertainment regulation andself-regulation? does notclaimtoreportthetruth,define How thendoesentertainmentmedia,whichunlike views thatfelloutsideoftheofficial of journalisticprinciplesandbecauseitgave it didnotadopttheseunwrittenrules described. ended bya statutory decree.Given that point during thestateofemergency period they sawtheirhighest ratings.Theyagain viewers, andcivilsociety groupsboth segments ofthesociety, ranging the mosttalked RTÜK’s idealsystem,viewersandbroadcasterswouldmore system. Thisistheunderstandingofbothİsmet employ self-regulationthanisthecasein team.Thesematrimonial/match-makingprograms were İMC TV representatives asbusinesspartners.So,howcan present self-regulationmechanismfromthe the resultsoffieldresearchHikmet abouttelevisionformats amongvarious wasshutdowninstages 2012. Inthisidealsystem,the companies,wasabletobroadcast frompoliticiansto regular would beviewercomplaints, broadcasters? in2011-2012when importance, Akınerdem thatfalloutside statenarrative. viaRTÜKbecause becameatalking TayfunErtan , whenthey were and experience Kanal D avoiceto opportunity news media viewer a

ATV

explains, EsraErolandherteamconsciouslyfollowed involves bringingpeopletogethertoformafamilyalso exposeshow matrimonial/match-making programconcept.Thisisbecause thisformatthat 35 and directorbecomecritical.Akınerdemsays moments whentheframesused marry theirdaughterbecauseI’m that they’realesbianor“theydon have beentimeswhenaparticipanthassaidliveon making programstageisafragileone.Forexample,there broadcast. InAkınerdem’swords,thematrimonial/match to spontaneouslygobeyondtheirframeduring is putintotheshowbackstage,a if necessary.Thisisbecausenomatter orchestra andhoststandreadyto and howtheywillact.Andduring and howmuchtheywillexplainliveon guests arechosentotheirbackstage frames. Theseframes TV screen,it mechanisms Akınerdem termsthebroadcastteam’sself-regulation correct, notbecausetheyhavebeenimposedbyRTÜK adheres tothesenormsbecausesheherselfconsiders Erol isabroadcasterwhohasstressedthat broadcaster hasinternalized.Accordingto principles, mainlyreflects editorial an editoriallinethatconformedtosocialnorms.This prepared forpublication, willincludefar moredetailedanalysis. rams. Akınerdem’s book,whichisbasedon her fieldresearchandisbeing problems thatledtotheemergency orderthatputanendtotheseprog family byopeningitupto public questioning.Akınerdemsaysitisthese normative constructandatype ofbroadcastthatweakenstheconcepts problematic theinstitution ofmarriageitselfis.Itisbothahighly FeyzaAkınerdemnotesthataconflictarosebetweenthe stateandthe line,thoughalsomatchingRTÜK’sbroadcasting as“frames.”Beforeaprogramreachesthe firstgoesthroughanumberofnormative determineeverythingfromhow thesocietalnormsthat bytheorchestra,host, Kurdish.”Itisatthese thelivebroadcast, participantisable usefurtherframes preparation,what air,andwhere howmucheffort ’t wantmeto Akınerdem,Esra shestrictly EsraErol alive . 35 them air

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183 184 worked hardtomaintainaverysensitivebalance describes self communication andmarketingcoordinatorat DoğanMedia, Şendir, whopreviouslyservedasthe Kanal D of decorum. advising peopletoliveinaccordance principles suchastheprotection the foundationof so outof use research can also purposes. Aknife as aknifethat The a termfromthecorporateworld:socialresponsibility. these broadcastersresolvethisconflictby According totheconclusions might beseen leading them same timecommercialstationsconcernedaboutratings, stations maintainaconservativestancebutareat Kanal 7 norms. HikmetKocamanercarriedoutfield to maintainingabalance Channels termed that the sensationandsocietalnormswheneverthesemoments 37 gundem/samanyolu-tv-tamamen-kapandi-2459628 (accessed 36 that tookplacebefore DoğanMediawassold with corporatecommunication. Speakingin Kocamaner,2017, p.694 “SamanyoluTVTamamenKapandı,” April30,2016, broadcastersKocamanerspokewithseetelevision oftelevision’sconstructivepotentialanddone rancontrarytosocialnormssprangup. , and madeitcleartoKocamanerthattheyhad beusedtopreparefood.Thesubjectsofthe Samanyolu TV asenseofsocialresponsibility.Andat 37 Teve2 tobringcontentthescreenthat asnotagreeingwiththeirconservatism. -regulation asaprocessinterwoven canbeusedfortwocompletelyopposite Islamic alsofaceachallengesimilar canbeusedtocommitmurder,butit viewerrepresentativeBernaKürekçi socialresponsibility,forthem,lie 36 and between sensationandsocietal Hilal TV ofKocamaner’sresearch, offamilyvaluesand in corporate withIslamicrules https:// 2011-2012.These April 28,2018) aninterview research at www.yenisafak.com/ borrowing tothe between the Demirören Holding,Şendirsaidiffeedbackfromcall television broadcastisviewerrepresentation. Inan One ofthebest-knowntechniquesself-regulation Viewer Representation Kurdishness amountstodiscrimination. even reinforcing,thedominantnorm their daughterbecauseI’ her showaguestwhosaid,“They she isagainstdiscrimination,but is abroadcasterwho and bending validate thedominantconstructofculturebytwisting with thedominantculture.Broadcasters,justlikeRTÜK, values andsocialresponsibilityareconstrued of self-regulation.Itcomesas social responsibilityare terms suchas We canseethat, regulation. there wasnothingmoretobedonein internalized theDoğanMediabroadcast self-regulation itself acting inaccordance you’ll havesome audience. Ifyou representative isa viewers centers, e-mailandRTÜKwereaddressedproperly,the much more station. ombudsmanship doesat a newspaperandattelevision that thereareveryimportant differencesbetweenwhat ombudsmanship invarious countries,Jacob article examining ’ trustcouldincrease,andadded:“Theviewer Above all,operations atatelevision stationare complicated comparedtoanewspaper, andthetarget broadcast principles.Forexample,EsraErol society’s corevalues,socialnormsand seriousdatatoworkwith.”Şendirsaid readandanalyzethesituationproperly, from thepointofviewbroadcasters, different schoolsofpublic broadcasting pressuregaugeintheeyesof withasociety’scorevalueswas stresses ateveryopportunitythat andthatDoğanemployeeshad m Kurdish,”therebyupholding,or taken asdeterminingfactors no surprisethatsocial didn’t wantmetomarry she expelledfrom that anymentionof thenameofself- principles,so Mollerup concludes in tandem in

185 186 a viewerrepresentativewillcarryouttheirjobisnot group is representatives. Ertanacceptedtheoffer when it Journalist TayfunErtanwasoneofTurkey’ voice in goal ofthisbridge broadcaster atthetime was envisagedtoserveas therefore, that take publicexpectationsmoreseriously.” It seems, mechanism wouldensurethat“bothRTÜKand minimize publicpressureonbroadcasters time thattheideawasto began onavoluntarybasisatits Akman, whowaspresidentofRTÜKwhen television andradiostationinTurkey There hasbeena sensitive caninfactcomeabout. of abroadcasterbeingmoretransparent,accountable,and their suggestionsaretakenseriously,then discussions takeplaceinfrontof principles andthephilosophy these isto some suggestionsbased how can relationship betweenthebroadcasterandviewer, viewer representativeinforminganopenandtransparent be broadcast?Moreimportantly,whatistherole correction resultingfromfeedbackreceived clear asinthecaseofanewspaper.For representative station and in from NTV. Inourinterview hesaidtheviewerrepresentative, brought in2006andbecame theviewerrepresentativeat what hehadobserved during thisworkexperience general, hadnofunction orroleeitherwithinthe this rolebestrengthened?Molleruphascompiled and inrelations withRTÜK.The most aviewer broadcastingprocess. much morediverse.Asaresult,theanswertohow put togetherprogramsthatdiscussbroadcasting theinstitutionofviewerrepresentative could dowas conveytothemanaging editor viewerrepresentativeatevery wastoensurethatthepeoplehada on theexamplesheexamined.Oneof ofitsintroductionin2006.The protectpressfreedomandto abridgebetweenRTÜKandthe of broadcasting.Whenthese

initiative,saidatthe the viewers,andwhen thispractice,first since2006.Zahid example, howcana . Hesaidthis these ideals s firstviewer broadcasters of the a viewer was as opinion, but what the RTÜK’s websiteliststhecontactdetailsof impression buthasnoeffect only onpaper,creates Ertan says other titles,suchascorporatecommunication coordinator. transparent. Andviewerrepresentativesmay powerful. Furthermore,their but In Turkey,however,viewerrepresentatives doexist, and therespectearnedfromdoingtheir independence, atransparent derive theirstrengthfromthesefourcharacteristics: Mollerup statesthattheviewerrepresentativescan non-existent. effectiveness, evincedbytheRTÜKpresidentin2006,is reaching aviewerrepresentativeandthattheirhoped call mebackdidso.Thisillustratesthe call centerrepresentativeswhohadsaid was unabletoreachthembyphoneas reply fromtheotherrepresentativesIhade communication andmarketingcoordinator.I representative, whoalsoserved e-mail, butonlyreceived regulation init.Itriedto reflect theirexperiences stations when speak withtheviewerrepresentativesattelevision and radiostationviewerrepresentatives. gi/3879/977/izleyici- 38 viewer This “İzleyiciTemsilciliği” they areneitherindependent,norvisible, or situation raisesthe question ofwhoinfactthe representative isrepresenting. most commoncomplaintswereandstatetheirown this self-regulationtechnique,whichexisted they hadnopowertointerveneinbroadcasts. preparingthisarticlesothatIcould temsilciligi.html (accessedApril28,2018) https://www.rtuk.gov.tr/izleyici-temsilcili a much-likedfalsepositive areplyfromthe withregulationandself- reachmanyofthemvia job description,visibility, job descriptionisfarfrom in reality. asthestation’scorporate well.Noneofthe

job effectively. theywould 38 difficultyof receivedno Iwanted alltelevision Kanal D also carry -mailed; I

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187 188 Conclusion İsmet Demirdöğensaystheforemostconditionfor paper. having aviewerrepresentativeis however, wecanseethat,as considering themediaenvironmentthat Demirdöğen’s words adds representative tobecomefunctionalisindependence,and broadcasting, inadditiontotraditional broadcasters an amendment toallow Ministry ofFinanceon Parliament passed : order.” the current exists work ifawell-operatingregulationnetworkalready used toinstituteanychange.Self-regulationcan Complaints onlyremainasstatistics;they be formed.Butitdoesnot independent, thena of viewer and guarantees, havebecomemeretoolsforclassifying paid employeesofthestationsandprovided regulation. Thepeoplewhohave to defendthestation’s as such,viewer do notgrant employees station management.Ifstationsassigntheirownpaid that theviewerrepresentativebeabletostandup “In orderfortheretoberesults,itis conveyingthecomplaintstheyreceive.Ifpost . Itisimpossibletoachieveanyresultswith representativeisdefinedbylawandmade tothepostofviewerrepresentativeand mediaownershipstructureandpolitical themprotectionandthefreedomtoact describe an ideal situation. When describe anidealsituation.When an omnibusbillprepared bythe representativeswillfeeltheyneed RTÜK toregulate Internet March 22,2018.Thebill included self-regulationmechanismcan Ertan says, the practice of Ertan says,thepracticeof interests,notengageinself- workproperlyatpresent. an ideal that remains on an idealthatremainson beenselectedamong exists in Turkey, exists inTurkey, important aviewer arenot withno only of to broadcasting radio andtelevisionstations.IncludedinthisInternet 28, 2018) yon-liralik-ceza-kufurler-dudak-hareketlerinden-anlasilabilir/ Anlaşılabilir,” February16,2018 39 of thiscomplexity in Turkey applied; is it when It if itwerelaw. broadcasts whilestillonlyabill,was vulgar language. interview withRTÜK’sDemirdöğen, version wasbroadcastuncensored issued for anything out.It what isbeingsaid during itsbroadcasts in aspeechthat further fines receiving a RTÜK that for vulgar the interviewthat RTÜK regulation the Çukur placed underRTÜKregulationandsanctions. broadcasting licenseinordertobroadcast,and obtain arighttobroadcasttransmission television stations.Theoutletsare tv

, platformssuchas “RTÜK’tenÇukur’a1MilyonLiralık Ceza:KüfürlerDudakHareketlerinden discussionsthatsurroundeditgiveusinsightsinto is noteasytodefineregulationandself-regulation , the it comestotelevisionstationsinTurkey nor easy totracetheseconceptsinhowthey are

what liesbehindthescenesoftheseconcepts showmentionedatthestartofthisarticle,and atelevisionbroadcastbecausetheInternet Çukur language.Itseemsthatthesmartreferenceto is quitecomplicated.Attheveryfoundation fineforthekissingscenehasnotprevented . DemirdöğensaystheRTÜKpresidentstated are independentoutletssuchas ’s screenwriterswroteintotheshowafter . RTÜKmemberİsmetDemirdöğentoldusin 39 ismeaningfulherethatafinebeing eventhoughShowTVbeepsoutvulgarities Thisbillseeking , andInternetbroadcastsdon’tevenbeep newfineswereonthewayfor lie therelationships betweenthe of Netflix http://www.diken.com.tr/rtukten-cukura-1- Çukur , andInternetbroadcastsof , viewerscaneasilytell . Andimmediatelyafterour Çukur toregulateInternet wasfinedforusing to berequired beingacteduponas document anda

(accessedApril mediascope. Çukur will be mil

189 190 media andpolitics.ThewayRTÜKcameabout media ownershipstructureandthe there areexamplesfromaroundtheworld of the serving asalinkbetweentheviewerand the distant Turkeyisfromthegoalof representative isinthecontextofTurkey of howineffectivetheimplementation ombudsmanship orviewers’representatives. Irrespective in differentcountries.Oneofthesemechanisms is functioning methods,giventheir we shouldplacesome in amyriadof regulation and found for context, uniqueproblems,andsolidaritysolutions country’s mediasceneisshapedbythat All kindsofuniquemediaexistintheworld;every become regulated. a dentin culture and there to capital. Undertheseconditions,televisionnaturallyis voices whenitfindsitselfsqueezedbetweenpolitics expect traditionalmediatobeaplatform have turnedintoamonopoly.Itisalso reigns andmediaorganizationsownedby when RTÜKhasturnedinto and maintainmechanismsof today. It to fundamentalproblemssurroundinghowitfunctions a balancebetween themedia’sresponsibility of theseexamples thatthemain issue Corporation (DR),argues inhis at the Mollerup, who of theviewerrepresentative functioningproperly.Jacob Danishstatebroadcaster DanishBroadcasting thoseproblems.Itisonlynaturalthenthat uphold andreinforcethenormsofdominant is gettingincreasinglydifficulttocreate this, sothey,too,liketraditionalmediahave society. Internetportalswereabletoadd hasformanyyearsworked asanombudsman waysinthesevariedsocieties.However, self-regulationaredefinedandpracticed mechanismsinthecategoryofwell- an institutionwherepolitics self-regulation inthemedia studyanalyzingsome positiveimplementations relationship between istomaintain oftheviewer representative not realisticto holding companies for diverse andhow points and broadcaster, office cultural

and critical principle independence, anddescribesaccountabilityasthemost problem. Mollerupsaysthisposition be seenasamethodthat The ombudsman’soffice,onthe is howthe strengthen thisasaninstitution.Thisis for manyyears,asanexampleofhow ethics. Hepointstothe to ensurenewscoverageinaccordancewith emphasizes thatthekeycriterionfor functionality ofthe Journalist TayfunErtan,whilequestioning the publicized for discussion.Ethicalprinciplesandcodesmustbe Social mediashouldbeusedeffectivelyasa bonds withinternationalinstitutions must strengthen independent viewerrepresentative.Viewerrepresentatives must makeitobligatoryforbroadcasters clear andstrongmandatedefinedin work include:Theviewer he proposes standards, that existence oftheviewerrepresentativeevenincountries big picture.Molleruppointsouttheimportanceof viewer representativesareinfactasmallpart be openandtransparenttoitsviewers,but all beseenasaguaranteethatthe code ofethics, andpractical an indexed every broadcasting principles. Afterafewmonthsoftraining, is firsttrainedinjournalistic ethicsandthe “Everyone whostarts working forthe lack adiversemediaand/orhavelowdemocratic journalistisgiven a folder.Thefoldercontains compilation ofthebroadcasting principles, and/or arepolarized.Someofthesuggestions clearly. BBC for theviewerrepresentativesystemto implementstheprinciplesof their localpositionsbyformingclose forabroadcaster. viewerrepresentativemechanism, BBC representative musthavea can byitselfresolveevery , inwhosenewsroom notes.For example,the other hand,shouldnot toensureand broadcaster will a contract.Thelaw should above BBC and networks. asa newsmediais to havean , heexplains, journalistic journalism: that the journalist platform heworked of the BBC the ’s

191 192 is explainedindetailtherelevant BBC journalists, screenwriters,producers-- andothers which areinternalized us, defacto,are representing those those preparedandaccepted bybroadcastersthemselves, has broadcastingprinciplesandethical should beintroduced regulation isthatethicalcodesforbroadcasters widely acceptedsuggestionworldwideconcerning self- regulation intelevision.For accepted suggestionsconcerningregulation andself- current situation is a precondition to making universally Understanding thehistoricalcontextalong journalistic ethics. circumstances andcontextsareafactor and updatingthemasaresult treating thebroadcasting situation removed the folder basis replace itwith as, ‘Tearoutpage journalist alsohasa most prominentspoton upon finishingtheir Anyone whostarts informed individualsafterfeedbackfromthepublic. of muchback-and-forthdeliberationbetweenateam not criteria differentiatethetwo.Andtheseprinciplesdid terms aterrorist,whoisfreedomfighterand section includesanswerstoquestionsofwhomthe justcomeaboutontheirown;eachwastheresult ’s journalisticapproachtothe . Thisisbecausetheinformationandprinciplesin put forthbyRTÜK,and thosemadebyorganizations fromacurrentdefinitionwhenfacedwithnew . Alltheseresultfromdiscussions.”ForErtan, aredynamic.Asentencecanbeaddedtoor journalists. However, what wehavebefore thispage,’areplacedinitonaregular 25[forexample]fromyourfolderand principles inthesense ofredlines workingforthe trainingandplacesitinthe mailboxnexttoit.Notessuch and mademandatory.Turkeyalso theirdesk.Everydeskofevery and practiced bymediaproducers, principlesasdynamictexts ofdebatesonchanging example, perhapsthemost matterofterrorism BBC takesthefolder section.This thatstrengthens codes including with the what that BBC

with suchthingsasRTÜK,thedominantsocialvalues, are interwoven within a complex and multi-layered formation as pluralismandanti-discrimination that journalistic politics, platform forself-regulation. independent mediawatchdogs in establishments, consideringtheprevailingmediastructure to deploythiskindof society, andespeciallycivil to openthemup approach asseenintheexample broadcasting principlesand for discussion.It in thewords Yet, itis and eveninstrumentalized. Turkey.However,itispossible,especiallythrough stilltooearlytostopenvisioningtelevision, and economicconcerns.Asaconsequence,wesee ofethnographerFeyzaAkınerdem,asaplatform toparticipationbyvarioussegmentsof isnecessarytocontinuefocuson principles ordemocraticsuch platformintobroadcasting , toconstruesocialmediaasa practiceswithadynamic society.Itmaybedifficult ofthe are bentandbroken, BBC andfindways

193 194 Araştırma Dergisi.44(Bahar),pp.384-403 Üzerine Birİnceleme.İletişimve Kuram 1 Kanalının Yazılı BasındakiYansımaları Televizyon ileTanışması: MagicBox /Star Maraşlı, M.C. (2017).Türkiye’nin İlkÖzel Quarterly. 90(3),pp.675-714 inTurkey.of Responsibility Anthropological Broadcasting, Secularism,andthePolitics the Family through Television: Islamic Kocamaner, H.(2017).Strengthening televizyon içerikleri.Ankara: Ütopya. kültür: 90’lıyıllardasosyokültürel iklimve Çelenk, S.(2005).Televizyon, temsil, Gazeteciler Cemiyeti Yayınları, pp.361-392 Kitle İletişimiDünBugünYarın. Ankara: 2000)" (in)(Ed.) Alemdar, K.,Türkiye’de Televizyon DüzenineDoğru(1980- Çatalbaş, D. (2009)."Yeni BirRadyo Journal. 51(3) the Media.Federal CommunicationsLaw Campbell, J. (1999).Self-Regulation and TRT Yay. Yayıncılığının 30Yılı(1968-1998). Ankara: Aziz, A.(1999).Türkiye’de Televizyon References Kurullar: RTÜK Örneği.Selçukİletişim,5(1), İletişim AlanındaBağımsızDüzenleyici Üst Düzenleyici Devlet Anlayışı ve Görsel-İşitsel Öztekin, H.(2007).Neo-Liberal Toplumlarda Turkey. Paris: UNESCO, pp.99-120 old dilemmasinSouthEast Europe and journalism andself-regulation: new media, and Ombudsmanship"(in)Professional Mollerup, J. (2011)."OnPublicBroadcasting Der Yayınları. Yengin, H.(1994).Ekranın Büyüsü:Istanbul: Serisi 2.TESEV. Demokratikleşme Programı Medya Raporları Medyanın Ekonomi Politiği: Sektör Analizi. Sözeri, C. andGüney, Z.(2011).Türkiye’de University. Yayınlarını DenetimYöntemleri. Marmara Sarmaşık, J. (1993)Radyo ve Televizyon pp. 52-65. Possibilities Self-Regulation inInternetMedia:Problemsand Introduction Doğan Akın Online journalismhasintroducedanewerain revenue-- isthemostpressing the competitiontogenerate of theneedfor“ influences.” trends content architectureresultingfromtheway searchengine or notatopicisnewsworthy--and topics thatattractmorereaders--regardless for moretrafficwhichgives as theincreasedspeedin online. But somenewfoundproblems journalism andwillcontinue the headingof“ Some oftheseproblemsthatcanbecategorizedunder major problems new opportunities,journalisminthedigitalagefaces opportunities ofadigitalage.However,alongwithmajor knowhow andcapabilitieswiththepreviously raised journalismtoa change traditional waysofdoingjournalismaresubjectto journalism; aframeworkof This article willfocus incomparable withtraditional journalism. violations ofprivacy andotherrightsona Another majorissueis thatonline andinfinitepossibility.TheInternethas now occupythetopspotin“hierarchy of Clickbait inonlinejournalism,theresult . ethical issues,”havealwaysexistedin hits/clicks,” themaincomponentin levelthatcombinestraditional on ethical issues posedbyonline ethical principles thatcould more traffic--andad a distortingpriorityto to existasjournalismgoes delivery ofnews,therace issue wenowface. mediapermits arise from factorssuch differentiated scale undreamt which of whether

195 196 1. Turkey’s MediaEnvironment function asdeterminingfactorsinresolving journalism were drawnby The boundaries offreedom which wasallocated Mansion) thatbelonged quarter --abuilding on May7,1924,with institution ofa Cumhuriyet Atatürk tasked newspaper to had moved Nadi, inan still beingpublished. named continued publication thatwassubsidizedbythegovernment.Thistrend II. published The firstTurkishnewspaper, the order,control,andinfluenceofgovernment. Historically, inTurkey,newspaperswere practices, and step taking of self regulation. Atheoreticalexerciseinarealisticprocesses principles andtheintroductionofmechanismsself has adirecteffectontheformulationof take alookatthestateofmediain However, itwouldbeusefulinthefirstinstanceto and, lastly,onthemeansofself-regulation. Launched in1840, Cumhuriyet -regulation specifictoTurkeyrequiresasafirst in theRepublicanperiodaswell.Atatürkpersonally inIstanbul the headquartersofhisIstanbul-based in 1838upontheorderofOttomanSultanMahmud intoaccountTurkey’smediaenvironmentandits effort tosupportTurkey’sWarofIndependence, Ankara andrenamedit theproblemsthisenvironmentcreates. him withstartingasecondnewspapercalled (“ republican regime. Republic) whichisTurkey’soldestnewspaper tothenewspaperbyAtatürk. a headofficeinIstanbul’sCağaloğlu Ceride-i knownastheKırmızı Konak (theRed totheCommitteeofUnion andProgress, to counterthosewhowereagainstthe He didsoafteritsfounder,Yunus law, witha provisioninthe from Past toPresentDay of thepress inRepublicanperiod Takvim-i Vakayi

Havadis Anadolu’da YeniGün Cumhuriyet wasasemi-official conceivedunder Turkey,which sharedethical , wasfirst waslaunched those issues; Yeni Gün .

the limitsof Constitution of1924that In thefirstdecadesofRepublic, or lotterycompetitionswithone governments whilethey Thus coalition governmentsthatrequiredactive mediasupport. A periodbeganin1991distinguishedbya “flagship oftheTurkishpress”to 1948, soldthenewspaperthatwaslaterto be In 1994,theSimavifamily,whichestablishedHürriyet official country emerged asastrongnewcompetitoragainst relatively moreliberalstanceinmainstreamjournalism bureaucratic elites. started to emerge from (ANAP) governmentofTurgut It wasnotuntilthe or as there segments whichthestatepreferredtooverlook,eventhough state officialdiscourseandignoredthetopics,groups rule technicallyendedin1945,thepressstillabidedby only beestablishedthroughpermission.Whilesingleparty authority toclosedownanewspaperand became instrumentalized tothese part ofa purchased Etibank other than journalism, particularly banking. The office complexesand started operatinginnumeroussectors circulation. Mediagroups movedtheiroffices Ulus Zafer , Turkeywitnessedamainstreammediathat manipulated were newspapersaffiliatedwithpoliticalparties(such , which ’s mostpopularnewspaperandastaunchdefenderof

discourse. with theDemocratParty[DP]). moreambitious corporatestrategy andjournalism aligned withtheRepublicanPeople’sParty[CHP], law.” andtheDoğangroup purchased Dışbankas mid-1980s,duringtheMotherlandParty Sabah the influenceof political, military, waged“give-away”promotionwars , anewspaper Özal,thatthepressinTurkey read: “Thepressisfreewithin greaterends. anothertocompetefor Aydın Doğan. thatrepresenteda newspapers could government hadthe streamof Hürriyet togrand billed asthe

Sabah , the group in , the

197 198 Dinç Bilgin,whoownedtheSabahand Türkiye The first construction processhadthreemajorcomponents. media” ofunprecedentedproportionswasbuilt the AKPrulethatforfirst authority hasalwaysexistedinTurkey,but Journalism affiliatedwithor of media Throughout AKP enormous propagandamechanism. transform thearchitectureof 2001). Erdoğanwasto than a-year-and-a-half Tayyip Erdoğan,cametopower(on and DevelopmentParty(AKP),underthe the early2000swerealso media tookitsfirst In additiontomarking bank andmediaoutlets. bankrupt alongwithhisbank,andthegovernment the savingsdepositsinbankasequity and towinaprivatizationbidssuchasEtibank. notoriously usedtheseorganstosecurestate by theSavings DepositInsurance Fund In 2008,the Sabah-ATVgroup,which companies thatwerebuilt directly the government.The Ciner media and thatoccasionallyopposedthegovernment (Doğanand comprised mediaoutletsthatwererelatively independent groups, whowerevoluntarilypro-AKP. television stationsandwebsites , inTurkeyunderwentadramatictransformation. Sabah was formedbynewspapers(suchas groups) butwerepressured intoyieldingto , ’s nearly20yearsinpower,thearchitecture Takvim third comprisespro-government media stepstowardsInternetjournalism, become thepoliticianwhowouldlater , theperiodduringwhichTurkey’s Akşam after itwasfounded(August14, , Zaman dependentuponpolitical periodwhentheJustice media inTurkeyintoan timea“pro-government November 3,2002),less owned bythosemedia hadbeentaken over , by thegovernment. Yeni Akit (TMSF),apublic leadershipofRecep ATV mediagroup, The secondcomponent itwasduring capital, went Yeni Şafak ) and . This subsidies seized his He used , institution, wassoldtoÇalıkHolding,a after acquiring Erdoğan hadtoldreporters fine ofTL6.5billionimposed and theAKP.Thatsalecameonheels businessman whoalsohadverycloseties with Holding. ThelatterwasownedbyErdoğan to theconglomerateformedby Milliyet the largestofits In 2011,AydınDoğan’sDoğan jailed andaccompanyErdoğan to jail,intentionallybrokethe group toHasanYeşildağ,aman Executive Committee(MKYK during thattimealsobecame the mediabusinesstodefend my biggestidol,Iamlovesickfor businessman whofamouslysaidatthe Kanal24 The newspapers AKP businessmanknowntohavestrong Zirve Holding,ownedbyÖmerFaruk Holding soldtheSabah-ATVgroup(also which lent$375millionforthepurchase by twostate-ownedbanks,Halkbankand conglomerate, for$1.1billion,thebulkof sed May11,2018) t24.com.tr/haber/erdogan-demiroren-bana-sordu-akif-beyi-al-dedim,226209 (acces 2 9, 2018) vatan.com/-erdogan-yeni-idolum-adamin-sevdalisiyim--202111-medya/ (accessedMay 1 “suggested [hisformer like toseeappointed "Erdoğanyeniidolümadamın sevdalısıyım,"October7,2008,http://www.gazete "Erdoğan:Demirörenbanasordu, AkifBeki'yialdedim!"March22,2013,http:// and and Sky360 Vatan Star Milliyet

werepurchased newspapers and their respective websites kind inTurkey’smainstreammedia,sold , Akşam spokesman] AkifBeki.” and ), latertransferredhismedia head themediagroup,”andthathe and that Demirörenhadcalledhim Media Group,whichusedtobe toPınarhisarPrison. amemberoftheAKP’sCentral his mission.” Vatan whowhenErdoğanwassent Karacan andDemirören Güneş on theDoğanGroupin2009. lawsoastohimselfbe Kalyoncu,yetanotherpro- by EthemSancak,a “ the man.Iembarkedon tiestothegovernment. , andtheTVstations to askwhohewould knownasTurkuvaz)to VakıfBank,eachof time: “Erdoğanis leadingpro-AKP . In2014,Çalık of amassivetax Demirören, a whichwasfunded 1 Sancak,who 2

Erdoğan - -

199 200 Facing numerouslawsuitsagainstbothhimself which includedthenewspapers After Demirören’sacquisitionofthe him, “DidIupsetyou,boss?”ashe “Why didIgointothisbusiness?Forwhom?” overheard inaleakedrecordingofphone Milliyet who, scoldedbythen-primeminister became thecountry’slargest.This The media group established media business. Media GrouptoDemiröreninMarch2018and family, AydınDoğaneventuallysoldtherestof Burcu Karakaş, http://turkey.mom-rsf.org/tr/ (accessedMay11,2018 3 than 80percentofnewspapers result is a highly following Turkey’sJune Habertürk Yeni Add which owns owns and the Demirörengroup,whichowns of thetotalcirculationnewspapersin circulation ratesofthreegroupshasreached acquisition inTurkey’shistory.Asa The saleoftheDoğanMediaGroupmarks dismissals withmanyjournalistslosingtheir public bank,theformerDoğanMedia million, aidedbya$675millionloan and TVstationssuchas "MediaOwnership MonitorTurkey"project report,DilayYalçın,Elif İnce, totheabovepro-governmentdailies Akit Fanatik Sabah ’s headlinestorytitled“Theİmralı (whichceased and and Star , claiming22percent,theTurkuvazgroup, which Türkiye , Takvim Akşam problematic media structuring where more , andtheconstantlyscrutinized , 15percent,andtheTürkMedyaGroup, and 24,2018,election),and theend printpublicationonJuly5,2018, Kanal D Güneş by Erdoğan Demirören eventually intotalcirculation are Hürriyet and , 12percent. Hürriyet was thesameDemirören brokedownintotears. witnessedawaveof Tayyip Erdoğanover DoğanMediaGroup-- CNN fromZiraatBank,a result, thecombined , Türk , Posta the largestmedia Posta exitedfromthe conversation 3 Yeni Şafak --for$1.1

minutes,” was and andhis jobs. and asking , country, with 49 percent theDoğan Milliyet )

Fanatik ,

, under thegovernment’scontroland mainstream mediainTurkeydepictedabove isfarfrom to theirotherbusinesses.So,theoverall pictureof acquisitions willbebygroupsforwhommedia is to suggestanythingotherthanthatpotential experience doesnotleavemuch through new acquisitions. Change This architecture 1.1. Media potential tochallengeseriouslythegovernment. there hasbeennoprintorbroadcastmediawith It shouldbeemphasizedthatforthepastseveral architecture wasconstructedunderAKP most pro-government very muchanswer government TRT Doğan groups --Turkuvaz(12.04percent),Demirören-ownedformer viewership ratesforTVstationsownedbythe Add tothesefiguresfromthesame websites withthe Demirören group Internet the onlineeditionsofthesenewspapersalsodominate owned byTurkuvazandtheotherDemirören distribution companiesareundersimilarownership a majorproblem tothatprocess. Although media architecture outlinedabove constitutes be includedinself-regulation, Considering the importance limited toaspecific period. (11percent), Media Group channels (10.82 percent), state broadcaster mediatrafficinTurkey.Thewebsitesofthe Elites andJournalists inTurkey’s MediaEnvironment group, Doğuş(10.15percent)--andtheresults ’s as wellthoseownedbyyetanotherpro- is certainly open to further modification highesttraffic. the questionhowRepublicanperiod’s Hürriyet and/or government-dependentmedia and that media ownership should also roomforpresumption Milliyet there will be. But previous it becomesclearthat the wherethetwonewspaper research concerning areamongTurkish rule. an all-inclusive ). Furthermore, future same media on itsown the secondary years, (oneis the being

201 202 approach iscertainlyneededintheprocess priority thanfaith principles and seem odd also gives may is that a whose corruptibilitymakesthemopentomanipulation,put are twomajormotivatingfactors:First,themedia principles islargelytheworkofamedia openly violatesbasicjournalisticstandards personal provocationand Media contentthatinvolvesethnic,religious,political, convincing norproducesatisfactoryresults. account thepartthismediaeliteplay and lossofreputation,anapproachthatfails described above.Indiscussionsregardingmedia’ that islinewiththerequirements them fromthe“mediaelite,”who When wespeakof“journalists,”itis companies themselves. the government’scontrolismostfelt,ratherthanto to journalistswhoareworkinginmediacompanieswhere my opinion,thisareashouldbeonethatgives require mostfocus,atleastundercurrentconditions. the situationalsolaysoutaroadmapasto ethical codesandsettinginmotionmediaself- gain andideological engagement. elite rationalize this kind of sake oftheirworkin other political pressureto journalism On priorityon“benefits”overjournalism.And thesecond enrichthemselves,thearrangementtowhich theycommit the onehand,mediaowners withinterestsotherthan whilejournalistswhoarepartofthemedia elite giventhatmostjournalistarelegitimated bythe themaformofideologicallegitimacy.This may invest in media ownership and literally purchase valuesoftheirprofession,withnogreater injournalismitself.Yet,itisthecase. instrumentalize journalism forthe distortionofinformationorthat industries. Ontheother, media journalism based on personal oversee andensureproduction

of themediaownership crucialtodifferentiate would notbehonestor elite.There orethical which areas of determining to takeinto s degradation priority regulation, elite the In 2. CommonIssues Faced by BothTraditional andOnline could call We need ethical principlesandinstitutionalizingself-regulation made tocontributethe journalists whoworkin purposes ofpropaganda,it no waytocooperate of thisdistinctionand law; andcolleagueswho journalism. Butitshouldbenotedthat“speed” is speed. Wearenowexperiencinganeraofalmost real Internet hasenabledjournalismtoworkat unprecedented Journalism isalineofworkthatrequires functioning, trustworthyself- an independent a prerequisiteforindependencebutitsoutcome. Only and self-regulation.Self-regulationinthemediaisnot connection between“independentandfreejournalism” This isparticularlyimportant be structured in journalism code iscrucial.TheInternethasenabled“independent for thisreasonthataguidingsupervisory institutionalizing self-regulation.But major hurdle Clearly, thecurrentmediaarchitectureconstitutesa in Internet journalism.Historically, majorareasof been facing intraditionaljournalism alsoexist We couldsaythatall oftheethical journalism. one ofthemajorculprits behindviolationsinonline todistinguishbetweenthemediaelite,whomwe ,” andcreatedtheprospectsuchjournalismto “employerrepresentatives”intermsoflabor forsettingcommonethicalprinciplesand media willbecapableofestablishinga line with established ethical principles. withmediacompaniesshapedforthe pro-governmentmediaarealso wecall“journalists.”Inlight processofestablishingcommon isallthemoreimportantthat thefactthatthereisalmost regulatory mechanism. because ofacrucial problems wehave itisexactly swiftness.The ethical also Media -time

203 204 Internet mediaareas violation thatare paramount to blackmail threatening language in newsmedia–sometimes > advertorials fromnews > > > restricting diversity > > and > discrimination > opinion > that distortthefacts > > > > Failuretoinstitutionalize theprevention Theoccasionalfailureto Manipulation Establishingandusingalanguageofwar Failuretopursueequalityinnewsproduction, Failuretosystematicallydouble-check Failuretoobservethecriteriafornewsworthiness Hatespeech;racial,religious,genderor Thelackofacleardistinction Headlinesthatareinconsistentwithcontentor Violationsofthe Fakenews Violationsofprivacy the essentialsofnewswriting common inbothtraditionalmediaand in newsstoriesandopinionpieces follows: right toreply of opinion

differentiate clearly between factsand facts linguistic of > accommodation ormealsoffered by companies > values > public renown a trigger > by disregardingtheirrights > > embroidered coverage health-related mattersthroughunrealisticor > court cases > not ofcriticalimportance disability ina nationality, gender,sexualorientation,diseaseor > and their providing unnecessarydetailsastotheiridentity sexual abuse,particularlyminorsandwomen, > breach ofprivacy > Acceptinggiftsand Utilizingsexistlanguage orassumptionsand Coverage Addingtothe Beingbiasedorfailingtodeclarebias Encouragingfalsehope Expressingprejudicedopinionaboutpending Pointingtoanindividual’srace, Causingadditional Useofvisualcontent Finger-pointingandexcessivemoralizing images innewscoverage effect, otherthanincaseofpeople of suicidenews,whichisknowntohave news storywheresuchdetailsare suffering ofrelativesaccused suffering tovictimsof free trips,junkets, that isviolentorin particularly concerning language, by

205 206 3. Problemsof Problems posedbythedigitalagetoTurkishmedia guidelines. of historicallyunparalleledviolationsethical journalism haseverhad, the Internet problems broughtonbydigitalization.Inotherwords, traditional media,onlinemediafacesadditional Aside fromthealready from theoriginalsourcecanundueharm caused such abreach“goesviral”noretraction or that theamountofdamagecausedisfar appears, anditcanspreadtoothermedia accessible anywherearoundtheworld An ethicalbreachin it isincomparable Internet a longstandingviolationarisesfromthefactthat the problemshouldberegardedas“new”despite problems oftraditionalmediaaslisted emergence inInternet comprises can bestudiedundertwomainheadings.Thefirst changes in the the Internet The second will returntothispoint later. media outletbelongsto > losses suffered by individuals, companies or groups > Utilizingalanguagethatappearstorejoicein Prioritizing contenthassuchawidespreadreachmaking “new”problemsbroughtonbythere- theDigitalAgeinMedia set ofdigitalageproblems arespecificto media. Theseproblems aretheresultof presents uswiththegreatestpotential fundamental wayjournalismisdone. tothatofthetraditionalmedia. onlinecontentbecomesinstantly the interestsofcompany mediaofthelongstanding existing ethicalissuesin but alsothepossibility over journalism greater.When above.That minuteit , whichmeans correction being . We 3.1. Readers Occupying Top Spot fundamental impactonjournalismisin The seconddomaininwhichthe division oflabor traditional brought onbytheInternetcouldstillbeconsidered newsroom staffworkinclosecooperation. responsible forcontentindistinctfields.Now desks (suchasnational,finance,foreign the traditionallayoutofanewsroom structure the“integratednewsroom” complete withtextand editor topreparea basic professional in the“ageof the organizationalstructure new divisionof photographs, operates atunprecedentedspeedandvolume,combiningtext, methods ofjournalism. domains. Thefirstisthevastexpansionit The Internethastransformedjournalismin or geographicalproximity.Thesevalues,which we target audienceaccordingtocriteria or “relevant”withrespect get coverage called news news wasmadeundercertainguidelinesfor newsworthiness interaction. Intraditionaljournalism,the selectionof analytical tools theInternetprovides. list thanks torapidand “reader preferences” have nowrisen managing contentand selecting “proximity,” are sum upas“importance,” “timeliness,”“significance”and journalism,albeitadaptedtothepaceand value.Astorywouldbenewsworthyand ifitwere“important,”“new,”“interesting” and audio-visual material. This required a and audio-visualmaterial.Thisrequireda the editor,” in which it has become the the editor,”inwhichithasbecome stillpracticedinthe processesof labor and has brought about changes in labor andhasbroughtaboutchangesin ofmultimediajournalism. standard for an office-based assignment standard foranoffice-basedassignment news story quickly in its entirety, news storyquicklyinitsentirety, Through theInternet, visual material. In addition, a new visual material.Inaddition,anew instant interaction, aswell totheinterestsof of news outlets. We now live of newsoutlets.Wenowlive orignoringnews.However, inContentHierarchy Internet hasmadea has emerged to replace has emergedtoreplace to thetopofthis in which separate news in whichseparatenews ofcontentand/ the fieldof In otherwords, the news, etc.) were news, etc.)were These novelties createdinthe two distinct journalism journalism the entire the entire may

207 208 reader currentlyoccupiesthetopspot and makethemvisible.But able togive to happenitis Fourth Estateonly Journalism of thepeople a toolwithwhich also knowthat,inits democracy wouldnotbe be requirement fordemocracy.Justasjournalismwouldnot clearer, let’sdrawananalogywithelections,the it occupiesthetopspotamongnewsvalues.Tomake valuable forjournalism.Butinteractionhassetbacksif it awayfrom“thesignificant.”Interactivity “the attentiongrabbing,”whileat forcing journalismto relies on The source ofnews. discrimination. Readersare thoughtful readersserve Interaction helpscorrectfactualerrors.Reactionsfrom that ofan“ombudsman,”ora“readerrepresentative Interaction inonlinemediaassumesarole In journalism,interaction hierarchy” ofonlinemedia. of “thesignificant on Furthermore, asjournalism becomesincreasinglyfocused journalism movesaway from moment occupiesthe “theinteresting” andon“grabbing attention”instead possiblewithoutinteractionfromreaders,likewise, flipside, however,isthatacontenthierarchy analytics basedonreaders’attentionhasbeen can successfullyassumethefunctionof voice topoliticallyunderrepresentedgroups asitisthewillofpeople. of vitalimportancethatthepressis toprotecttheminoritiesfromwill ,” italso loses oneofitsvital under democraticregimes,andforthat top spotinthecontent hierarchy, advancedform,democracyisasmuch possiblewithoutelections.Butwe focus on“theinteresting”and asatoolagainsthatespeechand iscertainlyvaluable. nowmorefrequentlyanactual when thereader’swhimof fulfilling thisfunction. the sametimepushing in the“content akinto is,indeed, minimum .” this

on importantsocialor functions, whichis There arevariousotherproblemsbroughton characteristics of“clickbait use All high-trafficInternetmediaoutletsin Turkey the competitionformore exclusive content,clickbait content. However, also increasewebsitetraffic,suchasenhancing exclusive No doubttherearewaystofulfillthosecriteriathat algorithm throughtothebudgetallocationofadvertisers. -- decisiveinvariousaspects,fromthesearch those pages.Thesearethe numbers, pageviews,and Websites are and thetime are thenumberof clicks andhits evolved inonline The race 3.2. Clickbait Let usnowlookatwhatthose and itsbecomingadeterminingfactor the readers’attentiontotop “clickbait”headlinestodrivetraffic.The basic conceal the topicofthearticle andtoforcethe believe what theprimeminister said…”areusedto website orcontent.Expressions suchas“Youwon Instead, theheadline seekstodrawthereader > Theappropriateheadline isdeliberately forcirculationinthetraditionalpresshas categorizedaccordingtotheiruniquevisitor spentbyreadersonthepagestheyview. . Themainparametersforwebsitetraffic we seethat,inadditiontoproviding visitors,thenumberofpageviews(PV), mediaintotheraceforvisitornumbers, tohelpcreatehealthypublicopinion politicalmatters. thetimereadersspendviewing hits. fundamentalsofanalytics is awidespreadmethodusedin problemsareinonlinemedia. ” headlinesareasfollows: spot incontenthierarchy in selectingnews. by theriseof engine notused. tothe ’t

209 210 te-koyunca,6729 (accessedMay17,2018) 2013, http://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/dogan-akin/hasan-cemal-deyip-iki-noktayi-ust-us 4 "'HasanCemal'deyipikinoktayı üstüstekoyunca...,"DoğanAkın,T24,May20, content. reader tovisitthewebsiteorscrolldown curiosity: “ThePresident answered:I > find out. enter thewebsiteorscrollto both thesubjectandtopic, > in ordertofindout“ homepage, forcingreaders the nameorphotograph said “broughtalot prepared byitsownreporter using clickbaittoconceal Acrobatic planecrashes.” great,” andunder “Milliyet Gökyüzü” had The plane crashed of a topic ofan the An reader to arouse transfer > Wordingsuchas“ Expressionssuchas“Thedecisionaboutthat Clickbaitwill egregious exampleofthisisfromthewebsite for yearspublishednewsandphotographsonits homepage of Milliyet pilot, MuratÖztürk,whodiedafterhisacrobatic curiosityinthereader,andtherebypush hasbeenmade”seektohidethesubjectand visitthewebsiteorseekoutcontent. article byitsownreporteronthedeath newspaper,whichmanagedtoobfuscatethe at theAdanaAirFestivalonMay19,2013. Milliyet it wrote:“Flash…Flash… use incompletesentencestoarouse page, rantheheadline“Ourpainis of pain.” Expected decisionannounced”hide why thepainissogreat.” of thepersoninquestiononits ’s websitemilliyet.com.tr,which 4

to clickthroughitswebsite Milliyet.com.tr sawnoproblem the subjectofanarticle on adeaththatititself Milliyet the textinorderto forcing thereaderto didnotshare will…”

- they are > reader toclick 16times. incoming ministers the outgoingministers separately,followedbythe is presentedbyfirst showingthephotographs on acabinetshuffle photograph that arebetterpresentedusinganindividual “photo gallery”toreporton > new decisionsonthismatter.” for example,thattheprimeministerhasmade regarding militaryserviceby article. Anarticleheadlined“Urgentannouncement which havenothingtodowiththesubjectof that arefrequentlylookeduponsearchenginesbut > pertinent detail mentioning thesubject,topicorsomeother flash, bombshell”inaheadlineinstead > representing asmall resignation of “Mass team.” Clickbaitisalsousingaheadlinesuchas fight brokeoutbetweenafewplayersontheamateur the club’sadministration,onlytoreportthat“a to suggestthereaderthatthereisaclash a headlinesuchas“MajorfightwithinGalatasaray he hadsignedatransfercontract.Clickbait player duringtransferseason,makingit an articlereportingonthe example, usingaheadline

Clickbaitalsoinvolvesusingwordsin Clickbaitisalsousing Theuseof Clickbait headlinesmisleadreadersintothinking resignationfromthatparty”toreportonthe aboutcurrenttopicsofinterest.For . Forexample,anews article reporting clickbaitextendstopreparinga afewpeoplefrompoliticalparty aboutthenews. , alsoseparately, forcingthe towninasmallprovince. involvingeightministers suchas“Drogbasigned”for

wordssuchas“Shock, marriageofthefootball importantdevelopments payment”announcing, of seemasif headlines isusing “no of within

”

211 212 We seetheuseofclickbaitonallhigh-traffic content readersonthe established by“redmaps” performance ofthe monthly/weekly “click/ high- of journalismontheInternet.Animportant segmentof This factisfundamentalbehindthechanging practices any givenpageimprovethewebsite’sresults traffic figuresandtheamountoftimevisitors addition tothequalityandquantityofcontent and theamountoftimevisitorsspendon the numberofuniquevisitors,page I havealreadymentionedthatwebsitesarecategorized on Page Layout 3.3 News Race: Effects the “timereader of thecontenthierarchy problem thatarisesbecausethe of commonethical On thetopicofclickbait,which article or Suffice confined myselftoprovidinganexamplefrom and websitesthatseektoincreasetraffic,thoughI continuously takenintoconsideration, andtheendresult how focuses onpreparing catchy buttrivialnews.Furthermore, away fromwhathewould judgetobeimportantand deciding on An editorwho muchtime the readerwillspend onanewsarticle headlines thatobfuscatethesubjectandtopicofan traffic websitesnowgiveeditorsordepartments is alltooprevalent. it tosaythattheuseofmisleadingheadlines whatnewstorun,spends hisorhertimefar seekstomeettheclick/hit goal,when and Editorship violationsinonlinemedia,another editors inmeetingthesetargetsis spendsonthepage/website.” hit/page view”targetstomeet.The of ClickTargets andPage View Duration page atthatgivenmomentintime. isthemeansemployedtoprolong that showwhatpartofthe readerisplacedatthetop isatthetopoflist rank. website,in Milliyet spendon . Boththe websites views, often have . is by

today have large monitors displaying Google Analytics pages is unable tohavejournalistsheartheirvoice and groupswhoneedtoaddressthe Those whohavenovoicein topic of be do notspendalot relatively fewreadersinthem, the visiblepartofpage, eye onthisdataremovefromthefront there. The“redmaps”arealwaysopen.Editorswho news that show journalism intoaprofessional source oftrafficfor media. Social what they “content/ Heavy andwidespreadinteractivityatthe top ofthe 3.4 TheEffect their jobsecurityundersignificantpressure. journalism, pushthemintoanethicaldilemmaand more traffic,distanceeditorsfromtheirreal In theend,“click/hit”goals,inotherwords, seen ontheInternetbecomeevenmoreinvisible This iswhy trendingtopicson media, but it alsoshapesthe Social mediaisanimportant source content forpublication isshare One ofthebasecriteria reflectedinthepagelayout.Manyonlinemediaoffices under-reporting anissueornotreportingimportant important. Theeffectonthehealthofpublicopinion article atanygivenmomentandhowlongthey’ve is alltooobvious. effect hierarchy”andtheofusers sharing read onsocialmediaarereflectedinonline statistics suchashowmanypeopleopenanygiven Which Sharing Articles HasonInternetContentandLayout WhichSharingArticles media channelshavebecomeanincreasing of time,evenifthenewsinitselfmay Internet mediaandhaveturnedonline- editorslookatwhen preparing society,individuals,segments waycontent isstructured. any newsarticlesthathave socialmedia, andaboveall field initsownright. or thoseonwhichreaders ratesonsocialmedia. publicopinionare ofnewsforonline page, oratleast : Thoserarely the racefor role in ! place keep an been

213 214 the productionphaseofonline on TwitterandFacebook,have online journalism,mayfailtosafeguard generates. Editors,hastilydrawn decision justifiedby if theybecome Editors people ina problems. Unverifiedaccusationscanreachmillionsof source ofnewsforonlinemediabringsitsownserious Furthermore, thepossibilitiesofsocialmediabeinga competition for is realandwhat It isjournalistswhodecide professional standardsin even greater instead ofdisappearing,hasbecomeanoccupation of profession. Experienceshows,however,that journalism, with thearrivalofInternet, that journalism,havinglost can makeannouncements,and Internet, be destroyedbycitizenjournalismenabledthroughthe The claimisevenmadethatjournalismwill headlines over publications snowballandproduceevenmorestriking The victimizationandvictimscreatedbythesekinds “better tolackallthedetailsthanget their publicationsfromerror,ortoimplementthe “content One 3.5. ContentinAccordance withSearchEngines from loyaltytothese professional oftheconsequences ofajournalistic emphasisofthe may bemotivatedtopublishunverifiedallegations /effect hierarchy” astheprime consideration is personal blogs,websitesviawhichinstitutions matter ofseconds,andthusbeturnedintonews. importanceandisameansofretaining time. a trendingtopiconsocialmedia,their speedandtrafficalienatesjournalists not.Atthesametime,onlinemedia’s the highnumberof“shares”this thefaceofinformationoverload. social media.Itisalsosaid manytimeseverydaywhat becomeabasicparameterin its “monopolyonreporting” media. into trafficwarsby will disappearasa standards. themselves and themwrong.” eventually axiom of

with searchenginealgorithms that thecontent controversial than the other issues “Google Trends”andthelike outlets todayemploymany“ birth ofa traffic comingfrom The other importance whenwritingcode. updated. “Searchengineoptimization”(SEO engine algorithms media This arithmetichasproducedtworesultsforonline traffic resultingfromenteringthewebsite’sURL traffic as“organictraffic,”whichusedto many websites.Manywebsitesnow Search enginesarethe countermeasures and the searchengineGoogle,whichhasrecognizedthisproblem, “what does this abuseas not infacthost search enginesby“ observed in The the wordspeopleusetosearch. of theethicalproblemspreparingcontent of traditional journalists,drive traffic within the database. it isenoughifthe located withinthecontent, or the mostsearchedfor terms.These produce contentcontaining wordsthat changed itsalgorithmconcerningtagsandputinplace most importantethicalviolationinthisregardis . First,websitesourcecodeiswrittentakingsearch important resultproducedbythevolumeof x mean,”and“xnewshere.”Weshouldnotethat new professionalfield.Leadingonlinemedia efforts torefertrafficwebsitesfrom search enginesseektheanswersto“whatis,” to preventredirectionimaginarycontent. ofwebsitesispreparedinaccordance or produce.Softwarecananaccompliceto intoconsiderationandiscontinuously tagging” contentthatthewebsitedoes content producedisin somewaysaved search enginesforonlinemediaisthe SEO editors, whoworkindependently primarysourceoftrafficfor SEO editors.”editorskeep . Thissituationisevenmore open ontheircomputersand even visibleonthewebsite; reclassifysearchengine do notneedtobe mentioned above because are atthatmoment ) hasgainedvital to newswebsites referto accordingto directly.

215 216 by producingcontentonupcomingissuesof by thesecondhighestbidder(the the toprankeditemsforpennies words inquestionandlists as electionornews).Google like asecrettender-for for thatdaypresentGoogle higher rankingbasedonthe every daythrough“word Google inflated trafficfiguresthroughtheuseofbotvisitors. engaged intrafficwarsbybuyingandcreating We knowthattheleadingonlinemediaoutlets determining factorinadbudget budgets. However,hightraffic to thetime are starting appear plans The determiningfactorforadvertisersintheirmedia traffic figuresofonlinemedia advertisers’ budgetsare of advertising Online 3.6. Bought,MisdirectedTraffic millions ofpeople). (for example,theresultsofauniversityexamawaited Taking into considerationthat revenue fromGoogle much greaterthanthat ofthe bidder, unawareofthe otherbids, bid” istopreventexorbitant is setat“afewpennies may bethe most importantorindeed solesource iswebsitetraffic,howmanytimestheadwill onthepage,andpagevisitduration.Advertisers itself sellssearchenginerankingplacement media continuestotakeanever-growingshare visitorsspendonpageswhenformulating topreferhigherqualitytrafficinaddition from theentiremediasector.Pricesand tenders.” Outletsthatseeka set inaccordancewiththe more thanthesecond highest words oftheirchoice(such compares theoffersfor the highestbidderamong an offereveryday-much words thatwillbesearched figurescontinuetobethe second highestbidder). pricing, sincethehighest spending. outlets. more thanwasoffered reason thatthetender may offeranamount importance are of ads

by income formediaoutlets,trafficfiguresthatdonot low-traffic mediasites,the So whilethefingerof measurement points. since thatwouldentaillosing most traffic,avoidlinking simple: media to websites often take groups However, itisacommonobservationthatevenmedia therefore unacceptable. material and notprovidingsources,muchlikesharingcopyrighted cited orlinksprovided.Suchpracticeis aggravated whennewsislifted originating from online entitiesresorttoquotingnewsandcommentary It isarealitythatindependentandrelativelysmaller media maybeequallyproblematicinthisdebate the ethicaldebatesinonlinemedia quote istaken,andcopyright Citing sources,linkingto 3.7. CitingSources poses reflect realityduetopaidandbotvisitsfeature practice. Thisissue can onlyberesolved do thecomplainingare oftenguilty defended simply becauseitiswidespread. no circumstances bedefended.Nor canthepractice articles thatborrow but donotattribute pledge toabidebyan agreedcode anethicalproblemofunfaircompetition. thatprovidemuchcontentinthefirstplace without permission,isaformoftheftand thesameapproachinnotbotheringtolink theythemselvesquote.Thereasonisquite outlets, competingoverwhogetsthe mainstream media.Theproblembecomes and Copyright Issues inOnlineMedia blameiswaggedatindependent, thewebsitefromwhicha largemediagroupswho to thelow-trafficwebsites issuesfigurehighlyin search enginequality without sourcesbeing ofconduct.News , althoughmainstream ofthesame ifalloutlets canunder indefensible, . be

217 218 topic notjustin Copyright violations 3.8. AnExampleofaLegalDecisionConcerningtheDebate to attributeitssources. perspective of be protected that anews before theInternetcame “When The chamber,stressingtheabove,decreed the following: similar methods,andmotionpictureproducts that arenotworksof stressed that"this who violatethe provisions of does notactinpursuitofcommercialpurposes,the same sign,imageoraudioforprofit prohibit athirdpartyfrompublishing or locatesthemonadevicedesigned reproduces asign,imageoraudio article stressesthat“anyone the Intellectualand numbered 2018/10andpointingtoArticle it shineslightonthedebate.The 15th Circuit.Isummarizeherethe by theIstanbulRegional This approachhasbeen Copyrights ofDaily News apply ifthis isviolated. distribution, andthatunfair paragraph hasthe photograph or image, or made clearthattheindividual whocreatesthesign, thearticleinquestionwasbeingprepared, itwas audiodefinedinthe firstparagraph,orthe article thathasbeenpublishedcannolonger motionpictureproducts definedinthethird unfaircompetitionshallbeappliedtothose by copyright.Itshouldbeenough,fromthe ethical responsibility,forthenewarticle provisionsofthefirstparagraph."Itwas righttoprohibittheir reproductionand Turkey butelsewhereandexistedwell provisionappliestoallphotographs ArtisticWorks(FSEK),statedthatthe of newshavebeenacontentious art,paintingsidentifiedthrough confirmed byacourtrulingissued Court ofJustice(Court of Appeals) along. TheviewIsubscribetois

competition provisionsshall whopublishesorrightfully forcommercialpurposes Circuit,initsdecision decision inquestionas . Eveniftheoffender totransportthemcan orreproducingthe 84ofLaw5846on .” on 4. Internet MediainLegislationandReference Material clear that “Considering (…), fallsunderthedefinitionof (agency), andpublishedby The situation approval fromthesource. material cannotsimplybe or commentary justify online mediamustacceptthis.Citingsourcescannot photographs/video isofcoursesubjecttocopyright The useofcommentaryandvisualmaterial with theLawonIntellectual under thescope level of consider quotations As canbeseen,thecourt crime.” so longasthesourceiscited,does website, whichisnotlistedinthearticle news materialthatbelongstotheplaintiff should bedeclarednotguilty defendant, accusedofviolating items listedinArticle art undertheFSEK.Daily that doesnotrisetothelevel focused on traditional media. in orderto imposelimitationson media iseithernoteven material concerningthe media happy one.Ifwe principles and thepublicationofvisualmaterialbyan outlet an “intellectualorartisticwork”thatfalls thecontentbelongingtoplaintiff, thesubjectofthiscase,ithasbecome ofInternetinTurkeyvisàethical word-for-word.Commentaryandvisual self-regulationisnot aparticularly lookatthelegislation andreference of copyrightprotectioninaccordance of dailynewsarticlestorisethe 84ofLaw5846.Therefore,the mentionedoronly thedefendant,awebsitenamed newsisnotfoundamongthe usedwithoutpermissionor examining theappealdidnot

and ArtisticWorks. becausepublishingdaily /press, weseethatInternet Article84ofLaw5846, ofaprotectedwork dailynewsvalue it.Itis exclusively notconstitutea suchas inquestion, onhis and

219 220 4.1. Despite thefactthatInternetmediahasa control Internetpublishing,howtolimit publication the corecharacteristicoflawisits focus text toregulateInternetpublishinginTurkey 5651, whichhasbeenamendednumeroustimes and publishedintheOfficialGazetteon May these Broadcasts,waspassedinParliament onMay Internet PublishingandCombatingCrimes Law No.5651,whosefullname 4.2. InternetLaw “crimes committedthroughthepress Penal Codeand the Press Online journalistsarenotconsidered“journalists”under because thePressLawdoesnotrecognizetheirmedia become arequirementforaccreditationtoofficial unable toreceivetheofficialyellowpress core rightsgrantedtothembythePressLaw the Internetforyearshavebeenunabletobenefitfrom Journalists whohavebeenworkingintheirprofessionover any ofits32clauses and itsuse,”doesnoteven states, “Thegoalofthislawis among “broadcastoutlets.”ThePressLaw in Turkey,thePressLawstilldoes administration orcourts, 5651 usesas its publishing. Thisconstitutes The lawbeginsby how toblockaccess. Press Law Lawbutareconsidered“journalists”underthe thereforefaceaggravatedsentencesfor basis forblocking accesstowebsites. The listing acatalogueof crimesinInternet . when satisfied thata“crime” mentiontheword“Internet”in istheLawonRegulating a listofcrimesthat LawNo. toregulatepressfreedom notlisttheInternet /media.” , whoseArticle1 Committedvia 20-yearhistory , isthefirst card, whichhas and havebeen 23,2007.Law . However, onhowto 4,2007 events, outlets. , and the access toawebsite. from thislisthasbeen These are: been copied lists eight This The catalog general health--ajudge,orintheevent and publicorder,preventionofcrime, with theirrighttolife,protection -- protectionoflifeandproperty For example,“Foroneor not confinethemselves without havingtowait administration The lawhassubsequentamendmentsthatgivethe Crimes Against Article 8 In additionto website in question, withoutresorting toacourtorder may impose a completeaccessban onthecontentand prevention ofcrimeor theprotectionofgeneralhealth of thePresidentornational securityandpublicorder relevant ministryconcerning theprotectionof deemed problematic,the administration,upona article,titled,“Decisiontoblockanditsexecution,” 7 -Providing 6 -Prostitution 5 -Obscenity health 4 -Supplyandprocurementof 3 -Facilitating 2 -Sexualabuseofchildren 1 -Inducingsuicide also enumeratescrimeslistedundertheLawon directlyfromtheTurkishPenalCode(TCK). actionsascataloguedcrimes,sixofwhichhave crimesarelistedinArticle8ofthelaw. theauthorityto“immediatelyblockaccess” Atatürk. these actions,whicharefoundintheTCK, aplaceandopportunityforgambling useofdrugsandstimulants tothecrimesmentionedabove. foracourtorderandwhichdo

moreofthefollowingreasons committed, canimmediatelyblock ofindividualsinline substanceshazardousto ofnationalsecurity protectionof thatadelayis requestbythe Office /or , the . The ,”

221 222 administration canimmediatelyblockaccessifa“delayis taken as media, ethical principlesandself-regulationprocess ofonline When welookatnon-legislativesourcesof the Journalists andCodeofProfessional Ethics ofthePress 4.3. Declaration ofRightsandResponsibilities ofTurkish that isethicallyproblematicfromstarttofinish. freedom ofspeechandpress,beinginitself being diametricallyopposedtoruleoflaw,theprinciples determining ethicalprinciples,ischieflycharacterized Turkey, farfrombeingoneof In conclusion,thespeciallawto access totheirnewsarticles media outletslearnabout penal courtsof outlets are defined through legislationandwhoseframeworkwasleftwithout As concernstheblockingofaccess,whichwasmade privacy hadbeen by online imposed onmanyarticlesdetailingcorruptionpublished On thismatter,weshouldstressthataccessbans detrimental intheeventofaninvasionpersonalprivacy Journalists atageneralassembly heldin1998 the Declaration ofRightsandResponsibilities election, unanimously acceptedafter in 1946,theyearof most establishedprofessional association,established The TurkishJournalists Association(TGC),Turkey’s we seeonceagainthattraditionaljournalism is boundaries,theviewsanddefensepleasofnews a referencepoint. media outletsontheassertionthat“personal takenintoaccountduringhearingsheldat peace(SulhCezaMahkemeleri).ManyInternet violated.” thecountry’sfirst multi-party themanyinstancesofblocked the possiblesourceswhen purelybychance. regulate theInternetin twoyearsofwork ; this ofTurkish shared a regulation

possible were by

of .” New Ethical 5. New was astepforwardinthefieldofethical shared ethicalprinciplesofonlinemedia. can serveasreferencesintheprocessof only taketraditionaljournalismasa and ResponsibilitiesofTurkish These documents, resources its establishmentintermsofbothmembersandfinancial which hadensuredsupportforthePressCouncilsince We shouldnoteatthispointthattheDoğanMedia irrelevant toaddressingthenewmediaanditsproblems. journalism wasthesolereferencepointandthereby Again therewasnomentionoftheInternet of TurkishJournalists,theCodehada Compared totheDeclarationofRightsand declared theCodeofProfessionalEthicsJournalism 12, 1980coup, of PresidentKenan The Press accepted, nordoes outlets, whichwere document does time responsibilities andrights,becameareferencefrom system/uploads/1/files/attachments/000/001/517/original/etik_hukuk.pdf?1447151242 5 securing thereputation andintegrityofjournalism. main fields:Protecting themissionofjournalismand The purposeofmedia ethical principlesisfound

İrvan, S.,Medya EtikveHukuk,IPSİletişim Vakfı Yayınlarıhttps://bianet.org/ Media,New Possibilities, New Problems,andNeedfor totimewithinthejudicialsystem.However,this Code , hasbeensoldtotheDemirörengroup. Council, establishedin1986uponthesuggestion notaddressthetopicofonlinemedia called onitsmemberoutletstoabideby and especiallytheDeclarationofRights itmentiontheword“Internet”atall. juststartingupwhenthedocumentwas Evren, thegeneralwholedSeptember Journalists, evenifthey reference point, narrower scope. obligations/ determining the Responsibilities and traditional Group, in two 5 became

223 224 possible bythe The possibilities online media,andmost recentlyinthe nature oftheinfractions committed of ethicalprinciples? Thequestion How canaguidingframeworkbe traditional media based on principles represent an approach to deal with infringements charters andpracticesinTurkey.Thisis because these should take as theirprimaryreference point theup-to- The ethicalprinciplestobedeterminedfor onlinemedia possible participation ofasmanyInternetmediaoutlets online mediathroughaneffortthatinvolves involve However, thefirststeptowardsself-regulationmust outlets, andrelevantcivilsociety but also and foremostrepresentsjournalists(reporterseditors), accusations ofviolationsthroughamechanismthat undertaking and A journalistisamemberofresponsibleprofession respected, andmoreeffectivejournalism. are necessaryforonlinemediais and determinedethical very straightforward that thereis want, asmuch problems in aneffectiveandjust manner,andthey that areto bedeterminedshould naturallyaddress we triedtosummarize above. Theshared self-regulation isavoluntarycommitment.Itan settingouttheethicalprinciplesconcerning . the existingpracticesofanimportantsegment of professional organizations,ownersofmedia that seekstofairlyandamicably asyouwant,andthroughmultimedia,”show aneedfornewprofessionalcontract.The Internet,whichallowsfornews“whenyou andproblemspresentedbynewmedia,made outlets andtheirwebsites. answertothequestionofwhycommon principlesandself-regulation drawnupinthedetermination tohavebetter,more bytraditionalmedia, findsitsanswerinthe organizations. digitalsphere,which ethicalprinciples the address should these

first date requirements of produce quicksolutionsaswellbeupdatedinlinewith There aretwocategorieswhichneed media ethics.However,thequestionremains howtotackle media cannotbedivorcedfromthebroader discussionof to bedevelopedsolve the problemsencounteredby sufficient heretostressthattheethical codesthat list isnotcomprehensiveandshouldbeupdated. It general parametersandissuesinvolved.Of course, traditional andonlinemedia”defineto 25 headingsinthesection institutional experience. codes ofconductbasedonaccumulatedindividualand of onlinemediashouldcourseincludethedeveloped An importantpartofthepossibleethical Accumulated Experience 5.1. Ethical PrinciplesofOnlineMediaShouldInclude advertising relationshipwiththecompany or evenencouragessuchexpenses- work fordoesnotsee distance journalism requires- that wouldcreate on hisown distorted organizations whichavoidethicalguidelinesduetotheir This distinctionmaythrowalifelinetothosewhowork code ofethicalprinciplestowhichjournalistscancommit. affecting institutionsandthoseindividuals- excellent, will notbeputinto practice if First andforemost, ethicalprinciples, no 5.2. Motivation astheWay the problems specificto online media. capital structure.Ajournalistmay,forexample, initiative declineaninvitationforajunket the digitalage. a conflictofinterestorcompromisethe accepting hospitalityasaproblem toEthical Principles The problemswelistedunder titled “Problemscommonto even if the organization they paid tripsbecauseofits to beaddressed:those some extentthe matter how principles in question. the journalists that is online are for a

225 226 especially whenitcomestothemainstreammedia,bears themselves donotinternalizethem.TheTurkishexperience, journalists tovoluntarilyinternalizetheseprinciplesand ethical principleswill seminars in In be that the preparation of the frameworkofethicalprinciples witness to addressviolationswithintraditional media. section to complement the ethical principles put into I willattempttolistanumberofsuggestions 5.3. Suggestions ConcerningViolationsinOnlineMedia putting ethicalprinciplesinuse. practiced wouldbeasignificantachievement onthewayto between thetheoryofjournalismandbeing formation ofanethicalcontract.Narrowingthedistance media mayoperateasanetworkofcooperationduring institutional andindividuallevel.Aspartofthis, on apedestalisstrategythatwouldwork assistance, offeringpraise,puttingoutletsorjournalist practice. Providingrecognition,and online media Methods in seminars the put themintopractice.Consideringhowtheproblemswithin thisprocesswithintheframeworkofethicalprinciples. lightofthesamereality,organizingregulartraining mediacannotbesolvedatastroke,continuoustraining undertaken byasdiverseofagrouppossible. ability possibilities forabuseonline. In parallelwithits have becomemorepervasive becauseofthe and balance,aresidual issue > Balance in such asconferringprizesandhonorsmayencourage mayplayanimportantroleinshapingthefuture to this.Inlightofthisreality,itisimportant ordertoworkcollectivelydefinethe to provide greater opportunities for political outlets toputethicalprinciplesinto publications: Problems overobjectivity motivateespeciallyyoung with traditionalmedia, where neededlegal greater in this both the online the place

calls for greater ethical and pluralism, theInternetstands should not only beexpectedfrom independentand ethical principle inonlinemedia kind ofnewsarticle > should bebalanced. reputation of principles. Inlinewiththehistoricalmission and holds anincreasinglyspecialplacewithin ethical In conclusion,balancein in competition. through distractingtriviacanbe reach importantnews matters. Increasing realize important, andmayevenincreasetrafficifreaders criterion maycounteractatrendtomarginalize Restoring theimportanceof “important” structure ofwebsitesandtheresultshaving the effectthatcompetitionfortraffichason reader’s “effecthierarchy.”I because itstandsatthe Balance inpublications to afar an balance. Lookingatthispointfromtheoppositeend, requires moresensitivity,especiallyonthetopicof limitless text and audio/video materials radio, onlinejournalism Compared toprintpublicationsortelevision,and due toitsenormouscapacityproducecontent. Internetthatlacksbalanceopensthepossibility Citing sources: thattheyarebeingdirectedtowhatreally morecorrosiveinfluencethanothermediums. news placedfurtherdownthepage. journalism, onlinemediapublications Havingtocitesources inany thenumberofreaderswhowantto directly,withouthavingtowade /content mustindisputably bean offersthepossibilityof is amorepressingissue top oftheonlinemedia online mediapublications “balance” aspublication political responsibility addressed previously out asamediumthat . Providing links apositiveelement , and therefore the the

227 228 principle governing alternative newsoutletsbutshouldbeanethical media. Anallegation byoneoutlet can very different characterfromthat to seekacorrection shows > misperceived, thereader shouldbemadeaware video aretheproductofamontage/collage noted andtheyshouldbedated.Ifthe videos thatareusednotcurrent,this > should benoted. permission oftheowner.Ifis granted, videos, andgraphicsshouldnotbeused > commentaries/analyses. a specifiedamount(one-third)should approach inregulationsof the permission should notbepublished“word-for-word”without > where suchexists. online ifitdoesnotcitesourcesorshow does notaddress.Nonewsarticleshouldbe Ethical principles can regulate areas not citing However, thiscannotserveasajustificationfor news articlesandisre-enforcedbyacourtruling Artistic Worksdoesnotgrantacopyrightfordaily 3.8. above.InotedthattheLawonIntellectualand and disputesinonlinemediasections3.7. > Visual materialinformation:Ifthe Right ofreply:Thetopic of Visual material:Materials Commentary/Analysis: Commentaries/analyses Copyright: Itoucheduponthecopyright sourceswhenpublishingquotedmaterial. oftheoriginaloutlet.Thecurrent theentiresector. notquotingmorethan that onlinemediahas a such asphotographs, the rightofreplyand of thetraditional photograph and photographand photographs and photographsand beenoughfor that legislation in averyshort without the which could be whichcouldbe should be shouldbe discussions abyline, published ofthis.

it .

and resurfaceonsocialmedia.Taking time besharedbydozensif text, itwill continuetoappear onsearch and evenif acorrectionisincluded together outlets thatquoteit donotdelete topic inthedigital age. Solongas of searchengines,a matter thathasbecome people in particular--dueespecially to incorrect/unwanted representations so-called “ This approach,however,isinsufficientto addressthe of reply. correction that the original text used is newspapers useontheirwebsites.Oneofthesemethods is theapproach(notalwaysuniform)whichprint There aretwodimensionstothisissue content different approachestohowcorrectfalsenews/ false news:Wenowconfrontamatterthathas > used in not. Notdoing were the published theallegation,irrespectiveofwhetherthey all oftheoutletsthattransferred,re-published The rightofreplymustbecarefully shared theallegation. original publicationbutonalloftheoutletsthat provide therighttoreplydoesnotrestsolelyon of theInternetintoconsideration,obligationto thatthenewspapershouldmaintainonlinesame Right tobeforgottenandprocedureforcorrecting ajustandeffectivemanner in onlinemedia. originaloutlettopublishtheallegationor initsarchivesforthesakeofpreserving right tobeforgotten”--thedeletionof , buttoalsoincludeinthetext someanstherightofreplycannotbe wasrequestedinlinewiththeright not hundredsofoutlets, on theInternetof . implementedby incorrect content, the sourceand this character : First,there the indexing engines. a current produced with the

, or the

229 230 disputed content. In my opinion, this approach would be disputed content.Inmyopinion,thisapproachwouldbe The otherapproachtothismatterenvisagesdeletingthe by definition includesonlycontent producedby differs from publishingoutlets, isa > was acquired. as ascertaining the reliability some otherulteriorstake to relaythetruth,if of itbeingusedtoseeif citizen journalismmustfirstbe Information andallegations input his orheremailaddressendlessly,regulation ofthe fake identitiesaboundonlineandthatone canchange critically important.Takingintoconsideration has madethe result which > not only servetoarousecuriosityinthereadershould headlines thatdonotreflectthearticlecontentbut using baittodeceivethereadershouldbe > principles be developedintheefforttodetermineethical However, moredetailedandeffectiveapproachescan court order.” removed becauseithasbeendisprovenornotverifiedby engine thatstatessomething like, “Thiscontenthasbeen on acceptable alinktocontentthathasbeenindexedby Quotes fromsocial Citizen journalismfilters:journalism, Clickbait: Notincludingthetopicin beused. has becomemorecommonandcomeaboutasa of citizenjournalismiscriticalimportance. of thepossibilitiesofferedbyInternet, if a warning is presented after a user clicks ifawarningispresentedafteruserclicks for onlinemedia. editorial selectionprocessevenmore media: Socialmedia, which there isaconflictinterestor in whatisshared,aswell the senderhascapacity that comebywayof of how the information monitored inadvance mediumthat headlinesand avoided; search search that

editorial policyand its “health products” shouldnot by therelevant health, that Products thatgivepeople falsehopeconcerning is anadvertisementor home pageshould clearly belabeledso between On theotherhand,publicitymaterialthat isplaced bounds. publicity materialshouldnotbeallowed to exceed of incomeforonlinemedia,thesekinds textsand these kindsofadvertisementsareanecessarysource to increasebrandrecognition.While informational texts ads” that and advertisements,Internetpracticessuchas“native Putting asidethetraditionalseparationbetween the advertising optionsbyasmuchithasmultiplied media. ThisisbecausetheInternethasincreased advertising requiresaspecialapproach > being verified. raised onsocialmedia of thepublisher character media for thiscontent.Therefore,anallegationonsocial staking itsreputationandgivingeditorial takes contentfromsocialmedia Advertising filters possibilitiesforjournalism. users.Outletspublishcontentbasedontheir thatispublishedbyapublishertakesonthe news articles,asanadvertisement,should don’timmediatelylooklikeadsbutinclude of“news”whichconformstothestandards aredubiousandhave notbeenapproved authorities, butthataremarketed as inquestion.Thisiswhyallegations clearly include anoticestatingthis thatcontainpublicityandlinks filters.Ifapublishingoutlet : Theseparationofnewsand shouldonlybepublishedafter as toleavenodoubt,andthe advertorial. beadvertised. , thismeansitis acceptingthat inonline

guarantee news

231 232 principles mayalsoincludethepurchasingoftraffic > news agencies arepredisposedtowards becoming > what ismentionedin the headline. reporting, andthecontent ofthearticleshouldcover However, SEOcontentshould notbeplacedahead children, incitingviolence,etc.)are condition online there isnoethicalproblemfromtheperspective of online mediaoutletsemploySEOeditors.In myopinion, sources oftrafficontheInternet.Today, to suitsearchengines,whichareone in section3.5.abovethetrend > and jobsecurity. principles bygivingthatdefenseabasisin reinforce journalists’abilityto included asa dismissal. Inotherwords,ethicalcommitmentsbeing discussed aboveandtobeprotectedfromunfair to practiceethicaljournalismdespite balanced online journalism a codeofethics contracts which > independent newsoutletsofgreater and to have an being luredtositeswithinflatedtrafficfigures virtual processes.Attheveryleast,advertisers, practice ofdistortingreal that affects Search EngineOptimization(SEO Local media: Considering Mutual pledgesinemploymentcontracts:Work Buying traffic:Studiesconcerningonlineethical media inproducingthiskindofcontent,on the contribute totheinstitutionalizationof interest inputtinganendtothispractice that generalethicalprinciples(harming basiccomponentsofworkcontractswill fair competition;inotherwords,the commit both employer and journalist to willnotonlyproducebetterandmore but will allow the employee thefactthat national traffic figureswith of producingcontent ) content:Iaddressed defendprofessional integrity. not violated. of theprimary thepressures leading laborlaw

6. Institutionalization ofSelf-Regulation Turkey. Themostsalientpointof evolution andpresentcondition This article to On thecontrary ethical principlesanduniversal ofjournalism. regulatory bodythat will audit outlets for compliance with owners ofcapital,willvoluntarilyparticipate ina are shapedbythelanguageofpowerand needs not realistictothinkthatmediaorganizations, which come toaconsensusoverself-regulatory body administrators whorepresentthosemediaoutlets, that controlcirculation,traffic,andratings, for allstakeholders,includingownersofmediaoutlets In presentcircumstances,itdoesnotappearpossible regulatory bodyfor realistic starting traffic and of It institutionalization ofself-regulation. self-regulatory bodyshouldbe updated andevolveinto a The simple answer tothisquestion isthatanexisting body after the identification of common ethical principles? What arethefirststeps inestablishinga of thesemedia monitorandbroadcastthe“intended”ethical violations is necessarytoseethat the currentownershipstructure media hasbecomeabarrierasregardscirculation, included in studies and monopolized, localmediaorganizationsshouldbe of solidarity andmotivatetheadoptionapplication ethical principles.Thiswillproducea ethicalprinciples. rating figures.Sucharealizationmaybe startedoffbysummarizingthehistorical outlets. , thereisaneedforself-regulatorybody point intheconstructionofaself- online media. training seminars to determine ofthemediain thatsummaryisthe self-regulatory networkof . Itis to ofthe the self-

233 234 as well, self-regulatory bodythatencapsulatesonlinemediaoutlets evolution ofaself-regulatorybodythatisatpresent or inclusivetobe My personalopinionis my recommendations: So, whatcan 6.1. Journalism. organizations taken anddirectedunderthecoordination/umbrellaof upon collectiveworktodefinethem.Thesestepscan the “ethicalprinciplesforonlinemedia”are be takenbeforetheinstitutionis institution beestablishedrightaway The firststepsinthisprocess towards a effectively. neither inclusive nor efficient into a mechanism that works Suggestions fortheInstitutionalization ofSelf-Regulation seminars that offer training and supported principles inthepractice ofjournalismshouldbe > then thiswould for onlinemedia,even participate inthe which capacity ofjournalistswhoworkatmedia outlets defined. Ifthiscallislistenedtointhe to abidebycommonethicalprinciplesthat areto > Journalists whowork to implement Call onjournalistsworkingatallmedia at leastasatemporarysolution. , duetotheirownershipstructure,willnot new self-regulatorybody.

theseinitialstepsbe?Letmelistafewof Online media,beingthenewshouldmove suchastheP24PlatformforIndependent throughlegal assistance,ifnecessary, and optimisticabouttheprospectof beapositiveoutcome. thatitisnotproper,sustainable, formation of a self-regulatory body ifonlybyasegmentofthem, donotrequirethatthe establishedbutafter guidance. Furthermore, . Afewstepscan ethical announced personal outlets be be

7. Conclusion will onlycreategreaterethicalproblems anddistance technological reductionism,andonlythrough digitalmeans Addressing onlinejournalismwithan themselves solve the problems journalism faces, and do not themselves solve theproblemsjournalism faces,anddo not restrictions, andbans. is alsoopentoincreasing Online mediaisa journalism from instill ethicsinjournalism. a solidaritynetworkcouldfunctionintheeffort principles” andever with its can national, international,orsupranationalinstitutions, of reply,andwhichcanbetaken by individualsorinstitutions which establishing aself-regulatorybody.Suchanoutlet, the nationalandinternationallevelonway structure thatcouldbetakenasan ethical monitoringreports,cansetthe reply. Thiswebsite,which > monitoring violationsofjournalisticethics. be thesubjectofareportpreparedby with ethicalcriteria.Nojournalistwould could createanexternal remain outside results. Thiswouldaffectoutletsandjournalistswho principles ofonlinemediaandregularlypublishthe > Set upa Monitor publicationsinline createthenucleusofaself-regulatorybody canbeconsideredanaccreditedinterlocutor reputationbasedinthesearchfor“ethical itshistoricalmission andvalues. websitededicatedtotherightof medium thathasopportunities, but oftheself-regulatorymechanism,and Digital possibilities donotin -increasing participation. disinformation, censorship, regulatoryeffectinline couldalsohostthe seekingtheirright withethical approachbasedon asareferenceby interlocutoron journalists basisfora wantto to

235 236 Online mediacanresuscitate automatically only throughethicalprinciples.Thesemustbe journalism anditsmissionthathas of thosewhohave journalism, beitprintoronline, not ofeconomic,political,or At theendofday,journalism regulatory mechanismthatwins an independentandfree sense, andthisis opportunity to The Internet,ontheotherhand,providesgreatest self-regulation. limit journalismistosetupaworkingethicalorder principles. Thestrongeststanceagainstpowersthatbanor body thatindependentlyjudgestheappropriatenessof the practiceofjournalismwithaid bring about independent and free journalism. bringaboutindependentandfreejournalism. make journalism independent in the real makejournalismindependentinthereal both inspiring and encouraging. For only bothinspiringandencouraging.Foronly no otheragendathanloyaltytothetruth. presscanbuildafunctioningself- the eroded reputation of theerodedreputationof bureaucratic powercenters.And public trust. publictrust. is thejobofjournalists, is onlysafeinthehands been badly compromised beenbadlycompromised a self-regulatory aself-regulatory reflected in reflectedin and and these

Journalism inaGray butNew Media Self-CensorshipBetween andSelf-Regulation: Sarphan Uzunoğlu strengthening complaintmechanisms.Inhis preface,Haraszti self-regulation into a type of quality-control mechanism by increase trustinthemediaandthat public couldturn to politicalcontent,thatself-regulation wasatoolto questions. Harasztisaidself-regulationwas notrestricted Questions andAnswers Haraszti wrote in Europe(OSCE)MediaFreedomRepresentative Miklós In 2008, then-OrganizationforSecurityandCo-operation one tosettheboundaries? media, isn’tsuchcontroltantamounttocensorship?Howis regulatory mechanism?Andwhentheissueathandis under whichapersondeterminesorappliessuchself- important goal?Moreimportantly,whataretheconditions What isthismoreimportantgoal?Whoidentifies different aimintheinterestsofamoreimportantgoal.” reactions, behaviororthetendencytogravitatetowarda “The regulationofoneselfbyoverseeingandrestricting in TurkeysinceApril2017)willfindthisdefinition: (while bearinginmindthatthesitehasbeenblocked a citizenofTurkeywhoconductsquickWikipediasearch especially giventheconnotationsofcontrol.Forinstance, regulation isenoughtostopjournalistsintheirtracks-- has experiencedinrecentyears,theconceptofself- In themidstofpoliticalatmospherethatTurkey realized with seriousstructural guarantees. the functioning ofaself-regulatory mechanismcanonly be however, suggestthat theseinnocentdescriptionsregarding own countries.”Theevents ofthepast10yearsinTurkey, the bookthattheycan adapttotheconditionsoftheir expresses his“hopethat readerswillfindsolutionsin The Media , beginningwiththeanswerstothese Self-RegulationGuidebook:All

237 238 fostering mediaself-regulationcarrygreatmeaningwhen The fivereasonsthatHarasztisuggestsintheinterestsof mechanisms, whichgenerallyoperated onamacrolevel, did notshare thelatter’sdemocratic ideals.Whilethese outside theboundsof mediaself-regulationandwhich surrounded bymechanisms ofcontrolandsurveillance were becomingmorefragile bytheday.Journalistswere due toinsecureworking conditionsandregulationsthat the pressureofthiscontrol/surveillance was growing network groundedinsurveillanceandcontrol. Moreover, then, itappearedthatjournalistswereworking inabroad to theireditorsorreaders.Basedonmyobservations macro factorsevenbeforepresentingthe news inquestion engaged inself-censorshipforreasonsother thanthese conducted, Iwitnessedhowsomejournalists inthenewsroom practicalities ofproducingthenews.Inone casestudyI of mediaownership--arethemostdeterminingfactorin political andeconomicrelations--and,thus,thestructure 1990s. Suchacademicstudiesallagreethatfundamental common themeincommunicationsstudiesTurkeysincethe well asquestionsaboutmediaoversight,hasbecomeamore The questionofwhatdeterminesnews-makingmechanisms,as communications inthecountry. embark onanexplorationofthemorerecentresearch and disseminationofnewsinTurkey,it’snecessaryto different dynamicsthatespeciallyimpacttheproduction 2008 aredifficult. Intheinterestsofunderstanding 2018 TurkeyandthequestionsthatHarasztiposedin mind whenconsideringtheconceptofself-regulationin This muchisclear:boththequestionsthatcometo accountable, andhelpsreadersaccessthemedia. of themedia,providesevidencethatmediacanbe of stateinterventiontoaminimum,increasesthequality protects editorialfreedom,workstoreducetheprospect observed underlaboratoryconditions:Mediaself-regulation expression ormediaowners’businessinterests,theycould could stemfrompressureandpoliciesagainstfreedomof to thefirstthemeis asfollows: through twofundamental themes.Themainquestionrelated work inthemediumterm.Theseneedscanbe explored construct aself-regulatorymechanismthrough meticulous economy, andinstitutionsshowcasethe abilityto technologies andthenewmedia’straditional players, understanding thatwillbothdrawtogether newmedia Turkey’s mediasector.Oneoftheseprerequisites isan would includethecurrent,new,andpossible actorsin launch adebateaboutself-regulatorymechanism that There aresomeprerequisites,however,beforeonecan workplaces orwhentheygotocoverthenews. same problemsascolleaguesinothercountriestheir after 2016--thecountry’sjournalistsexperience an extraordinaryqualitysince2015--andparticularly Turkey’s politicalandlegalatmospherehasacquired to staterhetoriconforeignnews.Eventhoughmuchof doing newsinthenationalinterest,andevenbeholden naturally morefocusedonitselfintermsofcontent,stuck scale andisstillbuffetedbyglobalcrises,evenifit still acomponentofglobalstructureonanindustrial topic ofinterestforthemediaothercountries--is to thepointthatthisengrossmenthasevenmadeita say this:Turkey’smedia,whichisoverlyself-obsessed-- scholarship onthesubject.Basedmystudies,onecould and hierarchieswerealsoevidentintheinternational of expression,thetracesworkplacesocialrelations of mediaownershipandthepressuresagainstfreedom as theyconductedtheirwork.Apartfromthequestions also pertain directlytojournalists’strugglesurvive previously been accepted ininternational academic structure of Turkey’smediausing categoriesthathave > Is itrighttothink about self-regulationandthe

239 240 related tothesecondthemearefollowing: self-regulation mustaddress.Accordingly,thequestions debating thenewpracticesandeconomictendenciesthat and partnersinconnectionwithself-regulation,whilealso the newmedia,aswellpossibilitiesoforgans regulation asaresultofthenewstructurescreatedby by exploringwhatisoccurringforjournalistsandself- breadth anddefinitionofjournalisminaneranewmedia The secondthemebuildsonthefirsttofocus is itnecessarytoredefinethemediaoperationsand studies (see,forexample,HallinandMancini,2004)?Or how goodpartners can theseglobal, newmediacompanies regarding their punitive powers and field of actions-- > self-regulation? Facebook, andTwitter haveregardingmediacontroland > regulatory relationship? censorship mechanismsandfosterauniversal self- tools (Williams, 2013,pp.66-67)eliminate self- ownership andthedemocratizationofmedia protection > their punitivepowersinaneraofBigData? debates foractors engagedinoversightandwhatare providing oversight,whatisthenatureofethical readers’ representativesandthelike)arealready institutions (suchasprofessionalorganizations, to dailycirculationandclicks?Whilesome of thenewsmarketforTurkey’s newmediainregards publishing economyinTurkey?Whatistheextent > models astheyexistinTurkey? In termsofself-regulating actors--especially What kindofauthoritydoactorslikeGoogle, Can atransformationinthestructureof media Is ittrulypossibletospeakofadigital Polarization Dominatedby aSingleVoice 1. Turkey’s MediaModel:From aPolarized Pluralist Modeltoa financial structure andconsumption practicesofthe pronged structure thatdetermines theroleover pair conceived--aspart ofonecriterion--atwo- sectoral factorsorapproaches topublishing.The nations accordingto criteria thatarebasedonvarious the mediasystemsin a numberofcountries,categorizing their comparisonsofmediasystemmodels, have explored Hallin andMancini(2004),whohavebecome prominent for against fakenews? be? Howcanwebenefitfromthesecompanies’battles they be? self-regulatory mechanismsorinstitutions? Should have becomeprominentinthenewmedia--atopicfor establish mechanismstocite sources--allofwhich clickbait, copy-pastejournalism,andafailureto > right toconsiderincludingtheminsuchmechanisms? citizen journalism, and provide similar services, is it sites helpcirculatenews,functionasrepositoriesof self-regulatory mechanism?Whenconsideringthatsuch important newssources,becomepartoftheplanned and donanimhaber.com (HardwareNews),whichhavebecome com (Sour Dictionary), kizlarsoruyor.com (GirlsAsk) regulatory mechanisms? Willforumslike eksisozluk. the likefitintojournalisticethicsandself- software thatwritesnewsbasedonalgorithms,and all, isajournalist?Wheredobloggers, vloggers, to redefinetheconceptofajournalist?Who,after the technological transformationthatisnecessary in regardtoself-regulation,howmustoneapproach > How muchareoccupation-specificissuessuchas In thedebateregardingjournalisticactivities

241 242 professionalization, andthestatemediasystem.At journalism industry,aswellpoliticalparallels, political parties play a similarrole in termsofeditorial polarization, andmajoritarianism orpluralism,just as system playsanoutsized roleinlatedemocratization, of mediamodels,Hallin andMancininotethatthepolitical categorization interms ofself-regulation?Inthesetypes But onequestionremains: Howshouldoneapproachthis pressure. opinion, aswellahighdegreeofstate interferenceand to broadcastingthatisdirectedatnational public partisanship), theallocationofasignificant statebudget (or evenanapproachtothemediathatis based on elite politicalgroups,ahighdegreeofpartisanship publishing thatfocusesontheinterests and agendaof the numbersareinflatedbynewspapers),anapproachto they trailcountrieswithsimilarpopulationseventhough marked bylowcirculationfigures(tothedegreethat that Turkeyfitsintothismodel.Thecountry’smediais intervention. Therearemorethanenoughexamplestoshow a sub-criterion)and,lastly,highdegreeofstate we couldaddlowsecurityintermsoforganizationas parallelism, lowprofessionalism(forourpurposes,perhaps continued involvementinpublication,highpolitical circulation, afocusonelitepolitics,thestate’s countries. Themodelischaracterizedbylownewspaper France, Portugal,Greece,Italy,Spain,andothersuch the MediterraneanorPolarizedPluralistModelalongside political structure,theauthorsplacedTurkeywithin As aresultofitsgeographicalsimilaritiesand North AtlanticorLiberalModel. Central EuropeanorDemocraticCorporatistModel,andthe the MediterraneanorPolarizedPluralistModel,North/ structure regardingthemediasystemthatconsistsof the sametime,theyalsoconceivedofathree-pronged problems thataself-regulatoryorgan,lawormechanism lines anddirectingtheeconomy. Butlet’sstartwith owners. These peoplearenotconnected toanymajorlegal or bypeople whohavebeentasked withdoingsobymedia for theirpositionsby politicalpartiesorthestate newspapers bypeople who haveeitherbeenrecommended by readersandparty volunteers orpartymembersandat to partisanship,isexercised throughsocialnetworks who havefewopportunitiestosurviveunless theyagree monitor anddemocracy’swatchdog.Control over journalists, Ultimately, journalismisfarremovedfrom beingafree democratic norms. legal/constitutional boundariesisshaped entirely byanti- own yellowpresscardsoastoconductjournalism within is, theacquisitionofaccreditationthrough thestate’s to Turkishness)orothersimilarlawsasjournalists.Asit 301 oftheTurkishCriminalCode(whichpunishesinsults been convictedorfinedaspertheAnti-TerrorLaw,Article the journalists,whetherinjailoronoutside,whohave professional journalism. Thestateonlyrecognizesafewof difficult toprovideaninstitutionaldefinitionfor growth ofpart-timework--itisbecomingincreasingly of digitalnewsroomsintheindustry--aswell the emergenceofnewmediatechnologiesandinclusion 150 and170journalistsbehindbars.Particularlywith in thecountry,evenasNGOsandunionscountedbetween declared thatfewerthan10journalistswereunderarrest was ajournalist.InOctober2017,staterepresentatives and, mostimportantly,thestate,failedtoagreeonwho to greatpressure,civilsocietyorganizations,unions 2010s, whenfreedomofexpressioninTurkeybecamesubject there areintensedebatesoverwhoisajournalist.Inthe constitutional frameworkandthelegalprocess.InTurkey, To besure,thefundamentalproblemstemsfromlegal/ would likelyfaceinsuchastructure.

243 244 these senior-levelindividualsareindirectcontactwith control mechanismorregulatoryboard.Inmanynewsrooms, important in Turkeyispublicbroadcasting, whichhas a One ofthe areas inwhichpolitical loyaltyhasbecome figure towhomtheyhave pledgedloyalty. to beusedbytheirpolitical group,cliqueorpolitical or theopposition.If they areuseful,thenwillcontinue time onTVtotestpublicopinionbehalf ofthegovernment officials andusetheircolumns,socialmedia accountsor as journalists.Theywadeintodebatesinstead ofparty as unofficialpartyspokespeopleoutsideof theircapacity journalists canbemadetospeakassocial media figuresor as aresultofpoliticalparallelism.What’s moreisthat government-- refusingtousetheresources available toit or constitutionalrecognition,or--ifitis closetothe overcoming legalinsecuritystemmingfromthelackof rising abovepoliticalparallelismandeconomicdependence, if anyjournalisticcouncilorinstitutionsucceedsin changes inTurkey’spressculture,itwouldbepositivemerely conduct bulkpurchases.Aslongastherearenowholesale reward orpunishnewspapersbychoosingwhethernotto universal orindependent.Afterall,partiescaneither themselves toaregulatoryorcontrolmechanismthatis even becomeprovidersofcapital--areunlikelytosubmit interfere withthemedia’scirculationanddistribution--or focused onpoliticalparallelismandpartiesthatdirectly simply bytraditional,pro-statenewsrooms.Amediaeconomy However, thisisnotasituationthatcanbecontained reflected inTurkey’snewsrooms. Mancini describedaspoliticalparallelismandwhichis political struggle;itisthisphenomenonwhichHallinand with theimplementationofethicalcodesandalikely by aself-regulatoryorganandwhichcanonlybeoverturned emerges is a situationthatlackstransparencyoroversight bosses, politiciansandcivilservants.Ultimately,what conditions, theTurkishRadioandTelevisionCorporation long historyinthecountry.Duetoeconomicandtechnical Justice andDevelopmentParty(AKP).Infact, when itprovidednoairtimetopartiesotherthanthe The sameoccurredduringparliamentaryelectionsin2015 contenders EkmeleddinİhsanoğluandSelahattinDemirtaş. time tocandidateRecepTayyipErdoğaninsteadofother in the2014presidentialelectionsbyonlyproviding a process.Thechannelbecamethetargetofcriticism in thepresentday,becomingposterchildforsuch has failedtoavoidthetrapofpoliticalparallelism ( all segmentsofsocietyequally.Intheend, ithasbeen and thepublicbroadcaster,whichisexpected torepresent there isasimilarresultbetweentheprivate stations numbers initsreport,thestatisticsare significant as for theHDP.Regardlessofhowcommittee viewedsuch hours fortheCHP,21MHPand sixhours hours ofairtime,alongwith238for theAKP,36 by RTÜK,asthedozenstationsprovidedErdoğanwith138 The storywasmuchthesameat12otherchannelsinspected the DemocraticPeoples’Party(HDP)withjust18minutes. the NationalismMovementParty(MHP)with70minutesand opposition RepublicanPeople’sParty(CHP)withfivehours, TRT the final25daysbeforeNovember1,2015elections, a memberofTurkey’smediawatchdog,RTÜK,notedthatin again criticized that thechannelwouldcutDemirtaş’slivefeedifhe manager evensaidintherun-upto2014elections hp-1-saat-hdp-18-dakika-2156446-1 (accessed February http://www.mynet.com 2 April 25,2018) ber-detay/trt-genel-mudurunden-demirtas 1 TRT “TRTGenelMüdürü’ndenDemirtaş’a: Yayınıkeseriz,” “TRT’nin25günlükyayıntablosu: AKP30,CHP5,MHP1saat;HDP18dakika,” providedtheAKPwith30hoursofairtime,main ) playedapioneeringrolewhenitwasformed,but /haber/guncel/trtnin-25-gunluk-yayin-tablosu-akp-30-chp TRT . 1 In October2017,ErsinÖngel,then -a-yayini-keseriz-66265.html (accessed 4,2018) https://www.birgun.net/ha TRT ’s general -5-m 2

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245 246 of voicesonTurkey’spublicbroadcaster.Thereisno very difficulttowitnessmulticulturalismoramultitude platform fordifferentlanguagesorculture;moreover, The characteristicthatHallinandMancini identifiedas traditional actors. global levelduetothecurrentsituation ofthemedia’s alternative perspectiveandarevisionon anationaland and newlyemergingneedsrequirethedevelopment ofan following section,sincealackofclarity aboutthefield restraints overthediscussionofself-regulation ina Hallin andMancini’smediamodeltheresultant a differentviewpoint.Thisstudy,however,willdiscuss question ofhowoneshouldviewTurkey’smediarequires Internet haveleftitbehindthetimes,meaningthat economy andTurkey’slatebutrapidintroductiontothe to mind,butthetransformationofdigitalpublishing profession areundoubtedlythefirstreasonsthatcome parallelism andjournalism’slossofreputationasa low circulationfiguresinTurkeyisorder.Political Mancini’s model,anexplorationofthereasonsfor But ifwearetocontinueourdiscussionofHallinand an approachtobroadcastingthattamescultures. Marcuse, atoolof“repressivetolerance”soastoshowcase is depictedon and statepolicies.Ultimately,themulticulturalismthat the conjuncturallevelasexpressionsofloyaltytoparty broadcasts inotherlanguagesordialectshasremainedon could notbedonebyaprivatestation.Thesuccessof is notdoinganythinginthenameofmulticulturalismthat agency). Journalists whofocuson seniorcivilservants, similar institutions (suchasthe policeandintelligence by thenewsshared theparliament,presidency,and weakened tothemaximum degreeandtheagendaisshaped media isastructure in whichlocaljournalismhasbeen elitism iswidespread inTurkey’smedia.Today, TRT isdesignedtobecome,quoteHerbert TRT

perspective andtheirfunctionsinthestateperceive businesspeople andpoliticiansfrombothaclass national interest,includingtheIraqWarandAfghanistan. countries inwhichthemediahasmovedtoserve history isrepletewithexamplesfromdifferentdemocratic “national interest.”AndasSözerihasalsosuggested, mobilize accordingtocontentiousconceptssuchasthe authoritarian regimeswouldgenerallylikethemediato a government’spoliciessuitthepublicinterests,although Ceren Sözerihasnotedjournalismentailscheckingwhether approach tonewsinTurkey.GalatasarayUniversityacademic national interests--oneofthemajorobstaclesto the centralizationofinformationfromframework but alsoasactorsprovidingeditorialguidance)and news sources(manyofwhomfunctionnotonlyas necessary toviewissuessuchasthemonopolizationof it fromamediathathascentralizedinformation.Itis society unabletofinditsownagenda,therebyalienating common withtherestofsociety.Suchjournalismleaves on thisclass’interests,meaningtheyhavelittlein themselves aspartsofthisclassandbasetheiragenda part ofanarrativeagainstinternaland external foes. in the“nationalinterest”Turkeygenerally becomes international relations(Magder,2003,p.36), journalism of thisbehaviorfromelsewhereintheworld stemfrom assumes a“patriotic”stance.Whilemostof theexamples with thenationalinterest,mainstream mediarapidly concept like“nationalsecurity”comesto beidentified Turkey, however,itsformhascompletelyossified. Whena belong totheMediterraneanmodelbutisuniversal.In The reflextoservethenationalinterestdoesnotjust February 5,2018) yor?”, AdemEmre Topçu, 3 a peakonTurkishTV in the1990s,wheninterviewerswould Examples ofsuchjournalism abound:Thisstyleofnewshit “Ulusalçıkarhaberciliği: Gazetecilerhaberenedendevletgözüylebakı https://journo.com.tr/ulusal -cikar-haberciligi (accessed - 3

247 248 taboos beforeactuallyallowingthemtospeak.Dozensof reflexively interrogateguestsaboutdomesticpolitical the stateandnewspaperstoministriespagecategories. Baker’s (1995)criticisminwhichhelikenedthestructureof field ofthemedia.Inthis,it’susefultorememberUlus government-approved pedantsisbeingreproducedinevery in "OnTelevision,"televisionthatisdesignedsolelyfor filter isanotherimportantissue.AsPierreBourdieunotes The questionofhowtheTurkishmedia’spunditsrenewthis universal self-regulatorymechanism. passing throughaparty-levelfilter,ratherthan for thenationalinterestthatisappliedlongbefore Turkey’s mediaregardingcontentismuchmoreamechanism a journalist--demonstratethatthecontrolmechanismin long afterhewassubjectedtoapubliclynchcampaignby lawyer Tahir Elçi in 2015 suspicious circumstances-- not murder ofArmeniansin1915andtothekillingprominent in the2000safterwriteroutlinedhisviewson change intonestoriesaboutNobelLaureateOrhanPamuk examples ofsuchbehavior,fromthe1990s,torapid quo. Tobe sure, itisimportant tonotethatitisnot of pedants whose missionisto reproduce thestatus journalism inthenational interestandthedominance to escapefromamedia typethatisorganizedaround Accordingly, itwould appeartobeadifficultorder news page, state form, tabloids media outletsthataredevotedtocertain issuesand ministries anddirectorates.Inshort,apart instance, thehierarchy pages ofthenewspaper)reflecthierarchy, for operates isquiteeasy…Lookhowmuch(the various Providing examplesofhowtheTurkishpress , theformofnewspapersovertlyreflects a the sportspages,foreignnewsandmore. whether it’stheeconomypage,police of thestate,government from system Toward theUnknown 2. Turkey’s DigitalPublishing Economy andSelf-Regulation: in Turkey’scurrentmediasystem,butpolarization.Still, journalistic quality that is an obstacle to self-regulation 2.1. TheCurrentState ofTurkey’s DigitalPublishing Economy economy andpractice. be ofgreateruseinhighlightingthelinkages betweenthe local experiencesandevaluatingtheirrelationship might might begoodplacestostart,ascombining globaland duopoly asaplatformeconomyandtheclickbait economy advertising models,theimpactofFacebook andGoogle in journalism?Theeconomicmodelsofnewsrooms,Internet regarding thecurrentmediasystemandself-regulation What canTurkey’sdigitalpublishingeconomytellus as wellneoliberalismthathasmadelaborprecarious. technologies, oneofthemaindrivers21stcentury, and legaltransformationtheemergenceofnewmedia it waspublishedbeforebothTurkey’spolitical,economic, the 21st-centurynewsroom--iffornootherreasonthan to thequestionofcontrolandself-regulation parallelism, itfallsshortofprovidingacompleteanswer reflects thispolarizedstructureandpolitical Ultimately, evenifHallinandMancini’scategorization this structuralanalysisinmind. ethics loudlyproclaimedbythestate requires thatwekeep type thatisbasedonanunderstandingofprinciplesand any discussionoftheconceptself-regulationinamedia characteristics intermsofcontent, form,targetaudience, new media. Such amedia,however, isawholewithdifferent any printedjournalism tobecompletelyisolatedfromthe digital publishingeconomy. Today,itisextremelyrarefor To begin,itisnecessary toexplainwhatismeantbythe

249 250 different economicoperations.Forinstance,accordingto and productiontechnologythathasresultedincompletely a study publishedbythePEWResearchCenterin2018, 4 and thebalancedreflectionofdifferent views. Asmuchas fundamental criteriaofjournalismsuchas the5W’sand1H presented asbreakingnewsbutwhichisdevoid ofthemost been repackagedintoanewsstoryorother contentthatis includes thingssuchas viral socialmediacontentthathas publishing operations.Newdigitalcontent, however, models, meaningitrunsinparalleltotraditional on traditionalincomestreamsandcontentproduction Turkey’s digitalpublishingexperienceislargelydependent apart fromstart-upsandsomenot-for-profitprojects, of certainty regarding the question of competition. As such, though allmediaprofessionalsfeelthatthereisalack as neverbefore,competitionisalsointensifying,even platformed structure.Asthetoolsofproductionevolve Contemporary journalismisamultimediaandmulti- occasionally enrichedinvestors. as aresultofcontinualtechnologicaldevelopmentsand market haveoccasionallyoverturnedsomeeconomicplans market andthearrivalofanorderinwhichproducts developments indicatetheemergenceofanewandgrowing in thewayitmarketedjournalism. even decidedin2018todeployartificialintelligence the prominent example of Germany. China’s much moreinclinedtoonlinenewsproduction,apartfrom tradition ofthewrittenpressinprosperoussocietiesis self-with-ai/ http:// 5 dia-deliver/ (accessedFebruary 5,2018) ly-want Their NewsMediaDeliver” “China’snewsagencyisreinventing itselfwithAI,”ChristineSchmidt, “PublicsGloballyWantUnbiasedNewsCoverage,butAre DividedonWhether www.niemanlab.org/2018/01/chinas-news-agency-is-reinventing-it -unbiased-news-coverage-but-are-divided-on-whether-their-news (accessed:February 15,2018) http://www.pewglobal.org/2018/01/11/publics-global 5 Aboveall,these Xinhua News - -me Agency 4 the - -

regulation andethicsfortheendlesspublicationofpress this isaproblemofquality,italsoself- tragically-- byprintingofficial notices,thedigital by municipalities andsimilarinstitutions or--more drops andnewspapers survive byeitherbeingpurchased written publications in thenewarena.Ascirculation market, newspapersare importingtheoldstrategiesof would shapetheneeds anddesiresofconsumersinthis the market.Butinsteadofadoptinganapproach that of economicdifficultyissideliningsuch usersfrom number ofInternetusersgrowingbytheday, noamount publishing economy.Withthesmartphonemarket andthe resources tofosterthedevelopmentof newmedia In termsofusers,however,thereareany number of publications ortelevision. in termsofdigitalpublishingthatisbasedonwritten to speakofadigitalnewseconomyinTurkey,atleast terms ofcontent,whichmeansthatitisnearlyimpossible above, thestructureofmediaisbeingreproducedin terms ofcontentbasedontextorphotographs.AsInoted broadcasters havemadelittleefforttobeoriginalin big agenciesthatuselivefeed.Instead,Turkey’snewmedia from theuseoflivefeed--infact,itisoftenjustafew the country’sTVbroadcasters,yetthischoicedoesnotstem there isatendencyintermsofformandcontenttoemulate doing anything else. For Turkey’s online publishers, however, newsworthy anddecideonheadlinesthelikebefore to firstfiltereventsdeterminewhethertheyare Elsewhere intheworld,however,thereisatendency guise of “breaking-news.” for wordbysomeofTurkey’snewmediaoutletsunderthe speeches ofcertainleadingpoliticiansarebroadcastword value inthepieces--createsacrisisofcredibility.The sites-- regardlessofwhetherornotthereisanynews statements orpoliticians’speechesonnewspaperInternet

251 252 as anarenatoovercomeandwhosecontentdefiescontrol. publishing economyisperceivednotasanopportunitybut indication of self-censorship. of thisbehavior inalternativemedia isafundamental from warzonesorother criticalareas,thenthereflection organizations provide live coverage,includingwithdrones, censorship andcontrol inthefactthatmanymainstreammedia using it.Andifonedraws linksbetweenthemechanismsof technology likeGoogleMaps,butmanynewsrooms shyawayfrom renewal andtheenvironmentcouldeasilymake useofsimple production ofsuchcontent.Forinstance,stories abouturban in thismethodofstorytelling,thereisoften alackof legal practicescreatedbythedimensionsof thecontent because ofsometheproblemsstemmingfrom arbitrary about thelevelofinformationliteracy the readers.And shy awayfromusingthesetechnologies,itis notsolely Turkey’s mediaeconomy,onecanseethatwhensomejournalists of tellingstoriesandthetransparenttransferthisto (Dispossession Networks)havecreatedintermsofthepower like theMediaOwnershipMapof"MülksüzleştirmeAğları" newspaper before.Consideringthecontributionsthatprojects it wouldn’thavebeenabletofitintoanormallyprinted single URLthankstodataimagingtechnology,somethingwhich acquired theabilitytotellastorywithgraphicin to society.Datajournalismhasdeveloped; fundamental opportunitiestoexplainbroaderdataandstories have abroaderplatformfortextandimagesfound terms oftype,butalsoincontent.Publisherswho have resultedintheevolutionofpublishingnotonly transparency, sincetechnologiesthatdependondigitalization of digitalpublicationbutalsoitsfunctionincreasing Naturally, it’simportanttonoteherenotjusttheeconomy a Possible Institution Self-Regulatory 2.2. Turkey’s DigitalPublishingExperienceandtheFunctions of As aresult,mostofthestepstakenare“safebabysteps.”

place self-regulatorymechanisms?Howshouldsuchmechanisms Ultimately, inlightofthesetechnologies,whereshouldone a “non-political” economybyearning goodreturnsin the When considering newspaperslike politics. broader and more encompassing of society than parliamentary journalism mustadopt anapproachtoboundariesthatis of Turkey’spresshistoryispolitical,self-regulation and as politics-heavy journalisticrealmexemplified bysitessuch before this,itisnecessarytotacklethe logjaminthe journalists areprofessionalsorsemi-professionals, but Naturally, thismustincludemeasuresofwhether the journalism mustbeincludedinaself-regulatory mechanism. anyone fromthenewmediawhotermstheir activitiesas precisely whowillbeincludedinthismechanism.First, At thisjuncture,itwouldbebeneficialtodiscuss current politicalandlegalconditions. atmosphere inthemediumterm,ratherthancountry’s is basedonamoredemocraticsocietyandjournalistic conceive ofaself-regulatorymechanisminTurkeythat technologies shouldbeused.Ofcourse,itisnecessaryto for thepublicgoodandevenapioneeringroleonhowthese an encouragingroleonhowtousenewmediatechnologies reputations ormakeamockeryofthem;instead,itmustplay content thatcouldharmindividuals’rights,freedoms,and Self-regulatory mechanismsmustopposethedistributionof these technologiesforstoriesthataretrulynewsworthy. pervade cities,butthesamemediadoesnotmakeuseof pool ofimagesprovidedbythesocialmediacamerasthat story. Thenewsmediaseesnoissueinbenefitingfromthe consent fromindividualstobecomethetopicofanews rules onanumberoftopics,includingtheacquisition define aconnection.InTurkey,thereislackofconcrete approach thesetechnologies?Here,itisfirstnecessaryto Diken (www.diken.com.tr)and T24 (t24.com.tr).Howevermuch Posta , whichhas created

253 254 the dailycrossword,itwouldbeanimmediatemistake fields ofsports,popnews,health,technology,andeven the respect ofabroaderspectrum andmoresegments The keyto ensuring aself-regulatory institutionobtains given thevariousquestions aboutthecurrentlogjam? mechanism forbothprinted publicationsandthenewmedia, regulatory functions until now,becomeaself-regulatory Press Council,whichisperceivedtohave provided self- self-regulatory organs.Thequestionishow: Howwillthe in question,vloggersandbloggersmustalso participatein mechanism isintheinterestofperson ororganization long asadheringtothesanctionsofaself-regulatory the personengagedinthisprocessasjournalism-- andas the storyfromallangles”anddescribe activitiesof that journalism“muststrivetobeinformative andtell As longasInternetpublishersadheretothedefinition publishers suchashurriyet.com.tr,sabah.com.tr ort24.com.tr. by thefrequentsimilaritiesintopstoriesof influenced bythegovernment,somethingthatisevidenced - thecontentproducedbymainstreammediaor exclusive news,theyreproduce--albeitinadifferentway- publishers andbroadcastershavefewresourcestoproduce will alsofailtoavoid.What’smore,becauseInternet will createinformationpollutionthattheInternetmedia from theirrivalsandbearnoimportancewhatsoever),this are endlesslycovered(eveniftheirwordsdifferlittle the benefittosociety--andtheirspeechescomments people areendlesslythetopicofnews--regardless whomever themediaextendsitsmicrophoneto.Ifsame because itprovidesgreaterlegitimacytotherhetoricof both becauseitisrestrictedintermsofnewssourcesand politicians. Thisis an issuethatcreatesendlessproblems, “Kılıçdaroğlu,” “Erdoğan”orthenamesofotherleading the Internettopublicationswhosekeywordsaresimply to restricttheInternetmediaorself-regulationon possible. Manysuccessfulexamplesofqualityjournalism, of societyisbybeingasencompassingandopen is, thefact thatthenewmedia is opentoeverybody-- the decentralization ofthetools ofproduction--that universal self-regulatory relationship.Unfortunately, eliminated self-censorship mechanismsandusheredina media productiontools (Williams,2013,pp.66-67)have structure ofmediaownership andthedemocratizationof the lastdecadeinTurkey,transformation inthe start withthequestionofwhether,whenlooking at the ideal,oppositesituation.Here,it’snecessary to repression andthreatstofreedomofexpression and will differbetweenasituationinwhich there is production regime?Forone,theanswerto this question But where,then,arewetoplacetheuser-oriented of ethicalandtechnologicalprogress. would provideanimportantcontributiontotheprinciple organization withabroaderreachandbetterfunding,it others haveprovidedisofferedbyaself-regulatory the JournalistsUnionofTurkey,Dokuz8Haber,and Turkey liketheP24PlatformforIndependentJournalism, journalistic trainingthatsomeleadingplatformsin an innovativeandethicaltypeofjournalism.Ifthe be possibletosimultaneouslycreatethefoundationfor were inthehandsofaself-regulatorybody,itwould funds orNGOs,providedevelopment-orientedtraining are todaylargelyinthehandsofforeigncountries’ If the powertorewardgoodjournalismorstartups,which form ofaward,tothosethatadherecodesethics. provide practicalandfinancialsupport,orsomeother council mustplayaleadingroleoninnovativeissuesor accomplished withcouncilsorcodesofethics,the since enteringthearena.Ifself-regulationistobe org, dagmedya.net,andothers)havebecomeisolated (including dogrulukpayi.com, verikaynagi.com, teyit. data journalismorothersuchundertakingsinTurkey

255 256 Turkey asthestatehascontinuedtopurchasesoftware has notsolvedthecrisisoffreedomexpressionin examples, suchasfrom absent fromthisprocess.Eventhoughthereareglobal to benewsworthy,butnewspapershavelargelybeen harnessed technologytosharetopicsthatitbelieves information hasacquiredanewform.Societytruly in Istanbul’sKadıköydistrict,thecirculationof such asthe34710groupinCaferağa,aneighborhood groups formedtocommunicatelocalneighborhoods’problems, From TelegramandWhatsAppgroupstovariousFacebook Facebook groupstopageswiththousandsoffollowers. have createdbroadcommunicationsnetworksrangingfrom to this.Intermsoftechnology,somesmallcommunities There arelegal,politicalandtechnologicaldimensions cut offbyinvokingthespecterofterrorism. whether itprotectsitsdataorisawareofsecurity, opportunity forunencumberedpublishing,regardlessof normal persontoopenlyexpresshisorherideasasthe service providersourprisonguards,it’simpossiblefora traffic moreeffectively.BecauselawshavemadeInternet investments in technology that allow it to follow Internet allowing ittoconductbettersurveillanceandmake become sourcesoffakenews.Itis,however, impossiblefor distributors ofcorrectinformation,”but they havenow described FacebookandWhatsAppgroupsas “liberatingand by users.In2013,communicationsobservers inTurkey institutional self-regulationintermsof contentproduced many followers,thereisnocurrentexample inTurkeyof which newspapershaveformedFacebookgroups, attracting content. After all,thenewsmedia nolongerreliessolely doesn’t mean thatsuchinstitutions canneverusesuch to regulateorimprove contentproducedbyusers,butthis First, itisimpossible foraself-regulatoryinstitution mechanism. Accordingly, wemustestablishtwothingshere: a centralpresscouncil tocontrolsuchadecentralized Vox and The NewYorkTimes , in find allsortsofcontentinthemedia,includingreaders’ on contentproducedbyprofessionals,asitispossibleto media must especially participate inthiseducational, Newsrooms that relyonmanipulated contentfromsocial way inwhichTwitter compiles alistofapprovedaccounts. and create“newsrooms withoutfakenews,”similartothe in trainingforjournalists ontopicssuchasfakenews, mechanism basedon rewards, rather than punishments, as seen task oftheself-regulatoryinstitutionis toimplementa and thepost-trutheraweareexperiencing. Thefundamental of moderatesuccessgiventhecurrentpolitical conditions organs proveusefulinthisarea,thereis onlyachance would onlybethefirststep,andevenif self-regulatory fake news,andconcentrateresourcesinthese areas. This of unethicalbehavior,suchasdiscriminatory languageor which networkscouldhaveanimpactinterms ofthespread project. Insodoing,itisequallynecessarytoidentify communication networksamongusersaspartofabroad this, itisofcoursenecessarytofirstdefinethe perspective ofthereaderandwriter.Toaccomplish a fashioncanunethicalbehaviorbeeliminatedfromthe addressed inabroader,moremeaningfulway;onlysuch whatever isdone.”Self-regulation,bycontrast,mustbe Self-regulation cannotbedefinedsimplyas“controlover communications educationmustalsobeprovided. language. Alternatively,face-to-facemedialiteracyand potential to produce insulting, racist, and other aggressive including broadlythemedFacebookgroupsthathavethe be providedtoreadersonanumberofdifferentfronts, and medialiteracyclasses,whiledigitaleducationmust global democraticstandardsinthecurriculaofmedia necessary. Thefirstorderofbusinessistoimplement might term“proactiveself-regulation”--isabsolutely Here, acampaigntotransformreaders’attitudes--whichI comments.

257 258 lists of“newsroomswithoutfakenews”willfunctionisa proactive andreward-basedsystem.Thequestionofhow platforms in question.Thisalone makesthesetwoplatforms punishing users with invisibility or removing them from the ability toinflictserious damageonthenewmediaarenaby by atermsuchasduopoly, GoogleandFacebookhavethe of theirlanguage.In linewiththeauthorityconferred subjected tocensorship, leadingthemtoraisethevenom as fakenews--begancomplainingthatthey werebeing declare everythingthatdoesnotoriginate withthemselves like U.S.PresidentDonaldTrump--bothof whomtendto astroturfers andpoliticalactorsinthe post-truth era Facebook’s usersandtheiraccesscapacities. Infact, to fakenewsthatwasformedinconnection toGoogleand represent the first steps of a control mechanism pertaining an internationalstandard.Thesedevelopments actually began toreceivesupportfromfactcheckersoperatingat mechanisms thattheydevelopedthemselves,thetwoalso fake news.Inadditiontothecodesandpreventative Facebook enacted“stronger”algorithmicchangestocounter election andtheBrexitvotethatsameyear,Google severe criticisminthewakeof2016U.S.presidential the advertisingrevenuefromfakenews.Asaresultof known thatitpreviouslyreachedmanypeoplethanksto content ofrealpeople”initsalgorithms,itiswell- announcements thatitisreturningtoprioritizing“the intervene andcommodify.InspiteofFacebook’srecent public communicationmechanismsinwhichtheycontinually transforms amassiveadvertisingmarket,butalsothe Every changeofanalgorithmnotonlyimpactsand an extraordinaryauthorityintermsofmediaproduction. Google andFacebook--alsoknownastheduopoly--possess Publishing 2.3. TheContributionofPlatformstoSelf-Regulation inDigital subject forbelow. Telegram, andthelike,moreimportantthananyself- and similarorganizations,suchasTwitter,WhatsApp,Viber, question of whoself-regulation willencompass.The Press principles of self-regulationis assignificantthe As notedabove,thequestion ofwhowilldeterminethe Operations intheDigitalEra 2.4. TheStakeholders Institution ofaSelf-Regulatory andIts institution andwhoisajournalist. is thequestionofwhomustformself-regulatory discussion. Themostimportantportionof such adiscussion something thatcouldnecessitateaseparate political self-regulatory institutionanditssincerity onethics-- become extremeorunethical.Thisisalso tied tothe a self-regulatoryinstitutioncouldprevent actionsthat backbone. Byoperatingaccordingtointernationalstandards, engines orFacebookisfarmoreimportantaneconomic to newspaperorotherpublications,asvisibilityonsearch could becomepunitivetools.Atpresent,finesmeanlittle platform-- alongwith its own members-- Facebook and Google institution adherestotherulesofinternational free-speech andpersonalrights.Intheeventthat stronger mediaauthorityintermsofprotectingdemocratic, operating accordingtoacodeofethics,itwillbecome support totheseplatformsintheformofafederation if aself-regulatoryorganizationprovidesthenecessary and classifycontentthatisproducedforjournalism.But social situation,theyalsolacktheabilitytoanalyze lack sufficientknowledgeaboutTurkey’spoliticaland and journalisticethics.ButjustasGoogleFacebook over fakenews,discriminatoryandaggressivelanguage, others thatpossesspunitivepowers,toexerciseoversight with allplatforms,especiallyGoogleandFacebook Turkey’s self-regulatorymechanismmustdoiscooperate or indeedanyexistingself-regulatorymechanism.What regulatory mechanismthatwouldbeestablishedinTurkey--

259 260 as itdoesnotrecognizethenewmediastructure,instead Council, thecurrentself-regulatoryorgan,isverynarrow, Council or any professionaljournalistic organization organizational structureasto why thecurrentPress reasons thatinclude practical considerationsregarding of unionsanditsvery identity. Buttherearedifferent regulating journalism thathasbeenerodedandstripped A self-regulatorybody isethicallyresponsiblefor who isajournalistonlygrowslarger. single digitstoover150.Asaresult,the argumentabout of howmanyjournalistsarejailedinTurkey canrangefrom constitution statesandwhatpoliticians say, thequestion variance inthedefinitionofjournalism between whatthe contemporary technology. Moreover, when there is sucha wide newspaper, allofwhichisembarrassinggiven thestateof extension “com.tr,”itmustlaunchaprintedversionofits belief thatbeforeitcanopenanInternetsitewiththe state apartfromitseffortstoenactprohibitionsorthe Internet publishersareyettobetakenseriouslybythe being recognizedassuch.Anotherfrequentexampleishow decertification hasresultedinsomejournalistsnolonger unionization andorganizationbyjournalists,while Some mediaorganizationshaveerectedbarrierstoprevent people injournalismarecategorizedasofficeworkers. classified asinthelogisticalorfoodsectors.Some newsrooms engagedinpublishing,eventhoughtheyare question ofwhoisajournalist.InTurkey,thereare publishing donotprovideaneffectiveanswertothe As iswidelyknown,Turkey’slawsonunionsorInternet themselves asjournalistsintheir“aboutme”sections. accreditation, norpeopleonsocialmediawhoterm or amonopolyinwhichmembersarewhittleddownthrough something assimplewhatisdeterminedbythestate certain mediagroups.JournalisminTurkeyisneither restricting itsmembershiptotherepresentativesof in discussinganyreorganizationoftheinstitutionbefore cannot assumesuchresponsibilities,butthereisnosense newsrooms, but whatabouttheprimary journalistswho lack purview of self-regulation intraditional andnew-generation We’ve definedwhoand what needstobeincludedwithinthe earned throughtheexploitation ofuserdata. as muchnewscontent, becausemuchofdigitalrevenueis data istobeusedonaglobalbasisneeds tobediscussed data istobeused.Intheend,question ofhowuser advertising policies,aswellthosethat decidehowusers’ members ofthedepartmentthatdeterminean organization’s new newsrooms?Onthisfront,itisnecessary toinclude This wastheextentoftraditionalnewsrooms, butwhatabout writers sincetheyalsoprovidelaborfor newspapers. informative content,wehaveincludedcolumnistsandfuture of theinstitution.Additionally,whendefiningnewsand problems inthefieldwouldfalloutsidepurview responsibility formanyoftheimportant,emergingethical in theirhandsthekeystojournalismorself-regulation, only grantthoseinfrontofthecameraorwithpens and tickercontentwriters.Whyisthat?Ifwewereto a largeteam,includingpagesecretaries,cameraoperators, informative contentajournalist.Thisnaturallyincludes journalism orisengagedintheproductionofnews and calleveryonewhoearnsmoneyfromprofessional not be difficult to adhere to the constitutional definition that requiresemphasis.Onthisfront,however,itshould ethical reasonsorreturnedtheircard,thisisasituation refused toacquireayellowpresscardforpoliticaland media, becomingfull-time,ensuredemployees,buteither journalists whohaveworkedforyearsinthemainstream academics whopossesssuchcards.Atatimewhenthereare press cards.Afterall,therearemanycommunications an arenathatisonlyopentopeoplewhopossessyellow identifying suchreasons.Atitsheart,journalismisnot

261 262 precarious freelanceworkerswhoworkformorethanone job securityinTurkey--“thoseontheoutside,”suchas professionals withlegalexpertise regardingtheInternet, those whoproduce contentforthe newmedia,aswell as Additionally, academics whohaveconductedstudieson freelancers, andthose whoworkforproductioncompanies. be includedare,inaddition tovloggersorbloggers, they sharetheirexpertise. Roundingoutthosewhomust regulatory principlesmustbecomeinvolved sothat of journalisticunionsandNGOswhoareparty toself- participate inanyself-regulatorybody. Representatives individual participants,NGOrepresentatives mustalso must alsobepartoftheprocess. Whilethese arealso experience regardingtheworkingconditions offreelancers, reporters andlawyers,aswellthosewith knowledgeand serve aspartofthisbody.Atthesametime, experienced the principlesofself-regulatoryorganization--must do pagelayouttoadvertising,providedthattheyespouse in thefield--includingpeoplerangingfromthosethat newsrooms thathaveprovedthemselvesandpossesstraining Professional journalistsfromeitherolder-ornew-style new mechanismintermsofinspectinglawsandethics. in thecurrentset-up,theymustalsobecomepartof and racism.Andwhilelawyersarenotparticularlyinvolved and whohaveauthoredstudiesonsubjectssuchassexism self-regulatory body includes scholars who work on language Above everything,itisessentialthatthecreationofa regulation? Whowillprovideoversightandmakedecisions? So, who,then,willensurethecontinuationofself- line withtheirdesires--justasinnewsrooms. integrating themintoaself-regulatoryorganmustoccurin to recognizesuchpeopleasjournalists,theprocessof active inthedigitalsphere.Inadditiontoclearneed or video-orientedprogramsthatprovidethenewsandare vlogs? It’simpossibletoexcludepeoplewhopreparepodcasts newsroom orparticipateinthesystemthroughblogs doing sowillitbepossibletocreateaself-regulatory must becomeinvolvedinthisnewstructure.Onlyby Haber, toprovide spoilerstosuch clickbaitstories. clickbait has producedinitiatives byusers,likeLimon ecology ofthenewmedia. Infact,theprevalenceofsuch have notedthatithas becomeatoolintheeconomyand such headlines(such as newsrooms. Somenewsrooms pridethemselvesonnotusing Clickbait hasbecomeaclassicstrategyused bymany new mediaeraareclickbaitandcopy-paste journalism. Two othermajorethicalandpracticalissues inthe with journalisticethics. journalists’ postingsonopensocialmedia sitesaccord to whethertheself-regulatorybodycandetermine whether themselves withthatterm,theremustbea discussionas journalism. Similarly,aslongjournalistsdescribe news ormakeitmorevisible--asactualproductsof networks-- whichhadbeenthoughtofastoolstospread approach thedifferenttypesofcontentsharedonsocial of productionthemselves.Inthis,itisnecessaryto for thedistributionofcontent,butareverylocus publications, socialmediaaccountsarenotmerelytools by thenewself-regulatorybody.Fornewspapersand by thenewmedia--alltopicsthatmustbeaddressed of production,aswelloccupationalillnessesproduced some ofthenewjobtypesthathavejoinedprocess new typesofcontentthathaveemergedinthesectoror At thisstage,it’salsoimportanttotouchonsomeofthe Current Discussions 2.5. TheNew Institution Self-Regulatory andNew Stances on in thenewregimetobecreatedbymedia. otherwise, itwillbedifficulttospeakofself-regulation and practicaldimensionsoftheprocessesproduction-- structure that has control over the technological, economic, NTV ), whileanumberofnewsrooms

263 264 regulatory bodymustaddressclickbaitsinceitdevalues More thanbecomingatoolofunfaircompetition,self- the offensive tweetaboutTüzünataç throughouttheday. readers. Nevertheless, othermedia sitescontinuedto share media literacyandsocietal awarenessofsexismamong at anawardshow—both duetotheactressherselfandhigh it sharedatweetabout actressBerrakTüzünataç’sdress 2018, NTVwasforced to apologizeandrewriteastoryafter sexual healthorentertainmentcelebrities. InFebruary regarding suchpostings,whichfrequently involve newson from socialnetworks.Anethicaldebateis necessary uses sexist,racistorpopulartropestoattract traffic phenomenon, whichisactuallyasubsetof clickbait, often of differentimagesandnewsonsocialnetworks. This that couldbeaddressedbyself-regulation isthesharing Another contenttypeintermsofsocialmedia postings shared, whattheformatshouldbe. how suchsitesshouldbereferencedor,ifalinkisto situation isevenworsebecausetherenoconsensuson of laborisbeingreproducedindigitalnewsrooms.The rights inTurkey,itisalsoproofthattheexploitation one hand,isamatterthattouchesonintellectualproperty struggled toproducethestorytheirbylines.Whilethis,on content all daylongwhileevendenyingthejournalists who costing aslittle3,000lirasthatcopyandpaste news sitesinTurkeythatareestablishedwithsoftware content thatattemptstofoolsearchengines,thereare However, muchsearchenginespunishcopyingandpasting problem thanclickbait,asithascreateditsownindustry. Copy-paste journalism,meanwhile,hasbecomeabigger content, andincreasingthequalityofsuchcontent. correspondence betweensocialmediapostingsandnews question ofclickbaitisimportantbothintermsthe regarding thecommercializationofnewspapers.The news andjournalism,increasestheireofsociety General Evaluation or “journalisminthenationalinterest,”butalsonews Ultimately, self-regulationisn’tjustabouthighpolitics establish a structurethatcreates itsowneconomyand and makeit acceptableforeveryone, theroadissimple: For thosewishingto institutionalize self-regulation lining ofanyprofessional development. the qualityoftheir occupation, aswellthetotalside- focus onwagesbyjournalistswhodonothing toincrease current obstaclestoself-regulationand ethics arethe become alienated from their profession. In this, the biggest political, economic,andtechnologicalreasons, theyhave world oragroupthathaslostitsway.However, becauseof For sure,journalistsarenotcutofffrom therestof journalists, ifitwishestoexerciseauthority. categories andshowawayforwardfornewspapers the shortcomingsonaforementionedtwofundamental a self-regulatoryinstitutionmuststrivetoovercome (some ofwhicharelegalandsomepolitical), authority thatisabletodealoutyellowandredcards from football,giventhatjournalistsarefacedwithan become abodytometeoutpunishment.Toborrowanexample codes inaprogressiveandliberatingfashion,ratherthan on amoreproactivestrategytorenewthemedia’sgenetic and willnotcontrol.Atpresent,self-regulationmustrely to controlisasimportantdeterminingwhatitwill In truth,whataself-regulatoryinstitutionwillafford as howitiscoveredonthesitestowhichrefers. of hownewsisrepresentedinsocialmediaasimportant construction ofsocietalvalues.Accordingly,thequestion effective siteofcontestationfortherepresentationand is animportantarenaofculturalhegemonythatbecomes about dailylifeandpopstars.Afterall,popularculture

265 266 not restrictedtoclassicactors.Evenifsuchacomment which isencompassing,opentodiscussion,democratic,and “new-generation” solutionstoproblems. will makeitpossibleto develop standardsbysearchingfor opening suchgatheringstodifferentsegmentsofsociety— been mobilizedbyTurkey’sdifficulties—or,infact, between journalisticNGOsandunionsthathavenecessarily might seemtobefromautopia,increasingthegatherings University Press.University media andpolitics.Cambridge:Cambridge Comparing mediasystems: Threemodelsof Hallin, D. C. andMancini,P. (2004). Istanbul: Yapı KrediYayınları. Bourdieu, Pierre.(1996).OnTelevision. Vol. 68-69. (How toResist theMedia).BirikimDergisi. Baker, U.(1995).“Medyaya NasılDirenilir” Bibliography: Williams, R.(2013).Kültür ve Materyalizm. Legitimacy). BirikimDergisi.Vol. 117. Sınırları. (MediaEthics andtheLimitsof S.(1999).Medyaİrvan, Etiki ve Meşrûluk Freedom oftheMedia. Answers. Vienna:OSCERepresentative of Regulation Guidebook:AllQuestions and Harastzi, M.(2008).TheMediaSelf- Yayıncılık. (Culture andMaterialism).Istanbul: Sel

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