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California State University, Northridge CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE MEDITATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING A thesis submitted in partia~ satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology by John Talbot Huffaker January, 1981 I The Thesis of John Talbot Huffaker is approved: / Dr. Barbara Ta achnick California State University, Northridge ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page 1. INTRODUCTION. 1 Statement of Purpose. • . • . 1 Physiological Effects of Meditation 2 The Relaxation Response • . • . • . 4 Psychological Effects of Meditation . 6 Research Hypotheses . • • . • . • . 13 2. METHOD .•. 15 Subjects. 15 Procedure •. 15 Test Instruments. 19 3. RESULTS .. 26 4. DISCUSSION. 29 REFERENCES 34 Appendix A. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT FOR HIGH EXPECTATION MEDITATION GROUP. • . • . • . • . 39 B. INTRODUCTION FOR MEDITATION, RELAXATION, AND IMAGERY GROUPS. 41 C. INSTRUCTIONS FOR MEDITATION 43 D. INSTRUCTIONS FOR RELAXATION . 45 E. INSTRUCTIONS FOR IMAGERY .. 47 F. JOURNAL INSTRUCTIONS. 49 G. DEBRIEFING STATEMENT. 51 Table 1. Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Subjects on Four Dependent Variables. • . ..... 27 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to acknowledge Dr. Leo Pirojnikoff and Dr. Barbara Tabachnick for their willingness to serve as committee members. I wish to acknowledge Dr. Benjamin Mehlman, committee chair­ person, for his guidance, support, and encouragement. ABSTRACT MEDITATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING ~ John Talbot Huffaker Master of Arts in Psychology This study partially replicated an earlier study by Aaronson (1977), comparing the effects of short-term meditation, relaxation, and an unfocusing technique on anxiety, self-actualization, and locus of control. Using a post-test only control group design, 103 subjects were matched on sex and age and randomly assigned to one of five groups: (1) a Meditation Group which performed the Benson (1975) meditation technique; (2) a High Expectation Meditation Group which performed the Benson technique and initially received pro-meditation propaganda, designed to increase subjects' expectations of improved psychological functioning through meditation; (3) a Relaxation Group which performed an induced relaxation technique; (4) a Guided Imagery Group which practiced a technique designed to prevent focusing attention; and (5) a Waiting-List Control Group. iv At the end of a six-week period ~f practice all subjects were given the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, and Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory. The results did not support the earlier study by Aaronson (1977), as the outcome measures were not significantly affected by the techniques practiced over the six-week period. Thus, in this study meditation was not significantly more effective than the other techniques or a control group in improving psychological functioning. v @ • Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Statement of Purpose There are presently available a wide array of techniques which are being used in our society and others to combat stress and to generally contribute to psychological and physiological well being of people. Of principal significance amongst these various techniques is the practice of meditation, especially Transcendental Meditation (TM). This technique was specifically designed for Western use by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and appears to have been derived from Hindu practice. TM is an easily learned meditation approach and requires no adherence to any particular religious orientation or belief system (Mahesh, 1969). While TM advocates claim that theirs is a unique meditation that results in unique benefits to the individual practitioner, this claim has been disputed by some social scientists, including Dr. Herbert Benson (1975) of Harvard Medical School. He feels that his research has borne out that TM is but one of many techniques capable of eliciting what he calls the "Relaxation Response." This response is characterized by distinct and unique physiological changes which include significantly decreased oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide 1 2 elimination, blood lactate levels, and respiration; and an increase in skin resistance and intensity of slow alpha waves (Benson, 1974, 1975). The"purpose of this study is to further investigate some of the psychological effects of the Benson meditation technique which Benson has developed as a means of inducing the Relaxation Response. More specifically, this study will partially replicate the research by Aaronson (1977) and will also compare the effects of meditation and induced relaxation on psychological functioning. Physiological Effects of Meditation Several studies of TM indicate that a number of physiological processes are effected for regular practitioners of meditation. A study by Wallace (1970) indicated that a group of TM meditators, as contrasted to a group of subjects sitting quietly with eyes closed, evidenced a 20% reduction in oxygen consumption, as well as reductions in carbon dioxide elimination and rate and volume of respiration. Further, there was a significant slowing of the heartbeat, increased skin resistance, a decrease in blood lactate level and an altered EEG showing increased alpha wave activitiy. From this study Wallace inferred that the state present during TM meditation was conceivably a unique state of consciousness, differing from the states of wakefulness, sleeping, and dreaming. Later, a replication of the Wallace study was conducted (Wallace, Benson, & Wilson, 1971) and confirmed that study's findings. The researchers concluded that the physiological changes manifested during TM meditation represented a "wakeful hypometabolic physiologic state." Additionally, it was suggested that while biofeedback methods allowed 3 for control of individual physiologic~! functions by the use of sophisticated electronic devices, TM was capable of influencing various functions simultaneously. A study of hypertension by Benson, Rosner, and Marzetta (1970) yielded the finding that patients suffering hypertensive illness who regularly performed meditation had significant decreases in blood pressure. Research by Blackwell, Bloomfield, et al. (1976) reflected a similar outcome for hypertensive subjects. Research on stress by Goleman and Schwartz (1976) showed a significant difference in the habituation to a highly stressful event, as measured by heart rate and skin conductance. The meditation group reflected a significantly greater level of habituation to the stressor than did a control group. Orme-Johnson (1973) studying the physiological elements involved in stress found a significantly greater level of rapid GSR habituation and lower levels of spontaneous GSR in a sample of ~~ meditators compared to a group of controls. The author pointed out that rapid GSR habituation and low levels of spontaneous GSR are associated in the literature with "good mental health, e.g., behavioral and autonomic stability, less motor impulsivity .•. less susceptibility to a variety of stresses, and less susceptibility to conditioned stresses." Meditation research has also explored the effectiveness of TM in the treatment of some physical illnesses. Benson, Klemchuk, and Graham (1974) looked at the usefulness of TM in the treatment of headaches and found a trend in the direction of reduced headache symptomatology. 4 Likewise, in a study of asthma by Honsberger and Wilson (1973) it was discovered that TM was effective in reducing asthma symptoms. The Relaxation Response Proponents of TM claim that the TM technique is a superior method of achieving deep rest and psychophysiological integration (Bloomfield, et al., 1975). They also indicate that a qualified instructor must train the meditator in a prescribed manner and provide the meditator with a unique Sanskrit mantra chosen specifically for that TM trainee. On the other hand, Benson, et .al. (1974) have suggested that TM is not the unique method the TM advocates claim, but, rather, is one of many ways to achieve the Relaxation Response, "an integrated hypothala­ mic response which results in generalized decreased sympathetic nervous system activity and perhaps also decreased parasympathetic activity." In fact, the Relaxation Response may be elicited not only by TM, but also Zen and Yoga meditation, autogenic training, hyponsis with suggested deep relaxation, and sentic cycles (Benson, 1974). Benson (1975) developed his concept of the Relaxation Response from study of the fight or flight response. Cannon (1914) first described this response and termed it an emergency reaction. Studying the response of animals whether preparing to fight or flee, physiologi­ cal changes were noted, including " . • • increased body metabolism, or rate of burning fuel; and marked increase in the flow of blood to the arms and legs." Brad (1959) explored the fight or flight response in human subjects by creating a slightly stressful situation for these subjects, 5 then measuring their physiological re~ponse to this stressor. As in the stressed animals he found correspondingly higher rates of blood pressure, heart rate, and muscle blood flow. Further, Benson (1975) indicates that part of the involuntary nervous system is activated when the fight or flight response is evoked and that the Relaxation Response acts in an opposing manner to cause a reduction in this nervous system activity. To achieve this state of reduced nervous system activity via the Relaxation Response Benson (1975) indicates that four steps are necessary to achieve the response: 1. A Quiet Environment Ideally, you should choose a quiet,
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