1.1 Hamito-Semitic languages 5 1.1.1 Semitic languages 6 1.1.1.1 Acadian 6 1.1.1.2 Canaanite 6 1.1.1.3 Aramaic 7 1.1.1.4 Classical Arabic 7 1.1.1.5 South Arabic 8 1.1.1.6 Ethiopie or Gefez 8 1.1.2 Hamitic languages 8 1.1.2.1 Egyptian 8 1.1.2.2 Berber 8 1.1.2.3 Cushitic 9 1.1.2.4 Chadic 9 1.2 Late PHS sound system 10 1.2.1 Sound correspondences between Semitic and Egyptian 11 1.2.1.1 Stops 18 1.2.1.2 Fricatives 20 1.2.1.3 Nasals 24 1.2.1.4 Laterals 24 1.2.1.5 R-sound 24 1.2.1.6 Glides 25 1.2.1.7 Consonants /s/, /h/ and ImJ 26 1.2.2 Vowels 29 1.2.3 Diphthongs 33 1.3 Hamito-Semitic grammatical system 34 1.3.1 stem I 35 1.3.2 stem II 35 1.3.3 stem III 35 1.3.4 stem IV 36 1.3.4.1 Other HS causative prefixes 36 1.3.4.2 Hamito-Semitic causative affixes and world’s languages 38 1.3.5 stem V 38 1.3.6 stem VI 39 1.3.7 stem VII 39 1.3.8 stem VIII 40 1.3.9 stem IX 40 1.3.10 stemX 41 1.3.11 stem XI 41 1.3.12 stem XII 41 1.3.13 Some other stems 41

CHAPTER TWO SUMERIAN 43

2.1 Introduction 43 2.1.1 Sumerian dialects: Emegir and Emesal 44 2.1.2 Sumerian and other languages 48 2.1.3 Typological classification of Sumerian 51 2.1.3.1 Typology and stages of language development 52 2.1.4 Sumerian writing system 54

CHAPTER THREE SUMERIAN AND HAMITO-SEMITIC: SOUNDS AND LEXICONS 57 3.1 Introduction 57 3.1.1 Technique employed in the current study 58 3.1.2 Sumerian sound system 61 3.1.3 Methodological procedures 62

3.2 Sumerian Stops 64 3.2.1 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic cognates with /p ~ b/ 67 3.2.1.1 Sumerian bar^ 7)vb "to shine, be bright; etc.” 67 3.2.1.2 Sumerian bar “outside”; vb "to open, see, etc.” 68 3.2.1.2.1 Sumerian bar “outside” 68 3.2.1.2.2 Sumerian bar "soul, innards” 68 3.2.1.2.3 Sumerian bar "to open” 68 3.2.1.2.4 Sumerian bar "to see” 69 3.2.1.2.5 Sumerian bar “to divide, to split; to distribute, to select” 70 3.2.1.2.6 Sumerian bar adj. "foreign” 71 3.2.1.3 Sumerian pana, pan, ban “bow” 71 3.2.1.4 Sumerian bi "this (one), that (one)” 72 3.2.4.1 Sumerian bi ‘a possessive suffix -its' 73 3.2.1.5 Sumerian bi, bé “to speak, say” 73 3.2.1.6 Sumerian bir "team o f donkeys/animals” 75 3.2.1.6.1 Sumerian bir “team of donkeys/animals” 76 3.2.1.7 Sumerian ba "portion; rations”; vb "to give; pay; divide, etc.” 76 3.2.1.8 Sumerianpa^)} pab, pap "father; brother; man; leader” 77 3.2.1.9 Sumeriana-bala "drawing o f water” 83 3.2.1.10 Sumerian aba, ab “sea, lake” 84 3.2.1.11 Sumerianpes "womb; palm frond; three”; vb “to expand; wide” 84 3.2.1.12 Sumerian pes-pes "very wide, spacious; physically handicapped” 85 3.2.1.13 Sumerian buru^4), Z>«r(i4)"harvest; hot season, harvest time” 85 3.2.1.14 Sumerian pa-sa-lal-a "a bundle o f brushwood” 86 3.2.1.15 Sumerian pa-tar "cut-off branches/twigs” 86 3.2.1.16 Sumerian pah "leg” 86 3.2.1.17 Sumerian bala "to pour, as a libation” 86 3.2.1.18 Sumerian bala-bala "speech” 86 3.2.1.19 Sumerian bala “to uproot, transgress” 87 3.2.1.20 Sumerian dab(2,4, sydib(2> "fetter”; vb "to hold; to take, seize” 87 3.2.1.21 Sumerian pad^ "to show, reveal, choose, call, remember, etc.” 87 3.2.1.22 Sumerian barag, bara^ 5,6), paramo), “seat of honor, chamber, etc.” 88 3.2.1.22.1 Sumerian par(6), paramo), etc. "seat o f honor, king; dwelling” . 88 3.2.1.22.2 Sumerian par^ para(10), etc. "box, sack” 88 3.2.1.22.3 Sumerianpar^),paramo), etc. "penitential robe; comb” 88 3.2.1.23 Sumerian pa “leaf; bud” 88 3.2.1.24 Sumerian abzu "sea, abyss” 89

3.2.2 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic cognates with /t ~ d/ 89 3.2.2.1 Sumerian di-di "to play” 89 3.2.2.2 Sumerian tu^5) “wind” 89 3.2.2.3 Sumerian ada, ad “father; shout; song” 89 3.2.2.4 Sumerian ta, dâ “characteristic, nature” 89 3.2.2.5 Sumerian da “arm; side” 90 3.2.2.5.1 Sumerian da “be near, nearness” 90 3.2.2.6 Sumerian taka, taga, tak, tag, “to touch;tà handle; strike, hunt, etc.” 90 3.2.2.6.1 Sumerian taka, taga “to touch, approach” 91 3.2.2.6.2 Sumerian taka, taga “to strike, hit, push” 91 3.2.2.6.3 Sumerian taka, taga “to hunt, to fish” 91 3.2.2.6.4 Sumerian taka, taga “to start a fire” 91 3.2.2.6.5 Sumerian te “to approach” 91 3.2.2.7 Sumerian tus “home”; vb “to (cause to) dwell” 92 3.2.2.8 Sumerian tur “child; young” 92 3.2.2.8.1 Sumerian tur “child, young” 92 3.2.2.8.2 Sumerian tur “second in rank” 92 3.2.2.9 Sumerian tur, turi5) “birth-hut; byre; sheepfold” 92 3.2.2.10 Sumerian tur^5), tu “newborn; weakness” 93 3.2.2.10.1 Sumerian tu “be bom, newborn” 93 3.2.2.10.2 Sumerian tur^, tu “be sick; weakness; sickness; weak” 93 3.2.2.11 Sumerian ad^ “lame, cripple” 93 3.2.2.12 Sumerian a-diig “freshwater” 93 3.2.2.12.1 Sumerian dug “gladness, sweetness; sweet, beautiful” 93 3.2.2.12.2 Sumerian dug “vagina” 93 3.2.2.13 Sumerian dug “to do” 93 3.2.2.14 Sumerian dumu “child; son; daughter” 94 3.2.2.15 Sumerian dû “to bear, give birth” 94 3.2.2.16 Sumerian dam “spouse (husband or wife)” 94 3.2.2.17 Sumerian dim “bond, tie; rope” 96 3.2.2.18 Sumerian dub “tablet; document”; vb “to move, heap, etc.” 96 3.2.2.18.1 Sumerian dub “to move in a circle; heap up, etc.” 96 3.2.2.18.2 Sumerian dub “to heap up, store” 96 3.2.2.18.3 Sumerian dub “to pour out” 97 3.2.2.18.4 Sumerian dub “to strew” 97 3.2.2.18.5 Sumerian dub “to dye (fabrics)” 97 3.2.2.18.6 Sumerian dub “(clay) tablet; document” 97 3.2.2.19 Sumerian dulbu “a kind o f tree” 97 3.2.2.20 Sumerian ada, ad “song; shout” 98 3.2.2.21 Sumerian dar “francolin, pheasant” 98 3.2.2.22 Sumerian duly) “mound, heap, ruins, tell” 98 3.2.2.23 Sumerian duru(5), dur{5) “irrigated, moist” 98 3.2.2.24 Sumerian dumdam-zQ “to grumble, rumble” 99 3.2.3.1.1 Sumerian gal “big, great, large, mighty” 99 3.2.3.1.2 Sumerian gal “a large cup” 99 3.2.3.1.3 Sumerian gal “ch ief’ 99 3.2.3.1.4 Sumerian gal “eldest son” 100 3.2.3.2 Sumerian ab-gal “sage, wise man, wizard” 100 3.2.3.3 Sumerian lugal “king, master, owner” 101 3.2.3.4 Sumerian a-gal “overflow of flood waters” 101 3.2.3.5 Sumerian a “water” 102

3.23.6 Proto-World *Wa- “water” 103 3.2.3.6.1 Proto-World compound of {prefixed proot + *-Wa-} 105 3.2.3.6.1.1 Proto-World *na-Wa- 105 3.2.3.6.1.2 Proto-World *sa’-Wa- 108 3.2.3.6.1.3 Proto-World *da'-Wa- ~ *ta'-Wa- 110 3.2.3.6.1.4 Proto-World *ma-Wa- 111 3.2.3.6.2 Proto-World compound of {* Wa- + suffixed proot} 113 3.2.3.6.2.1 Proto-World *Wa-r- 113 323.62.2 Proto-World *Wa-d/-t- 114 3.2.3.6.2.3 Proto-World *Wa-b/-p- 116 3.23.6.2.4 Proto-World *Wa-k/-g-(-k-) 118 3.23.63 Proto-World complex word: *da-(n)-naw- ~ *ta-(n)-naW- 120 3.23.6.4 Proto-World complex word: *na-W- plus *-d-/-t- 121 3.23.6.5 Proto-World complex word: *Wa + a liquid 122 3.23.6.6 Proto-World complex word: *na + *Wa- + -b/p- 123 3.2.3.7 Sumerian gabari “to confront” 123 3.23.7.1 Sumerian gaba “breast, chest” 123 3.23.7.2 Sumerian gabari “to confront” 124 3.2.3.73 Sumerian gabazi “to retreat” 124 3.23.8 Sumerian gub-bu “left arm” 125 3.23.9 Sumerian gii “voice, noise, sound” 126 3.2.3.10 Sumerian igi “face, aspect, eye(s)” 127 3.2.3.10.1 Sumerian igi “face” 127 3.2.3.10.2 Sumerian igi “eye(s), glance, looks; front” 127 3.2.3.10.3 Sumerian igi “before, in front” 129 3.2.3.10.4 Sumerian ig “door” 129 3.2.3.11 Sumerian gü, gid “to stretch the neck; side, edge; front; district” 129 3.23.11.1 Sumerian gü, gid “to stretch the neck” 129 3.2.3.11.2 Sumerian gü “river bank, side, edge” 129 3.2.3.11.3 Sumerian gü “front” 129 3.2.3.11.4 Sumerian gü “land, district” 130 3.23.12 Sumerian gun, gun, gü “back o f a man's neck” 130 3.23.13 Sumerian gu-mar “to pile up” 130 3.23.14 Sumerian ki “earth; place; area” 130 3.2.3.14.1 Sumerian ki-ri “to scratch the ground” 131 3.2.3.14.2 Sumerian Ur “a large vessel; beer keg” 131 3.2.3.14.3 Sumerian ki-sum-ma “onion-growing land” 131 3.2.3.14.4 Sumerian ki-iir “territory; living grounds” 131 3.2.3.14.5 Sumerian ki-za “to bow down, submit” 131 3.2.3.14.6 Sumerian kir, gir “cow or mare” 131 3.2.3.15 Sumerian kur “mountain; highland” 132 3.2.3.15.1 Sumerian kür “stranger; enemy; hostility” 132 3.2.3.16 Sumerian kungal, gukkal “fat-tailed sheep” 133 3.2.3.17 Sumerian kir{n) “female lamb” 133 3.2.3.18 Sumerian kâb “flaxen measuring string” 133 3.2.3.19 Sumerian g/r(4), kir{U) “oven, kiln” 133 3.2.3.20 Sumerian gig “pain” 133 3.2.3.21 Sumerian g/(4), ge(4) “to return; send; reject; restore; answer” 134 3.2.3.21.1 Sumerian g/(4), ge{4) “to return, come back” 134 3.2.3.21.2 Sumerian g/(4), ge(4) “to reject, dislike” 134 3.2.3.21.3 Sumerian g/w, ge(4) “to to restore” 134 3.2.3.21.4 Sumerian g/>4), ge(4) “to answer” 134 3.2.3.22 Sumerian gir(l0), gz(9), ge{9) “anger, fury” 134 3.2.3.23 Sumerian hum “heat; summer; fever”; vb “to heat”; adj. “hot” 135 3.2.3.23.1 Sumerian hug, hu “bright, white, pure” 135 3.2.3.23.2 Sumerian hum “to heat; heat; summer; fever” 136 3.2.3.24 Sumerian ge “to be” 136 3.2.3.25 Sumerian aka, ak, ag9 “toai5) do, act; to place” 137 3.2.3.26 Sumerian gan “to bear” 137 3.2.3.27 Sumerian g/(4) “to besiege, surround; to lock up; circle” 137 3.2.3.28 Sumerian ku((iy9 kua “fish” 137 3.2.3.29 Sumerian kaba “to speak, talk, comverse” 137 3.2.3.30 Sumerian gur, gir “to be, feel” 138 3.2.3.31 Sumerian gi^y-an-na “at night” 138 3.2.3.32 Sumerian gü-sè “to the other side” 138 3.2.3.33 Sumerian gâna, gân “tract o f land, field parcel” 138 3.2.3.34 Sumerian kasi4) “to run, travel, gallop” 138 3.2.3.35 Sumerian kas^y “to urinate” 138 3.2.3.36 Sumerian kar^y, karaay, guru^y "to encircle, to besiege” 139 3.2.3.37 Sumerian géme^y, geme^y “workwoman, female slave” 139 3.2.3.38 Sumerian gigiri2y “wheel(s), chariot” 139 3.2.3.39 Sumerian gu(2)i gud, gur “bull” 139 3.2.3.40 Sumerian ku{2), gU(2) “to eat” 139 3.2.3.41 Sumerian g/(i 7) “young man” 140 3.2.3.42 Sumerian g/(4) “to besiege, surround; to lock up” 140 3.2.4.2 Sumerian ba “portion out” 146 3.2.4.3 Sumerian a-gig “bitter tears” 146 3.2.4.4 Sumerian agam “swamp” 146 3.2.4.5 Sumerian gam “to decline, incline” 147 3.2A 6 Sumerian a-küm “hot water” 147 3.2.4.7 Sumerian gü-è “to cover” 149 3.2.4.5 Sumerian du “to walk, go, come” 149 3.2.4.9 Sumerian lu “man, person” 149 3.2.4.10 Sumerian w(3, 4)-da “i f ’ 149

3.3 Sumerian fricatives 150 3.3.1 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic cognates with /h/ 150 3.3.1.1 Sumerian har, (àr, ur(5)) “millstone; ring; link; small, young” 150 3.3.1.1.1 Sumerian har, (àr, ur(5)) “small, young” 150 3.3.1.1.2 Sumerian har “coil or spiral o f silver” 150 3.3.1.2 Sumerian hur “hole; limb, stem” 151 3.3.1.2.1 Sumerian hur “to dig, to scratch” 151 3.3.1.3 Sumerian he, hi “to mix” 151 3.3.1.4 Sumerian hub, hup “acrobat, athlete” 151 3.3.1.5 Sumerian hul^“evil”; vb “to destroy” 151 3.3.1.6 Sumerian Sumerian dih “sickness, fever, torpidity” 151 3.3.1.7 Sumerian hub “recess, hole, pit” 151 3.3.1.8 Sumerian has “lower abdomen, loins, back, upper thigh, buttocks” 152 3.3.1.9 Sumerian hal “to separate, split apart, make an opening, pierce” 152 3.3.1.10 Sumerian hus “be angry” 152 3.3.1.11 Sumerian habrud “animal burrow; pit, hole” 152 3.3.1.12 Sumerian nihus “terrifying, powerful” 152

3.3.1.13 Did Sumerian have lyl 152

3.3.2 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic cognates with /h/ 153 3.3.2.1 Sumerian é “house, household” 154 3.3.2.2 Sumerian ni, ne^ “fear, frightfulness, awe, respect” 155 3.3.2.3 Sumerian mah adj. “high, exalted, great” 155 3.3.2.4 Sumerian mah an adjective for ‘cows’ 156 3.3.2.5 Sumerian hé “let it become, let there be” 157 3.3.2.6 Sumerian ugar^3) “field” 157 3.3.2.7 Sumerian has, haz, has “to break or cut off; to thresh grain” . 157 3.3.2.8 Sumerian hu “bird” 157 3.3.2.9 Sumerian hus “to be angry” 157 3.3.2.10 Sumerian dalhamun^ “confusion, disorder” 157 3.3.3.2 Sumerian é-tùr “cattle pen” 158 3.3.3.3 Sumerian luh, làh "to wash; to be fresh” 158 3.3.3.4 Sumerian uru^ ur^U), -ru “to plow, till, cultivate” 159 3.3.3.5 Sumerian uru^) “valiant, strong, mighty” 159 3.3.3.6 Sumerian us “placental membrane, afterbirth” 159 3.3.3.? Sumerian là “to have a beard; to accuse” 159 3.3.3.7.1 Sumerian la “to have a beard” 159 3.3.3.7.2 Sumerian là “to accuse, denounce” 159

3.3.3.8 Sumerian é-kur “prison” 160 3.3.3.9 Sumerian ér, Ir “lamentation; tears” 160 3.3.3.10 Sumerian me^6,7,9) “battle” 160 3.3.3.11 Sumerian mer(2), mir(2); gùr “north(wind), storm” 160 3.3.3.11.1 Sumerian mer(2), mir^y, gùr “north, north wind” 160 3.3.3.11.2 Sumerian mer^, mir; gùr “storm wind, violent storm” 160 3.3.3.12 Sumerian suh “diadem, crown, crest” 160 3.3.3.13 Sumerian hâs; has(4) “lower abdomen; loins” 160 3.3.3.14 Sumerian lah, ah; uh “to dry up; to dry” 161 3.3.3.14.1 Sumerian lah, àh, uh “to sparkle, shine” 161 3.3.3.15 Sumerian alim “wild ram; bison; aurochs” 161 3.3.3.16 Sumerian âma, am “wild ox or cow”161 3.3.3.17 Sumerian hal-hal-la “slanderer”; “dissolved, completely destroyed” 161 3.3.3.18 Sumerian hada “to shine brightly” 161 3.3.3.19 Sumerian hill “beauty” 161 3.3.3.20 Sumerian alal “pipe, conduit, gutter” 161 3.3.3.21 Sum. anse “ donkey; ass” 161 3.3.3.22 Sumerian ü “plant, vegetable, grass, pasture; food, bread” 162 3.3.3.23 Sumerian ama{^5), ame(2> “woman’s quarters” 162

3.3.4 Pre-Sumerian /V 162 3.3.4.1 Sumerian a “arm” 162 3.3.4.2 Sumerian /r(i0)“to accompany” 162 3.3.4.3 Sumerian ir(i0> “to lead (away)” 162 3.3.4.4 Sumerian z>(,o), er “to bring” 162 3.3.4.5 Sumerian z>(10) “to go; to drive along or away” 163 3.3.4.6 Sumerian ür “thighs, leg(s); root, trunk o f a tree, floor” 163 3.3.4.6.1 Sumerian ür “thighs, leg(s)” 163 3.3.4.6.2 Sumerian ür “root, trunk o f a tree” also “floor, base” 163 3.3.4.7 Sumerian a-ri-a, a-ru-a “district; desert, waste land” 163 3.3.4.8 Sumerian il(2), ila(2> “to lift, to be high” 163 3.3.4.9 Sumerian erin “cedar tree, wood” 164 3.3.4.10 Sumerian e(ld “to rise; to descend” 164 3.3.4.11 Sumerian W(8) “adult female sheep” 164 3.3.4.12 Sumerian uga, ugu{2) “raven, crow” 164 3.3.5 Sumerian /s/ and its Hamito-Semitic correspondent 165 3.3.5.1 Sumerian si, su, sa, sa(5) "to fill up, to inundate” 165 3.3.5.2 Sumerian si, su, sa, sa^ "grow weak” 165 3.3.5.3 Sumerian su “empty” 166 3.3.5.4 Sumerian si "to stand upright, to be straight; line” 166 3.3.5.4.1 Sumerian sisi “horse” 166 3.3.5.4.2 Sumerian si "line” 166 3.3.5.5 Sumerian su "to spread” 166 3.3.5 .6 Sumerian s£Z(i0) "to be equivalent; to buy” 167 3.3.5.7 Sumerian si-ig, si(-g) "to silence, strike down; level”; “silent; weak” 167 3.3.5.7.1 Sumerian si-ig, si(-g) "to silence; silent” 167 3.3.5.7.2 Sumerian si-ig, si(-g) "to strike down” 167 3.3.5.7.3 Sumerian si-ig, si(-g) "level” 167 3.3.5.7.4 Sumerian si-ig, si(-g) "weak” 167 3.3.5 .8 Sumerian sig-sig "narrow” 167 3.3.5.9 Sumerian sig^ 9), stfg(i0) “(to be) mild, sweet, good; of fine quality” 168 3.3.5.10 Sumerian sigga, seg(8,9) “snow” 168 3.3.5.11 Sumerian ma-su{-a) "sunken boat” 168 3.3.5.12 Sumerian sti(4)”to name; to call by name” 169 3.3.5.13 Sumerian s/g(7), se^2) (-g), sa{1) (-g) "to let live; to create; to live” 169 3.3.5.14 Sumerian sar, Mr “vegetables”; vb "to write; to begin; run, etc.” 170 3.3.5.14.1 Sumerian sar, sar "to write” 170 3.3.5.14.2 Sumerian sar, sar “to begin” 170 3.3.5.14.3 Sumerian sar, sar "to make hurry, run” 170 3.3.5.14.4 Sumerian sar, sar "vegetables” 170 3.3.5.15 Sumerian sam, Mm, sa\Q “(barter) purchase” 170 3.3.5.16 Sumerian s<2(9) "half’ 170 3.3.5.17 Sumerian gi-sa, gi(\(>)-sa (-a), g/(i6) "parched wheat” 170 3.3.5.18 Sumerian su "body; flesh; skin; animal hide” 171 3.3.5.19 Sumerian sun{5h su^6) "humble, with bowed head” 171 3.3.5.20 Sumerian sun^ “a wild cow” 171 3.3.5.21 Sumerian s/g(2), sik^ "hair” 171

3.3.6 Sumerian /§/ and its Hamito-Semitic correspondent 172 3.3.6.1 Sumerian M "to dry up” 172 3.3.6.2 Sumerian se "grain, com, barley” 172 3.3.6.3 Sumerian se(10) “excrement, dung” 172 3.3.6.4 Sumerian M-sur "to have diarrhea” 172 3.3.6.5 Sumerian M^ "to cut, break (reeds)” 173 3.3.6.6 Sumerian sir, sur "song”; vb "to sing” 174 3.3.6.7 Sumerian Mr^ "to explain, interpret” 174 3.3.6.8 Sumerian sen sen "combat, strife” 174 3.3.6.9 Sumerian se sa "roasted” 174 3.3.6.10 Sumerian sè "portion” also "as far as, up to, to” 174 3.3.6.11 Sumerian su bar “to release, let loose” 174 3.3.6.12 Sumerian su-a-la “paralyzed” 175 3.3.6.13 Sumerian su-gal(2) “to hold by the hand” 175 3.3.5.14 Sumerian su-tag “to decorate” 176 3.3.6.15 Sumerian se (3,7>, se^) “rain; to rain” 176 3.3.6.16 Sumerian kus, kus “skin, hide, leather” 176 3.3.6.17 Sumerian kisi(4) “half; forelock” 176 3.3.6.18 Sumerian kas{4), kas{4) “to run fast; to gallop; to travel fast” 176 3.3.6.19 Sumerian km “to be tired; to be out o f breath; to worry” 177 3.3.6.20 Sumerian kas, kas “alcoholic beverage, beer” 177 3.3.6.21 Sumerian as, as-a “(number) one” 177

3.3.7 Sumerian IzJ and its Hamito-Semitic correspondent 177 3.3.7.1 Sumerian zu, su, “wisdom, knowledge”; “to know; to understand” 177 3.3.7.1.1 Sumerian zu, su “wisdom, knowledge” 177 3.3.7.1.2 Sumerian zu, su “to know” 177 3.3.7.2 Sumerian su, zu is nu-zu “ignorant” 178 3.3.7.3 Sumerian nu-zu-a “unknown” 178 3.3.7.4 Sumerian azu, uzu, zu(5> “physician, doctor” 178 3.3.7.5 Sumerian izi “fire” 180 3.3.7.6 Sumerian wzw(5) “evening, sunset” 180 3.3.7.7 Sumerian ezinu “grain, cereal; the deity Asnan” 180 3.3.7.7.1 Sumerian ezinu “the deity Asnan” 180 3.3.7.8 Sumerian zal, zalag, zalah “brightness, light” 180 3.3.7.9 Sumerian: Emesal ze^ed “to hit, beat”; Emegirtud{2) 180

3.4 Sumerian nasal consonants 181 3.4.1 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic cognates with /ml 181 3.4.1.1 Sumerian md “boat” 181 3.4.1.2 Sumerian ma^y to leave, depart” 181 3.4.1.3 Sumerian mas, mas “interest” 181 3.4.1.4 Sumerian umu, um “wise or skillful teacher” 182 3.4.1.5 Sumerian mi, mu^io), munm “woman; female” 182 3.4.1 .6 Sumerian mdh is an adjective for cows 183 3.4.1.7 Sumerian mu(5) “well-formed, beautiful” 183 3.4.1 .8 Sumerian mus-dub “comb” 183 3.4.1.9 Sumerian mas “young male goat, goat” 183 3.4.1.10 Sumerian musen “bird” 183 3.4.1.11 Sumerian mu, ma^5) “to bum, to mill, grind” 183 3.4.1.12 Sumerian mud “blood” 184 3.4.1.13 Sumerian ma^y ga: “to go” 184 3.4.1.14 Sumerian erne “speech, tongue” 186 3.4.1.15 Sumerian méli, mili, gèle, gili “throat, pharynx; voice” 186 3.4.1.16 Sumerian mel^ “scorching” 186 3.4.1.17 Sumerian tam{2), tamu{2,3) "to obtain; fit; deliver, cary out” 186 3.3.1.18 Sumerian mer{2), mir(2) “belt, waistband” 186 3.3.1.19 Sumerian mana, mina, man, min “partner; companion” 187 3.3.1.20 Sumerian mus “snake” 187 3.3.1.21 Sumerian mes, mes “son, prince, young man” 187 3.3.1.22 Sumerian mes, mes “hackberry tree; nettle tree” 187

3.4.2 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic cognates with /n/ 187 3.4.2.1 Sum. ew(2,3) “time” 187 3.4.2.2 Sumerian na(4), na “pebble, rock” 187 3.4.2.3 Sumerian na^) “chest, box” 188 3.4.2.4 Sumerian mina, min(5> 6> “two; second” 188 3.4.2.5 Sumerian nè, ni “strength, vigor” 188 3.4.2.6 Sumerian nu “image, likeness” 188 3.4.2.7 Sumerian an “sky, the god An” also “grain ear”; prep, “in front” 188 3.4.2.7.1 Sumerian an “to be high”; adj. “high” 188 3A 2.7.2 Sumerian an prep, “in front” 188 3.4.2 .8 Sumerian na “human being”emphatic in past 189 3.4.2.9 Sumerian na: modal prefix, emphatic in past; prohibitive tense 189 3.4.2.10 Sumerian en “dignitary; lord; high priest, noble” 190 3.4.2.10.1 Sumerian en adj. “noble” 190 3.4.2.11 Sumerian m/(n) “light; fire, lamp” 190 3.4.2.12 Sumerian nir “prince, lord” 190 3.4.2.13 Sumerian nir “a precious stone” 190

3.4.3 Sumerian /g/ 191 3.4.3.1 Sumerian gig, gig, kum , gi{25) “night” 192 3.4.3.2 Sumerian g/W(5), gz>(5) “stranger; refugee”; vb “to run; to seek refuge” 193 3.4.3.2.1 Sumerian g/r/(5), g/>(5) “stranger, refugee” 193 3.4.3.2.2 Sumerian g/>/(5), gz>(5) vb “to run” also “to seek refuge” 193 3.4.3.2.3 Sumerian gânun “storage area” 193 3.4.3.4 Sumerian gar “to establish, set down, place” 193 3.4.3.5 Sumerian gir^-ra “courier” 194 3.4.3 .6 Sumerian g/W(2,3), gz>( 2, 3) “booty; captive” 194 3.4.3.7 Sumerian g/(6) sa “stay to midnight” 194 3.4.3 .8 Sumerian gz>(2) “scorpion” also “sword, knife, razor, thorn” 194 3.4.3.8.1 Sumerian gz>(2) “scorpion” 194 3.4.3.8.2 Sumerian g/r(2) “sword, knife, razor” 194 3.4.3.9 Sumerian gir-dii “to cut o ff’ 195 3.4.3.10 Sumerian gir-zal “scalpel” 195 3.4.3.11 Sumerian nig-ra: “to throw something; to beat (up)” 195 3.4.3.12 Sumerian hur-sag “mountain” 195 3.4.3.13 Sumerian gis, ges “tree; wood; stick” 195 3.4.3.14 Sumerian gâ “box, basket” 197 3.4.3.15 Sumerian gèle, gili, mill, méli, mél, mèl “throat, pharynx; voice” 197 3.4.3.16 Sumerian si-gar “door lock; clamp; neck-stock for captives” 198 3.4.3.17 Sumerian agi{6) “flood” 198 3.4.3.18 Sumerian naga(3,4) “to crush, to break” 198

3.5 Sumerian /r/ 199 3.5.1 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic cognates with /r/ 199 3.5.1.1 Sumerian sar^y, sar^y “totality, all” 199 3.5.1.2 Sumerian uru^y, iri, n; iri(Uy “city, town, village, district” 199 3.5.1.3 Sumerian: gür “sphere; circle, ring; loop” 199 3.5.1.4 Sumerian iiru “watch fire; light; glowing” 200 3.5.1.5 Sumerian wr( 2,3,4) “to surround; to flood” 201 3.5.1 .6 Sumerian ur “roof; entrance; mountain pass; beam” 201 3.5.1.7 Sumerian wr(5) “liver; spleen; heart, soul; main body; foundation” 201 3.5.1.7.1 Sumerian ur^y “foundation” 202 3.5.1.8 Sumerian ur “dog; carnivorous beast; servant; young man, warrior” 202 3.5.1.8.1 Sumerian ur “dog; carnivorous beast” 202 3.5.1.8.2 Sumerian ur “warrior” 202 3.5.1.8.3 Sumerian ur “enemy, young man” 202 3.5.1.9 Sumerian uru(2, ,5, is) “thunderstorm, devastating flood” 203 3.5.1.10 Sumerian ra “inundation” 203 3.5.1.11 Sumerian ra-ra “to flatten; to make wide” 203 3.5.1.12 Sumerian dar^, dara^y “blood” 203 3.5.1.13 Sumerian ra-gi{4) “to thunder” 203 3.5.1.14 Sumerian rab$y, rap “fetter, shackle, ring, clamp” 203 3.5.1.15 Sumerian sur, sur “to rain, to flow” 204 3.5.1.16 Sumerian ser, ser^y “testicle(s)” 204

3.6 Sumerian /!/ 204 3.6.1 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic cognates with /!/ 204 3.6.1.1 Sumerian ul “ancient, enduring; remote; flower; to glitter, shine, etc.” 204 3.6.1.1.1 Sumerian ul “ancient, enduring; remote, distant (in time)” 204 3.6.1.1.2 Sumerian ul “to glitter, shine” also “star” 205 3.6.1.1.3 Sumerian ul “flower, bud” 205 3.6.1.1.4 Sumerian ul “ornament” 205 3.6.1.2 Sumerian hul, ul “joy” 205 3.6.1.2.1 Sumerian hul, ul “joy, pleasure, satisfaction” 205 3.6.1.2.2 Sumerian ul in sil“pleasure, joy, bliss” 206 3.6.1.3 Sumerian ul “to be quick; to hurry, hasten” 206 3.6.1.4 Sumerian limmu^sy, llm “four” 206 3.6.1.5 Sumerian mâ-lâ “cargo boat” 209 3.6.1.6 Sumerian dal “a large, wide-mouthed jar for oil” 209 3.6.1.7 Sumerian galdi “mighty judge” 209 3.6.1.8 Sumerian lü-di-da “opposing party (in a legal case)” 209 3.6.1.9 Sumerian li “juniper, cedar tree” 209 3.6.1.10 Sumerian pala(2,3) “vestments, clothing; robe” 209 3.6.1.11 Sumerian gala, ga

3.7 Sumerian III (or /dr/) 210 3.7.1 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic possible cognates with III 211

3.8 Sumerian glides 211 3.8.1 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic cognates with lyl 212 3.8.1.1 Sumerian è “go out” 212 3.8.1.2 Sumerian imi, im, em “clay, loam, mud” 212 3.8.1.3 Sumerian âb “cow” also “middle” 212 3.8.1.4 Sumerian di “lawsuit, case; judgment” 212

3.8.2 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic cognates with /w/ 213 3.8.2.1 Sumerian üs, iiz “side, edge; distance” 213 3.8.2.2 Sumerian w(3? 4> 8) “cries, screams, battle” 213 3.8.2.3 Sumerian ri “to throw, expel; pour; blow; beget; plan, remove, etc.” 214 3.8.2.3.1 Sumerian ri “throw, throw away, cast, expel” 214 3.8.2.3.2 Sumerian ri “to inundate, pour” 214 3.8.2.3.3 Sumerian ri “to blow (said of a storm)” 214 3.8.2.3.4 Sumerian ri “to beget” 214 3.8.2.3.4 Sumerian ri “to blow, said o f a storm” 214 3.8.2.3.5 Sumerian ri “to moor a boat” 214 3.8.2.3.6 Sumerian ri “to plan something” 215 3.8.2.3.7 Sumerian ri “to place” 215 3.8.2.3.8 Sumerian ri “to remove” 215 3.8.2.4 Sumerian adda{(4), ad “to send; to drive away” 215 3.8.2.5 Sumerian ù “and” 215 3.8.2.6 Sumerian alulu “woe” 215 3.8.2.7 Sumerian ua, ua ua “woe” 216 3.8.2.8 Sumerian gi^ydi "to pass the night” 216

3.9 Sumerian vowel system 216

CHAPTER FOUR SUMERIAN AND HAMITO-SEMITIC GRAMMARS 219

4.1 Introduction 219

4.2 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic: Plural markers 221 4.2.1 The noun 221 4.2.1.1 Sumerian [e-ne ~ -ne] = HS w-n- 221 4.2.1.2 Syntactic features of Sumerian and HS nouns 222 4.2.2 Reduplication o f nouns in Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic 223 4.2.2.1 Reduplication and duality 224 4.2.3 Other methods for indicating plurality 224

4.2.4 Reduplication of Adjectives 227

4.2.5 Reduplication of verbs 227

4.3 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic gender systems 227 4.3.1 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic interrogatives 229

4.4 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic causatives 230

4.5 Sumerian Cases 231 4.5.1 Sumerian genitive -ak/-ag 231 4.5.2 Sumerian dative -r(a) 234 4.5.3 Sumerian terminative -s(e) 234 4.5.4 Sumerian adverbiative -es 234 4.5.5 Sumerian locative case -a 234 4.5.6 Sumerian comitative -da 235 4.5.7 Sumerian equative -gim, -kim 235 4.5.8 Sumerian ablative case prefix -ra- 236

4.6 Sumerian and Hamito-Semitic negatives 236 4.6.1 Sumerian nu 236 4.6.2 Sumerian nan 237 4.6.3 Sumerian bara 237 4.6.4 Sumerian la- and //- 237

4.7 Sumerian non-negative preformative [na] 237 4.8 Other grammatical elements 238 4.9 Sumerian and Semitic religions 238

REFERENCES 240

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