CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
MEDITATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING
A thesis submitted in partia~ satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Psychology
by
John Talbot Huffaker
January, 1981 I
The Thesis of John Talbot Huffaker is approved:
/ Dr. Barbara Ta achnick
California State University, Northridge
ii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
1. INTRODUCTION. 1
Statement of Purpose. . . . • . • . . 1 Physiological Effects of Meditation 2 The Relaxation Response • . • . • . 4 Psychological Effects of Meditation . . . . 6 Research Hypotheses ...... • • . . • . . • . . 13
2. METHOD .•. 15
Subjects. 15 Procedure •. 15 Test Instruments. 19
3. RESULTS .. 26
4. DISCUSSION. 29
REFERENCES 34
Appendix
A. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT FOR HIGH EXPECTATION MEDITATION GROUP. . . • . . . • . • . • ...... 39
B. INTRODUCTION FOR MEDITATION, RELAXATION, AND IMAGERY GROUPS. . . . . 41
C. INSTRUCTIONS FOR MEDITATION 43
D. INSTRUCTIONS FOR RELAXATION . 45
E. INSTRUCTIONS FOR IMAGERY .. 47
F. JOURNAL INSTRUCTIONS. 49
G. DEBRIEFING STATEMENT. 51
Table 1. Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Subjects on Four Dependent Variables. . • ...... 27
iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to acknowledge Dr. Leo Pirojnikoff and Dr. Barbara
Tabachnick for their willingness to serve as committee members.
I wish to acknowledge Dr. Benjamin Mehlman, committee chair person, for his guidance, support, and encouragement. ABSTRACT
MEDITATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING
~
John Talbot Huffaker
Master of Arts in Psychology
This study partially replicated an earlier study by Aaronson
(1977), comparing the effects of short-term meditation, relaxation, and an unfocusing technique on anxiety, self-actualization, and locus of control.
Using a post-test only control group design, 103 subjects were matched on sex and age and randomly assigned to one of five groups:
(1) a Meditation Group which performed the Benson (1975) meditation technique; (2) a High Expectation Meditation Group which performed the
Benson technique and initially received pro-meditation propaganda, designed to increase subjects' expectations of improved psychological functioning through meditation; (3) a Relaxation Group which performed an induced relaxation technique; (4) a Guided Imagery Group which practiced a technique designed to prevent focusing attention; and
(5) a Waiting-List Control Group.
iv At the end of a six-week period ~f practice all subjects were given the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Rotter's Internal-External
Locus of Control Scale, and Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory.
The results did not support the earlier study by Aaronson (1977), as the outcome measures were not significantly affected by the techniques practiced over the six-week period. Thus, in this study meditation was not significantly more effective than the other techniques or a control group in improving psychological functioning.
v @ •
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Statement of Purpose
There are presently available a wide array of techniques which are
being used in our society and others to combat stress and to generally
contribute to psychological and physiological well being of people. Of
principal significance amongst these various techniques is the practice
of meditation, especially Transcendental Meditation (TM).
This technique was specifically designed for Western use by
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and appears to have been derived from Hindu practice. TM is an easily learned meditation approach and requires no adherence to any particular religious orientation or belief system
(Mahesh, 1969).
While TM advocates claim that theirs is a unique meditation that results in unique benefits to the individual practitioner, this claim has been disputed by some social scientists, including Dr. Herbert
Benson (1975) of Harvard Medical School. He feels that his research has borne out that TM is but one of many techniques capable of eliciting what he calls the "Relaxation Response." This response is characterized by distinct and unique physiological changes which include significantly decreased oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide
1 2 elimination, blood lactate levels, and respiration; and an increase in skin resistance and intensity of slow alpha waves (Benson, 1974, 1975).
The"purpose of this study is to further investigate some of the psychological effects of the Benson meditation technique which Benson has developed as a means of inducing the Relaxation Response. More specifically, this study will partially replicate the research by
Aaronson (1977) and will also compare the effects of meditation and induced relaxation on psychological functioning.
Physiological Effects of Meditation
Several studies of TM indicate that a number of physiological processes are effected for regular practitioners of meditation. A study by Wallace (1970) indicated that a group of TM meditators, as contrasted to a group of subjects sitting quietly with eyes closed, evidenced a 20% reduction in oxygen consumption, as well as reductions in carbon dioxide elimination and rate and volume of respiration.
Further, there was a significant slowing of the heartbeat, increased skin resistance, a decrease in blood lactate level and an altered EEG showing increased alpha wave activitiy. From this study Wallace inferred that the state present during TM meditation was conceivably a unique state of consciousness, differing from the states of wakefulness, sleeping, and dreaming.
Later, a replication of the Wallace study was conducted (Wallace,
Benson, & Wilson, 1971) and confirmed that study's findings. The researchers concluded that the physiological changes manifested during
TM meditation represented a "wakeful hypometabolic physiologic state."
Additionally, it was suggested that while biofeedback methods allowed 3
for control of individual physiologic~! functions by the use of
sophisticated electronic devices, TM was capable of influencing various
functions simultaneously.
A study of hypertension by Benson, Rosner, and Marzetta (1970)
yielded the finding that patients suffering hypertensive illness who
regularly performed meditation had significant decreases in blood
pressure. Research by Blackwell, Bloomfield, et al. (1976) reflected a
similar outcome for hypertensive subjects.
Research on stress by Goleman and Schwartz (1976) showed a significant difference in the habituation to a highly stressful event, as measured by heart rate and skin conductance. The meditation group reflected a significantly greater level of habituation to the stressor than did a control group.
Orme-Johnson (1973) studying the physiological elements involved in stress found a significantly greater level of rapid GSR habituation and lower levels of spontaneous GSR in a sample of ~~ meditators compared to a group of controls. The author pointed out that rapid GSR habituation and low levels of spontaneous GSR are associated in the literature with "good mental health, e.g., behavioral and autonomic stability, less motor impulsivity .•. less susceptibility to a variety of stresses, and less susceptibility to conditioned stresses."
Meditation research has also explored the effectiveness of TM in the treatment of some physical illnesses. Benson, Klemchuk, and Graham
(1974) looked at the usefulness of TM in the treatment of headaches and found a trend in the direction of reduced headache symptomatology. 4
Likewise, in a study of asthma by Honsberger and Wilson (1973) it was discovered that TM was effective in reducing asthma symptoms.
The Relaxation Response
Proponents of TM claim that the TM technique is a superior method of achieving deep rest and psychophysiological integration (Bloomfield, et al., 1975). They also indicate that a qualified instructor must train the meditator in a prescribed manner and provide the meditator with a unique Sanskrit mantra chosen specifically for that TM trainee.
On the other hand, Benson, et .al. (1974) have suggested that TM is not the unique method the TM advocates claim, but, rather, is one of many ways to achieve the Relaxation Response, "an integrated hypothala mic response which results in generalized decreased sympathetic nervous system activity and perhaps also decreased parasympathetic activity."
In fact, the Relaxation Response may be elicited not only by TM, but also Zen and Yoga meditation, autogenic training, hyponsis with suggested deep relaxation, and sentic cycles (Benson, 1974).
Benson (1975) developed his concept of the Relaxation Response from study of the fight or flight response. Cannon (1914) first described this response and termed it an emergency reaction. Studying the response of animals whether preparing to fight or flee, physiologi cal changes were noted, including " . • • increased body metabolism, or rate of burning fuel; and marked increase in the flow of blood to the arms and legs."
Brad (1959) explored the fight or flight response in human subjects by creating a slightly stressful situation for these subjects, 5
then measuring their physiological re~ponse to this stressor. As in
the stressed animals he found correspondingly higher rates of blood pressure, heart rate, and muscle blood flow.
Further, Benson (1975) indicates that part of the involuntary nervous system is activated when the fight or flight response is evoked and that the Relaxation Response acts in an opposing manner to cause a reduction in this nervous system activity. To achieve this state of reduced nervous system activity via the Relaxation Response
Benson (1975) indicates that four steps are necessary to achieve the response:
1. A Quiet Environment
Ideally, you should choose a quiet, calm environment with as few distractions as possible. A quiet room is suitable, as is a place of worship. The quiet environment contributes to the effectiveness of the repeated word or phrase by making it easier to eliminate distracting thoughts.
2. A Mental Device
To shift the mind from logical, externally oriented thought, there should be a constant stimulus; a sound, word, or phrase repeated silently or aloud; or fixed gazing at an object. Since one of the major difficulties in the elicitation of the Relaxation Response is "mind wandering," the repetition of the word or phrase is a way to help break the train of distracting thoughts. Your eyes are usually closed if you are using a repeated sound or word; of course your eyes are open if you are gazing. Attention to the normal rhythm of breathing is also useful and enhances the repetition of the sound or the word.
3. A Passive Attitude
When distracting thoughts occur, they are to be disregarded and attention redirected to the repetition or gazing; you. should not worry about how well you are performing the technique, because this may well prevent the Relaxation Response from occurring. Adopt a "let it happen" attitude. The passive attitude is perhaps the most important element in eliciting the Relaxation Response. Distracting thoughts will 6
occur. Do not worry about t~em. When these thoughts do present themselves and you become aware of them, simply return to the repetition of the mental device. These other thoughts do not mean you are performing the technique incorrectly. They are to be expected.
4. A Comfortable Position
A comfortable posture is important so that there is no undue muscular tension. Some methods call for a sitting position. A few practitioners use the cross-legged "lotus" position of the yogi. If you are lying down, there is a tendency to fall asleep as we have noted previously, the various postures of kneeling, swaying, or sitting in a cross-legged position are believed to have evolved to prevent falling asleep. You should be comfortable and relaxed.
Benson indicates that these four components are essential to the
achievement of the Relaxation Response and thus rejects the notion
proposed by TM adherents that other elements are significant. As
previously noted, these elements include the use of a specific Sanskrit
mantra and instruction by a trained teacher.
A study comparing the physiological changes occurring during the
Benson technique to those changes found during TM meditation was done
by Beary, Benson, and Klemchuk (1974). Subjects were monitored for
physiological changes during five consecutive treatment conditions.
Three of these were control periods during which subjects read
innocuous materials, one period involved subjects sitting quietly with
their eyes closed, and the last was the meditation condition. Reduc-
tions in respiration rate, co elimination, and oxygen consumption were 2 greater in the meditation condition.
Psychological Effects of Meditation
Psychological changes induced by the regular practice of TM has been the subject of some research in the past 10 years. The 7
psychological changes being explored usually involve measurement of self-actualization, self-concept, anxiety, and locus of control.
A study by Nystul and Garde (1977) compared self-concepts of meditators and non-meditators, using the Tennessee Self-Concept scale as the measurement device. Two groups were matched on socioeconomic background, age, race, and family size, with one group composed of experienced meditators (x = 3 years) and the other of non-meditators.
Both groups were administered the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, and an analysis of the test profile reflected consistently higher self concepts for meditators than non-meditators.
Hjelle (1974) conducted a study comparing short term meditators
(~ 22 months) with beginning meditators. He utilized the Personal
Orientation Inventory (POI), The Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale
(Bendig's version), and Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control
Scale. One finding was that long term meditators were more highly self-actualized as reflected by higher scores on several POI scales, including Inner-Directed, Time-Competence, Spontaneity, Self-Regard
(p < .001) and Self-Actualizing Value and Feeling Reactivity
(p < .05). Further, the other test instruments showed that long term meditators were less anxious and more internal, in terms of locus of control.
In another study a group of beginning meditators were given the
POI before and two months after receiving TM instructions (Seeman,
Nidich, & Banta, 1972). They were compared with a group of non meditators. There were no significant differences found between the two groups on the first test administration, but there were 8
significant differences on several of .the scales at the second admin
istration of the test. There were significant differences in favor of
the meditation group on the scales of Inner-Directed and Self-Regard
(p < .02) and Spontaneity (p < .001). These findings reflect a higher
level of self-actualization in meditators, as the meditators were more
inner-directed, more acceptant of self-anger, and more able to express
feelings spontaneously.
A replication of this research was conducted (Nidich, Seeman, &
Dreskin, 1973). Two groups were tested on the POI, then one group
received TM instruction, and 10 weeks later both groups were again
administered the POI. The outcome supported the earlier study, as meditation subjects tested significantly higher on the two major scales of Inner-Directed and Time Competence (p < .01, p < .05, respectively), on the subscales of Feeling Reactivity, Self-Acceptance, and Capacity for Intimate Contact (p < .01).
A similar study was performed by Miller (1973) using the same design, and he also found significant differences between groups on mean change scores, with the meditation group reflecting a greater change in the positive direction on several POI scales. These scales were Inner~Directed, Time Competence, Existentiality, Nature of Man, and Self-Acceptance (p < .01).
Dillbeck (1977) studied the effects of meditation versus relaxa tion on reducing anxiety as measured by the State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory (STAI). The relaxation group and meditation group were initially administered the STAI before being trained in relaxation/ meditation techniques. Subjects in the relaxation group were 9
instructed to relax 15 to 20 minutes twice daily by sitting comfortably
upright with eyes closed and not attempting to focus their minds on
anything~ The meditation group received the usual course of TM
instruction. Both groups were retested two weeks later, and a compari
son of change scores between groups indicated a significant difference
in the predicted direction of greater anxiety reduction for meditation
than relaxation. Further, subjects in the relaxation group, after the
second testing, were permitted to go through TM instruction, and were
retested two weeks later with significant changes occurring in the
direction of anxiety reduction.
The Personality Research Form was used by Schilling (1974) to
explore the impact of TM on personality. Three groups were selected /
and composed of a meditation group, a control group of non-meditators
and a non-meditation control group of subjects who had shown interest
in TM but decided not to receive instruction. Before the experimental
group received TM training all groups were given the Personality
Research Form, and were all retested eight weeks after formal TM
training was complete. The results showed that meditators improved
significantly more than controls on the subscales of Nurturance
{p < .025), Dominance {p < .01), and Affiliation {p < .025). The authors contend that meditators are more prone to be both influential and assertive in interactions with others as well as to be supportive and caring of others.
A study by Ferguson and Gowan (1974) explored some psychological differences between long term meditators (~ = 43 months), short term meditators and a control group of non-meditators. The testing devices 10 utilized were the Northridge Development Scale, the Cattell Anxiety
Scale, and the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. The groups were tested before and six weeks after the short term meditation subjects were trained. There were significant differences between long and short term meditators on both anxiety scales and on all but the aggression scale of the Northridge Development Scale. Short term meditators reflected significantly greater positive change than the control group on the Northridge Development Scale on the scales of
Self-Actualization (p < .025), Depression (p < .005), and Neuroticism
(p < .01). Also, the short term meditators had significantly higher change scores than non-meditators on the Cattell Anxiety Scale
(p < .025), and the Spielberger Anxiety Inventory (p < .005).
Benson and Wallace (1971) sent questionnaires to 1862 TM medita tors regarding their drug use. Responses to questions posed by the questionnaire indicated a dramatic reduction in drug use by meditators after months of TM practice. Questions about drug use were focussed on use before, six months after, and 22 months after instruction in TM.
Prior to meditation training, 80% of those responding used marijuana with 48% using LSD or other hallucinogens. Six months later marijuana use had reduced to 37% with only 11% using hallucinogens. Twenty-two months later marijuana use was 12% and hallucinogen use was 10%. It should be noted that while the findings of this study are impressive, there is a large potential for confounding variables, as no control group was utilized and selection of subjects was not random.
A study by Aaronson (1977) looked at the effect of meditation on anxiety, locus of control, and self-actualization, using the IPAT 11
Anxiety Scale, the State-Trait Anxiety Scale, Rotter's Internal
External Locus of Control Scale and Shostrom's Personal Orientation
Inventory. Six comparison groups were chosen, two groups being trained in the Benson technique (one of which was given propaganda supportive of meditation prior to training), three placebo groups receiving a modified version of the Benson technique (each group excluded a different element of the Benson technique), and a waiting-list control group. The five treatment groups were given instructions for their respective techniques and told to practice two times a day for six weeks. Six weeks later the groups were tested and the results showed that the meditators were less anxious and more time-competent (from the
POI) than non-meditators and that the placebo treatment group which included the two elements of relaxation and mantra performed better on the STAI and the Time-Competence Scale of the POI than the control group.
While many of the studies on the effects of meditation contain weaknesses in research design which lead some social scientists to question the validity of the findings, some studies are quite well controlled and lead to greater confidence. One piece of research, in particular, which has controlled for many of the potential confounds which plagued earlier studies, was work conducted by Aaronson (1977), previously mentioned. This study, within its design, attempted to control for differences in motivational factors, pre-selection bias, and expectation of relief/placebo effect.
Most of the earlier studies of TM meditation have compared subjects who were just learning or had just learned TM with other 12
non-meditating controls and, thus, might expect to have motivational
differences within those subjects wanting to make changes using medita-
tion. The Aaronson study controlled for this by selecting a sample of
subjects all interested in meditation, then randomly assigning these
subjects to groups. Thus, not only were all subjects motivated by the
desire to learn meditation, but also they were randomly assigned to
further reduce the possibility of a selection bias.
Further, the expectation of relief/placebo effect may have been
operating in much of the preceding TM research and confounding the
results. The placebo effect is a potent variable which may be at least
partially responsible for observable changes in human subjects as
described by the following paragraph:
The position is taken that since it has been repeatedly demon strated that placebos significantly modify a patient's physiologi cal functioning, the relief of any particular complaint by a given medication is not sufficient evidence for the specific effect of the medicine on the complaint unless it can be shown that the relief is not obtained by a placebo effect .... Analagously, patients entering psychotherapy have varying degrees of belief in its efficacy, and this belief or set of expectations may be an important determinant of the results of therapy. One cannot attribute the therapeutic results to the specific type of psycho therapy involved, therefore, unless one has ruled out the placebo effects. (Rosenthal & Frank, 1965)
This expectation of relief/placebo effect may possibly be induced
by the method of TM instruction. Several elements may contribute to
this, including the payment of a fee for instruction, distribution of
propaganda supporting the effectiveness of TM during pre-instruction meetings, and individual training conducted by a long term committed
TM instructor. One method of controlling the expectation of relief/
placebo effect was designed by Dymond (1954) and is called a 13 waiting-list control group design. In this design subjects are told
that they will receive a treatment but will have to wait for a specific
period of time on a waiting list. The Aaronson study also incorporated
this design to reduce the possibility of the outcome being biased by
the expectation of relief/placebo effect.
Research Hypothesis
This study partially replicated the design and study of Aaronson
(1977) and explored these hypotheses:
1. The meditation group trained in the Benson meditation
technique will reflect significantly greater positive psychological functioning than a waiting-list control group, as measured by the
Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Trait scale only), The
Shostrom Personal Orientation Inventory, and the Rotter Internal
External Locus of Control Scale.
2. A high expectation meditation group receiving instructions in the Benson technique, as well as information designed to increase expectation of relief, will improve in psychological functioning significantly more than the meditation group.
3. The meditation group will reflect significantly higher psychological functioning than both an induced-relaxation group and a guided imagery group.
4. The induced-relaxation group will show significantly greater improvement than either the guided imagery or waiting-list control groups. 14 I '
5. There will be no significant difference in psychological functioning between the guided imagery group and the waiting list control group. Chapter 2
METHOD
Subjects
The subjects were 103 college students who signed up for the research in response to their course requirement that they participate in several experiments. The subject pool was composed of 69 females and 34 males, ranging in age from 16 to 52.
Procedure
A post-test only control group design was utilized, with subjects being matched on age and sex, then randomly assigned to one of the
,following five groups:
A. A Meditation Group which received written instructions for the
Benson (1975) meditation technique. The instructions follow:
(1) Sit quietly in a comfortable position.
(2) Close your eyes.
(3) Deeply relax all your muscles, beginning at your feet and progressing up to your face. Keep them relaxed.
(4) Breathe through your nose. Become aware of your breathing. As you breathe out, say the word "one" silently to yourself. For example, breathe in .•. out, "One"; in •.. out, "One"; etc. Breathe easily and naturally.
(5) Continue for 10 to 20 minutes. You may open your eyes to check the time, but do not use an alarm. When you finish, sit quietly for several minutes, at first with your eyes closed, and later with your eyes opened. Do not stand up for a few minutes.
15 16
(6) Do not worry about whether you are successful in achieving a deep level of relaxation. Maintain a passive attitude, and permit relaxation to occur at its own pace. When distracting thoughts occur, try to ignore them by not dwel-ling upon them and return to repeating "One". With practice, the response should come with little effort. Practice the technique twice a day, but not within two hours after any meal, since the digestive processes seem to interfere with the technique.
B. A High Expectation Meditation Group which received identical meditation instructions as Group A, but also, prior to instruction, received an information sheet which contained inflated claims for the beneficial effects to be derived from practicing the meditation technique. These claims were loosely based upon research findings relating to outcomes of Transcendental Meditation studies (a copy of the information sheet appears in Appendix A).
C. A Relaxation Group which received written instructions for an induced relaxation technique created for this study. The instructions follow:
(1) Sit quietly in a comfortable position.
(2) Close your eyes.
(3) Create an image in your mind of a staircase which contains 20 steps. Find yourself at the top of these stairs preparing to make the descent to reach a beautiful garden at the bottom. With the first step you take, you feel your body relaxing, as physical tightness and tension melt away. The second step brings further relax ation of your body, as you move easily and effortlessly toward your destination below. With each remaining step you experience deeper and more complete relaxation. Move slowly on your journey and be aware of your body as you descend and sink deeper and deeper into relaxation. When you reach the bottom of the stairs, you will find a refreshingly beautiful garden awaiting you. Explore this garden freely and easily, experiencing its sensuous qualities as you drink in the sense of peace and tran quility of your deep relaxation. 17
(4) Continue for 10 to 20 minutes. You may open your eyes to check the time, but do not use an alarm. W11en you finish, sit quietly for several minutes, at first with your eyes closed, and later with your eyes opened. Do not stand up for a few minutes.
(5) Practice this technique twice a day.
D. A Guided Imagery Group, in which the subjects received instructions for a t.~chnique created cfor this study; which was designed· to prevent subjects from focusing their attention on a single stimulus
(an exercise antithetical to meditation). The instructions follow:
(1) Sit quietly in a comfortable position.
(2) Close your eyes.
(3) Reconstruct .in your mind·, as vividly as you can, an image of today's events, beginning when you first awoke this morning, continuing until the present time. As you see this image, actively review how you were feeling emotionally and physically as you moved through your day. As you see the panorama of today's events and their impact on you, avoid focussing on any particular scene for too long. Rather, move from one event to another as they actually unfolded in time, then go back to the beginning and repeat the process.
(4) Continue for 10 to 20 minutes. You may open your eyes to check the time, but do not use an alarm. ~fuen you finish, sit quietly for several minutes, at first with your eyes closed, and later with your eyes opened. Do not stand up for a few minutes.
(5) Practice this technique twice a day.
E. A Waiting-List Control Group composed of subjects put on a waiting list who were informed they would be instructed in a meditation technique after six weeks.
An undergraduate psychology student was the experimenter. The experimenter gave instruction in the techniques in meetings with subjects in groups of two to six at a time, in order to randomize any experimenter effect. First, each group was presented with the 18
appropriate explanatory statement introducing them to the technique
they were shortly to learn (see Appendixes B) •. Next, instruction
sheets were distributed which provided specific instruction for meditation, relaxation, or imagery techniques (see Appendixes C, D, and
E). Following reading of the instructions, subjects were asked to
perform the appropriate technique for 15 minutes. After this practice
session subjects' questions about the technique just completed were answered by referring back to introductory statements or instruction sheets. Subjects were then given journals in which they were to keep track of the daily practice of ~heir technique (see Appendix F). All subjects were advised to practice their individual technique twice a day but not become unduly concerned if a practice session was missed sometimes; they were told to merely complete the next session at their next regular practice time. Next, it was requested that journals be turned in every two weeks, atl which time a new journal would be provided. Finally, the experimenter requested that all subjects sign up for a follow-up meeting six weeks later when a series of tests was to be administered.
At the follow-up meeting, 63 of the original 103 subjects returned for testing. At this time, subjects were administered
Rotter's Internal-External (I-E) Locus of Control Scale, the
Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (A-Trait Scale only), and
Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory. At this point, Waiting
List Control Group subjects received instruction sheets on the Benson
Meditation technique. Debriefing sheets were distributed to subjects which described the nature of the experiment (see Appendix G). 19
Instruction sheets were made available for perusal by interested subjects.
Test Instruments
The Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was designed to measure two discrete forms of anxiety--state anxiety and trait anxiety. Conceptually, state anxiety is considered by the test author to be " • a transitory emotional state or condition of the human organism that is characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of tension and apprehension, and heightened autonomic nervous system activity" (Spielberger, 1970). Thus, this form of anxiety is seen as a response to stimuli which are cognitively determined to be potentially dangerous or threatening (Spielberger, 1966). Trait anxiety, on the other hand, refers to: " • stable individual differences in anxiety proneness, that is, to differences between people in the tendency to respond to situations perceived as threaten- ing with elevations in A-State intensity" (Spielberger, 1970). Conse- quently, trait anxiety appears to be a relatively enduring, stable dispositional quality of people in anxiety-responding behavior.
The STAI contains 40 self-report items, with 20 items measuring state anxiety and 20 items measuring trait anxiety. This study utilized only the 20 trait anxiety questions, asking subjects to rate themselves with respect to these items on a four point scale, basing their responses on how they generally felt.
Reliability of the STAI A-Trait scale has been established through the use of odd-even split-half and test-retest methods. Split- half reliability has been reported to range from .78 to .85 in two 20
treatment conditions (Metzger, 1976). Test-retest reliability of the
A-Trait scale ranged from .76 to .86 within time frames of one hour to
104 days ·(Spielberger, 1970). Another study reflected test-retest
reliability of .97 for a 21 day retest (Metzger, 1976).
Concurrent validity has been established by correlating the STAI
with other instruments widely used in trait-anxiety research, namely
the IPAT Anxiety Scale and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. Correla
tions between the STAI and the IPAT Scale for female (N = 126) and male
(N = 80) college students were .75 and .76 respectively and for
patients (N = 112) was .77 (Spielberger, 1968). Correlations between
the STAI and Taylor Manifest Anxiety Inventory for the same sample of
female and male students were .80 and .79 respectively and for patients
(N = 66) it was .83 (Spielberger, 1968).
Undergraduate college students (N = 162) in therapy were adminis
tered the STAI and the Personality Research Form (Jackson, 1967).
Spielberger (1970) reports the STAI A-Trait scale correlated nega tively with the PRF scales of Affiliation, Dominance, Nurturance, and
Order for the clients with emotional problems (N = 38), with r's from
-.32 to -.43, p < .05. Further, Spielberger (1970) notes positive correlations between the STAI and the Mooney Problem Checklist for college psychology students (N = 77) (10 r's ranging from .35 to .62, p < .01). Finally, a significant negative correlation (r = -.25) was obtained between the STAI and the Crowne-Marlowe Social Desirability
Scale, in a study by Sachs and Diesenhaus (1969).
The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) was created by Shostrom
(1964, 1966) to measure " •.. values and behavior seen to be of 21 ' '
importance in the development of self-actualization" (Shostrom, 1966).
The self-actualized individual is a concept in personality theory which
has been ·widely discussed by humanistic/existential theorists and
essentially involves those persons who function more fully, living
richer lives than average people. "Such people seem to be fulfilling
themselves and to be doing the best that they are capable of doing.
• • • They are people who have developed or are developing to the full
stature of which they are capable" (:Haslow, 1954).
The POI contains 150 forced-choice items which require subjects to
respond to pairs of mutually exclusive statements by choosing those statements which most accurately reflect their values or behaviors.
Two major scales emerge from the POI; the Support Scale and the Time
Scale. The Support Scale assesses whether a person's response style is characteristically "self" oriented or "other" oriented. The Inner
Directed (self-oriented) individual tends to be most significantly
influenced by internal motivations and principles, while the Other
Directed person is generally influenced by outside or external forces.
The second major scale, the Time Scale, establishes the degree to which a person lives in the present, as opposed to the past or future.
The time competent person is conceived to be one whose primary·life orientation is in the present, living in the "here-and-now," while the time incompetent person tends to become focused in the past and/or future. In addition to the major scales there are 10 subscales which are designed to measure other elements of self-actualization. As the
10 subscales appear to overlap with items contained in the major 22
scales (Buros~ 1972)~ only the two major scales were used to measure
self-actualization in this study.
Test-retest reliability of the POI has been evaluated in a number
of research studies~ reflecting the stability of this instrument. A
50-week reliability study by Ilardi and May (1968)~ with a sample of
nurses (N = 46) reflected coefficients of .55 and .71 respectively for
Time Competence and Inner Direction. A sample of college students
(N = 172) took the POI twice over an interval of two weeks. The test
retest reliability for Time Competence and Inner-Direction was .75 and
.88 respectively (Wise & Davis~ 1975).
Internal consistency has been assessed by several studies~
similarly reflecting convincing evidence of the internal consistency of
the POI. These studies include male prisoners (N = 500) with Ruder
Richardson 20 internal consistency coefficients of .50 and .75
respectively for Time Competence and Inner Direction (Silverstein &
Fisher, 1973). A test-retest of college students (N 172) (Wise &
Davis, 1975) reflected K-R 20 reliability estimates of .52 to .86. In
the same study, split-half correlation coefficients for Time Competence
and Inner Direction ranged from .50 to .87.
Concurrent validity of the POI has been demonstrated by a number
of comparisons between POI outcomes and other rating methods. One
method for establishing concurrent validity has been to determine the
effectiveness of the POI in discriminating between groups of clinically
rated subjects. Shostrom and Knapp (1966) studied two groups of out
patients in therapy~ one group (N = 39) which had been in therapy between 11 and 64 months and another group (N = 37) just beginning 23 therapy. The POI significantly differentiated between these two groups on all 12 scales (p < .01). Fox (1965) administered the POI to ~/ a group of hospitalized psychiatric patients (N = 100), a self- actualized sample, and a sample of normals. The POI successfully differentiated the hospitalized group from both the self-actualized and normal groups (p < .001).
Concurrent validity inspections of the POI have also been conducted using groups of counselor trainees. Counselors in training
(N = 30) were rated by their supervisors on the dimension of self actualization. The POI was given and correlated with clinicians' ratings, resulting in a ratings to Inner Directed scale correlation of
.69 (p < .01) and ratings to Time Competence scale correlation of .40
(p < .05) (McClain, 1970). High school counselors (N = 23) were administered the POI while their guidance programs were being rated by students (N = 1658) on their effectiveness, as measured by the
Guidance Program Evaluation Survey. Significant positive correlations were obtained between the student evaluations and counselor scores on
Time Competence (p < .01) and Spontaneity (p < .05).
The Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (I-E) was designed by Julian Rotter to establish whether subjects perceive rein forcements they receive as internally or externally controlled. An individual operates from an internal locus of control if he " . perceives a reinforcement as contingent upon his own behavior, then the occurrence of either a positive or negative reinforcement will strengthen or weaken potential for that behavior to recur in the same or similar situation" (Rotter, 1966). On the other hand, a person 24
operates from an external locus of control of reinforcement if " .
he sees the reinforcement as being outside his own control or not
contingent, that is, depending upon chance, fate, powerful others, or
unpredictable, then the preceding behavior is less likely to be
strengthened or weakened" (Rotter, 1966).
Thus, the I-E Scale measures internality or externality through a
29-item forced-choice format, which includes six filler items designed
to make the purpose of the test more ambiguous.
Rotter (1966) has reported test-retest reliabilities ranging from
.49 to .83 over several studies which involved both individual and
group administrations as well as varying time periods. Using a sample
of 28 male prisoners, Jesson (1964) obtained a test-retest coefficient
of .78 over a one-month period. Another study (Harrow & Ferrante,
1969) tested 86 psychiatric patients on the I-E Scale over a six-week
period and obtained a test-retest correlation of .75. Further, Hersch
and Scheibe (1967) gave the I-E Scale to several samples and obtained
test-retest reliabilities from .43 to .84.
Rotter (1966) tested several samples of subjects and received
internal consistency reliability estimates ranging from .70 to .73.
Testing a large sample of high school students (N = 1000), Franklin
(1963) obtained an internal consistency estimate of .69. While these estimates are only moderately high, the test author explains that the
I-E Scale contains items which are not comparable and which cover a broad range of situations. Thus, both split-half, matched-half, and
Kuder-Richardson reliability estimates all underestimate the internal consistency of their instrument (Rotter, 1966). 25
According to many studies of con~truct validity, the I-E Scale is successful in picking as internals those persons who are most likely to possess a sense of control over their own environment, thus enabling them to improve their condition. For example, Seeman and Evans (1962) tested hospitalized tuberculosis patients on the I-E and also explored not only the extent to which each member of the sample questioned the medical staff about their conditions, but also how well informed each was about his own condition and how satisfied they were with feedback provided them about their conditions. As expected, those subjects rated as internals by the I-E Scale were more likely to know more about their condition, question staff more often, and were less satisfied with the amount of feedback given. In a study regarding degree of involvement in the civil rights movement, Strickland (1965) found a significantly higher level of internality in a group of activists than in a group of non-activists. Phares (1965) uses the I-E Scale to select a group of internals and a group of externals, then asked these subjects to act as experimenters in attempting to change attitudes of students on a pre-selected topic. The internals, as a group, were more successful in precipitating a change than were the externals. Finally,
Otten (1977) conducted a five-year study in which he tested students
(N = 45) on the I-E Scale, the Autobiograph Locus of Control Scale, the
School and College Ability Test (SCAT), and the Graduate Record Exam
(GRE). The I-E Scale was as accurate as the SCAT and GREin predicting subjects' grades and more accurate than the ability scales in predict ing degree attainment. Chapter 3
RESULTS
Of the original 103 subjects 63 returned for testing. The return rate for each group was as follows: Meditation Group, n = 14; High
Expectation Meditation Group, n = 14; Relaxation Group, n = 9; Guided
Imagery Group, n = 10; Waiting List Control Group, n = 16. The differential drop-out rate amongst these groups was not statistically 2 significant, x (4) = 2.81, p > .05. Of the 47 treatment subjects three had invalid test results (test instructions were not followed correctly) and were dropped from the study. Thirty-nine of the remaining 44 treatment subjects practiced their respective techniques a minimum of 16 times (a maximum of 84 times was called for). The five practicing less than 16 times were omitted from the statistical analy- sis. Therefore, a total of 55 subjects were involved in the statisti- cal analysis.
Means and standard deviations for the five groups on the State-
Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI A-Trait only), Rotter's Internal-External
Locus of Control Scale (I-E), and Personal Orientation Inventory (Other
Directed Scale--POll and Time Incompetence Scale--POI2) are found in
Table 1.
A multivariate analysis of variance was performed on the four dependent variables, STAI, IE, POll, and POI2. Using Wilk's Criterion the combined dependent variables were not significantly affected by the
26 27
Table 1
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Subjects on Four Dependent Variables
STAI IE POll POI2
Group X SD X SD X SD X SD
Meditation 37.9 7.9 9.9 4.4 42.2 12.7 7.3 3.2
High Expectation 32.6 5.2 8.0 4.0 37.3 10.1 6.4 3.1
Relaxation 38.5 8.4 10.1 5.4 42.0 17.0 7.4 2.1
Imagery 39.9 9.2 11.1 3.4 39.3 9.5 6.6 3.0
Control 40.0 10.5 12.0 4.4 43.7 14.1 7.9 3.3 28
independent variable (Groups A through E), approximate F (16, 144)
.86, p > .05. The value of Wilk's Criterion was .82. Therefore,
research ·hypotheses one through four, which predicted significant differences between groups on the dependent variable, was not
supported. Only research hypothesis five, which predicted no signifi
cant difference between the guided recall group and the waiting list control group, was supported. Chapter 4
DISCUSSION
The present study was designed to be both a partial replication of a previous study conducted by Aaronson (1977) and a comparison of meditation with relaxation and an antithetical meditation condition.
While the previous study by Aaronson showed a significant difference in psychological functioning between an experimental meditation group and a waiting list control group, the present study did not support these~~ findings.
Like the Aaronson study, the present study used the Benson meditation technique to examine the impact of short term meditation on anxiety, locus of control, and self-actualization. Unlike the
Aaronson experiment, this research sought to compare the differential impact on psychological functioning of meditation, an induced relaxa tion technique, and an unfocusing technique. Like the preceding study, this study controlled for expectation of relief/placebo effects by using both a waiting list control group and credible comparison groups.
While the two studies were quite similar in design, one important methodological difference was the manner in which subjects were selected for the experiment. Aaronson selected subjects through advertising on the California State University, Northridge campus, asking for those persons interested in learning a meditation
29 30
technique. The present study, unsuccessful in recruiting subjects
using the advertising approach, resorted to using the student subject
pool at California State University, Northridge. These subjects,
largely psychology students, were required by course requirement to earn a minimum number of points through participation in several experiments during the semester. Thus, while Aaronson's subjects were likely primarily motivated by their desire to learn a meditation technique, the primary motivational factor for the present study is not as clear and may have been only the desire to amass points for a course, rather than to do something to improve their psychological functioning. In fact, because the present study involved a variety of techniques, the recruiting experimental description was of necessity vague ("Self-exploration technique"), and the subjects signing up could only speculate about its meaning, while the subjects of the Aaronson experiment had more specific information.
Therefore, the subject selection process was quite different from the previous study and may have had a large influence on the outcome of the experiment. Further evidence of this possible difference in subject motivation may be seen in the dramatic difference between the two studies in rate of subject practice of the techniques. In
Aaronson's study 91 meditators returned for the post-test, and of these
91 subjects 77 had practiced their particular techniques at least 50% of the time. In contrast, in the present study only 20 of the return ing 43 treatment subjects performed their respective techniques at least 50% of the time. Further, while all of Aaronson's treatment group subjects included in the statistical analysis had done their 31 technique a minimum of 50% of the time, only 51% (20 of 39) of those treatment subjects included in this statistical analysis had performed their technique 50% of the time. Consequently, it appears that the subjects from the former study were generally more highly motivated to practice their techniques on a regular basis than those in the.present study.
Since the subjects in the first study were aware they would be learning a meditation technique prior to signing up for the experiment, it is conceivable that they were motivated by a desire for self improvement. On the other hand, the subjects of the present study were aware only that they would be given credit for participating in an experiment about a "self-exploration technique"; thus it is conceivable they were motivated primarily by a desire to satisfy the requirements of their psychology course. These differences in motivation to prac- tice various techniques might have had an effect on the performance of the subjects as reflected in their scores on the various outcome measures.
Further, we might question the reliability of subjects' reports of their frequency of practice in the present study. It is possible that frequency of technique practice may have been falsely recorded by some subjects concerned about getting credit for their participation in the experiment, while subjects in the Aaronson study had no apparent incentive to falsify their self-reports.
It may be that the locus of motivation is an essential determinant of change. In this case it appears that the subjects of the Aaronson study were internally motivated to meditate and to improve themselves. 32
On the other hand, the subjects of this present study were initially motivated by the desire to fulfill course requirements and may have remained ·externally motivated to meditate, with course requirements acting as the incentive. This external motivation may be insufficient to bring about the differences in psychological functioning noted in the Aaronson research.
To check this hypothesis it would be necessary to enlist subjects using methods equivalent to those two different recruiting methods utilized by the two studies in question. These two groups would be trained on equivalent techniques, then later be post-tested, with statistical analysis being made on outcome measures to determine whether any significant differences existed. Beyond examining the effects of motivational factors on outcome measures, this study, using
Aaronson's selection procedure, would be useful in replicating his study.
Clearly, motivational factors may have a significant impact on the~ success of meditation studies in general. In contrast to many "one- shot" studies, such as experiments using perceptual or motor tasks, meditation studies require subjects to make a large time and energy commitment. Meditation subjects are expected both to muster their self-discipline to set aside blocks of time to practice a specific technique, and also to perform this technique consistently over a relatively long period of time. Therefore, subjects are being asked to actively alter their daily routine to accommodate the requirements of an experiment. Consequently, it would seem likely that a meditation subject successfully following the requirements of the study would be a 33 highly motivated person, and that the overall success of the research would be very dependent on subject motivation. REFERENCES
Aaronson, N. The effects of short-term meditation on anxiety, locus of control, and self-actualization. Unpublished Master's thesis, California State University, Northridge, 1977.
Beary, J. F., Benson, H., & Klemchuk, H. P. A simple psychophysiologic technique which elicits the hypometabolic changes of the relaxation response. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1974, 36(2), 115-120.
Benson, H. Your innate asset for combating stress. Harvard Business, 1974, ~. 49-60.
Benson, H. The Relaxation Response. New York: William Morrow, 1975.
Benson, H., Beary, J. F., & Carol, M. P. The relaxation response. Psychiatry, 1974, 37, 37-45.
Benson, H., Klemchuk, H. P., & Graham, J. R. The usefulness of the relaxation response in the therapy of headache. Headache, 1974, 49-51.
Benson, H., Rosner, B. A., & Marzetta, R. Decreased systolic blood pressure in hypertensive subjects who practiced medicine. Journal of Clinical Investigations, 1973, 52, 8a.
Benson, H., & Wallace, R. K. Decreased drug abuse with transcendental meditation--a study of 1,862 subjects. Drug Abuse--Proceedings of the International Congress, 1972, 369-376.
Blackwell, B., ·Bloomfield, S., Gartside, P., Robinson, A., Hananson, I., Magenheirm, H., Nidich, S., & Zigler, R. Transcendental meditation in hypertension; Individual response patterns. The Lancet, 1976, 223-226.
Bloomfield, H. H., Cain, M. P., Jaffe, D. T., & Cory, R. B. TM: Discovering inner energy and overcoming stress. New York: Delacorte Press, 1975.
Brod, J., Fencl, V., Hejl, Z., & Jirka, J. Circulatory changes underlying blood pressure elevation during acute emotional stress (Mental arithmetic) in normotensive and hypertensive subjects. Clinic Science, 1959, 18, 269-279.
Buras, 0. K. (Ed.). The mental measurement yearbooks. Highland Park, New Jersey: Gryphon Press, 1972.
34 35
Dymond, R. F. Adjustment changes over therapy from self-sorts. In C. R. Rogers, & R. F. Dymond (Eds.), Psychotherapy and personality change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954, 76-84.
Ferguson, P. C., & Gowan, J. C. Psychological findings on transcendental meditation. Journal of Humanistic Psychology (in press, 1974).
Fischer, J., & Knapp, R. R. The validity of the Personal Orientation Inventory for measuring the effects of training for therapeutic practice. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1977, 37, 1069-1074.
Foulds, M. L., & Warehime, R. G. Brief reports: Effects of a "fake good" response set on a measure of self-actualization. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1971, 18(3), 279-280.
Fox, J., Knapp, R. R., & Michael, W. B. Assessment of self actualization of psychiatric patients: Validity of the personal ·orientation inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1968, 28, 565-569.
Franklin, R. D. Youths' expectancies about internal versus external control of reinforcement related to n variables. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Purdue University, 1963.
Goleman, D., & Schwartz, G. Meditation as an intervention in stress reactivity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1976, 44, 456-466.
Harrow, M., & Ferrante, A. Locus of control in psychiatric patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1969, 33, 582-589.
Herseh, P. D., & Scheibe, K. E. On the reliability and validity of internal-external control as a personality dimension. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1967, 31, 609-614.
Honsberger, R., & Wilson, A. F. Transcendental meditation in treating asthma. Respiratory Therapy, 1973 (Nov.-Dec.).
Hjelle, L. A. Transcendental meditation and psychological health. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1974, 39, 623-628.
Ilardi, R. L., & May, W. T. A reliability study of Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 1968, ~. 68-71.
Jackson, D. N. Personality Research Form Manual. New York: Research Psychologists Press, Inc., 1967.
Jessor, S. An unpublished manuscript, 1964. 36
Klavetter, R. E., & Magar, R. E. Stability and internal consistency of a measure of self-actualization. Psychological Reports, 1967, 21, 422-424.
Knapp, R. R. Relationship of a measure of self-actualization to neuroticism and extraversion. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1965, ~(2), 168-172.
Mahesh, M. Y. On the Bhagavad-Gita: A new translation and commentary. Baltimore: Penguin, 1969.
Maslow, A. H. Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row, 1954.
McClain, E. W. Further validation of the Personal Orientation Inventory: Assessment of self-actualization of school counselors. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 1970, 35(2), 21-22.
Metzger, R. A reliability and validity study of the State-Trait ·Anxiety Inventory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1976, 32(2), 276-278.
Nidich, S., Seeman, W., & Dreskin, T. Brief reports: Influence of transcendental meditation: A replication. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1973, 20(6), 565-566.
Nystul, M., & Garde, M. Comparison of self-concepts of transcendental meditators and non-meditators. Psychological Reports, 1977, 41, 303-306.
Orme-Johnson, D. W. Autonomic stability and transcendental meditation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1973, 35, 341-349.
Otten, M. W. Inventory and expressive measure of locus control and academic performance: A five year outcome study. Journal of Personality Assessment, 1977, 41, 644-649.
Phares, E. J. Internal-external control as determinant of amount of social influence exerted. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965, 1, 642-647.
Rotter, J. B. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 1966, Whole No. 609, 80(1).
Sachs, D. A., & Diesenhaus, H. The effects of stress and order of administration on measures of state and trait anxiety. Unpublished manuscript, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, 1969. 37
Schafer, W. D., & Jones, J. R. A modified split-half approach to internal consistency estimates for the Personal Orientation Inventory. Psychological Reports, 1977, 41, 1020-1022.
Schilling, P. B. The effect of the regular practice of transcendental meditation on behavior and personality. Unpublished Master's thesis, Eastern Kentucky University, 1974.
Seeman, M. Alienation and social learning in a reformatory. American Journal of Sociology, 1963, 69, 270-289.
Seeman, M. An unpublished manuscript, 1964.
Seeman, M., & Evans, J. W. Alienation and learning in hospital settings. American Journal of Sociological Review, 1962, 27, 772- 783.
Seeman, W., Nidich, S., & Banta, T. Influence of transcendental meditation on a measure of self-actualization. Journal of .Counseling Psychology, 1972, ~(3), 184-187.
Shostrom, E. L. An inventory for the measurement of self actualization. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1964, 24, 207-217.
Shostrom, E. L. Manual for Personal Orientation Inventory. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service, 1966.
Shostrom, E. L., & Knapp, R. The relationship of a measure of self actualization (POI) to a measure of pathology (MMPI) and to therapeutic growth. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 1966, 20, 193-202.
Silverstein, A. G., & Fisher, G. Internal consistency of POI scales. Psychological Reports, 1973, ~. 33-34.
Spielberger, C. D. (Ed.). Anxiety and behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1966.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: Preliminary test manual for form X. Tallahassie, Fla.: Florida State University Press, 1968.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. STAI manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, Ca.: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1970.
Strickland, B. R. The prediction of social action from a dimension of internal-external control. Journal of Social Psychology, 1965, ~' 353-358. 38
Wallace, R. K. Physiological effects of transcendental meditation. Science, 1970, 167, 1751-1754.
Weirach, S. G., & Knapp, R. R. Level of school counselor actualizing and student perception of guidance services. Further validation of the Personal Orientation Inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1976, 36, 501-504.
Wise, G. W. The Personal Orientation Inventory: A study of internal consistency. Psychological Reports, 1977, 40, 1000-1002.
Wise, G., & Davis, J. The Personal Orientation Inventory: Internal consistency, stability, and sex differences. Psychological Reports, 1975, ~. 847-855. Appendix A
INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT FOR HIGH EXPECTATION
MEDITATION GROUP
39 40
Shortly, you will be learning a technique which has proven to be
an extremely potent method for improving the psychological and physio
logical lives of those practicing it regularly. Numerous published
research findings reflect positive physiological changes which include
reduced heart and breath rate, decreased blood pressure, greater
resistance to disease, faster reaction time, increased perceptual and
motor performance, increased intelligence, improved athletic perform
ance, and many other positive changes. The research also indicates
improvement in psychological functioning including greater resistance
to environmental stress, decreased anxiety, increased self-actualiza
tion, improved self-concept and self-esteem, reduced depression, and
other good changes. In a fairly short time, if you study your behavior
carefully, you will probably note these improvements in your own
functioning.
This present study will provide added support to the positive
research findings cited here, and will also explore further growth
effects of this technique. Due to the nature of this study we ask that you avoid discussing your involvement here with other students or
friends until the study is completed. Appendix B
INTRODUCTION FOR MEDirATION, RELAXATION, AND
IMAGERY GROUPS
41 42
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of the technique you will be learning on the physiological and psychological health of. persons practicing it regularly. Due to the nature of this study we ask that you avoid discussing your involvement here with other students or friends until the study is completed. Appendix C
INSTRUCTIONS FOR MEDITATION
43 44
1. Sit quietly in a comfortable position.
2. Close your eyes.
3. ·Deeply relax all your muscles, beginning at your feet and
progressing up to your face. Keep them relaxed.
4. Breathe through your nose. Become aware of your breathing.
As you breathe out, say the word "ONE" silently to yourself. For example, breathe IN • OUT, "ONE"; IN • . • OUT, "ONE"; etc.
Breathe easily and naturally.
5. Continue for 10 to 20 minutes. You may open your eyes to check the time, but do not use an alarm. When you finish, sit quietly for several minutes, at first with your eyes closed, and later with your eyes opened. Do not stand up for a few minutes.
6. Do not worry about whether you are successful in achieving a deep level of relaxation. Maintain a passive attitude, and permit relaxation to occur at its own pace. When distracting thoughts occur, try to ignore them by not dwelling upon them, and return to repeating
"ONE". With practice the response should come with little effort.
Practice the technique twice a day, but not within two hours after any meal, since the digestive processes seem to interfere with the technique. Appendix D
INSTRUCTIONS FOR RELAXATION
45 46
1. Sit quietly in a comfortable position.
2. Close your eyes.
3. Create an image in your mind of a staircase which contains 20 steps. Find yourself at the top of these stairs, preparing to make the descent to reach a beautiful garden at the bottom. With the first step you take you feel your body relaxing, as physical tightness and tension melt away. The second step brings further relaxation of your body, as you move easily and effortlessly toward your destination below. With each remaining step you experience deeper and more complete relaxation.
Move slowly on your journey and be aware of your body as you descend and sink deeper and deeper into relaxation. When you reach the bottom of the stairs you will find a refreshingly beautiful garden awaiting you. Explore this garden freely and easily, experiencing its sensuous qualities as you drink in the sense of peace and tranquility of your deep relaxation.
4. Continue for 10 to 20 minutes. You may open your eyes to check the time, but do not use an alarm. When you finish sit quietly for several minutes, at first with your eyes closed, and later with your eyes opened. Do not stand up for a few minutes.
5. Practice this technique twice a day. Appendix E
INSTRUCTIONS FOR IMAGERY
47 48 Q .
1. Sit quietly in a comfortable position.
2. Close your eyes.
3. Reconstruct in your mind, as vividly as you can, an image of today's events, beginning when you first awoke this morning, continuing until the present time. As you see this image, actively review how you were feeling emotionally and physically as you moved through your day.
As you see the panorama of today's events and their impact on you, avoid focusing on any particular scene for too long. Rather, move from one event to another as they actually unfolded in time, then go back to the beginning and repeat the process.
4. Continue for 10 to 20 minutes. You may open your eyes to check the time, but do not use an alarm. When you finish, sit quietly for several minutes, at first with your eyes closed, and later with your eyes opened. Do not stand up for a few minutes.
5. Practice this technique twice a day. Appendix F
JOURNAL INSTRUCTIONS
49 50
1. List dates and the number of times you practiced the technique on these dates.
2. Please turn in these journals at the Psychology Office every two weeks. Place them in the envelope in Box #28 and take out of the box a new journal in exchange. Be certain to print your name on the first page of the journal prior to turning it in. Appendix G
DEBRIEFING STATEMENT
51 52
You have been participating in an experiment involving the differential effects of meditation, relaxation, and imagery. It was the purpose of this research to establish which technique most profoundly affects psychological functioning, as measured by a number of testing instruments. If you wish to learn about the other tech niques taught during this experiment we will furnish you with a copy of the appropriate instruction sheet at your request. Thank you for your participation and cooperation in this research effort. We hope that the experience was a valuable one for you, as it was for us.