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62/TheThe Third Third Pole, Pole Vol. 8-10, PP 62-72:2010 TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHY OF NEPALESE

David Seddon1

Abstract

This is the first part of an article which proposes to break new ground in developing a conceptual framework for and presenting a preliminary empirical analysis of ‘the geography of Nepalese cuisine’. This part of the article sets out some of the elements required for an exploration of national, regional and local . It elaborates the concept of ‘cuisine’ as a historical but constantly evolving socio-economic and cultural construct (a tradition) within a more-or-less defined geographical area. It considers the significance of ‘food availability’ and the ways in which the ‘natural’ world is classified and categorized to define what is considered edible and what is not. It explains how food preparation and processing transforms an animal, fish or plant into a food stuff or ingredient and examines how food preparation, production (including ) and presentation may differ and may be associated with different styles of cuisine (high and low, complex and simple, etc.). It introduces a distinction between national, regional and local cuisines and briefly considers the treatment of ‘Indian’ cuisine.

Key Words: Cuisine, Food, Food tradition, , Nepalese, Newari, Dalbhat

Introduction some cases referring to the they grow, the livestock they produce, and the foodstuffs they It is said that ‘fools rush in where angels fear to buy and sell and consume, and in some cases to tread’. This article represents an example of just the ceremonial, religious and other ritual such a foolish initiative. I propose to initiate what occasions on which they perform various rites I believe to be a new focus in the broad field of and consumer various and beverages. the . Claude Levi-Strauss has, famously, written about Much has been written about the role of the symbolic and structural significance of food agriculture in the Nepalese economy; and in his book The Raw and the Cooked (Le Cru et le something, although much less, has been written Cuit) and influenced several other social about the history and development of anthropologists, such as Mary Douglas and agriculture. There has been a continual concern, Edmund Leach, to write about the logic of food from the 1950s onwards, if not before, with issues taboos. of food production and food security, including, But to my knowledge, no-one has attempted, to particularly among the most practical agencies develop a systematic approach to the geography associated with issues of food security (such as of food and, more particularly, to the geography the World Food Programme), with the geography of Nepalese cuisine. Before I venture into this of food security. Economists have been interested new field (in part two of this article), let me first for many years in patterns of trade both within (in part one) clarify a number of concepts and the country and between Nepal and the outside issues relevant to the development of a world, and to some extent in the commodity ‘geography of cuisine’ or food traditions. chains associated with food stuffs and with other goods. PART ONE ‘Cuisine’ Social anthropologists have written extensively about both the daily lives and the cultural By ‘cuisine’ I understand a distinctive sets of traditions of the various different ethnic groups beliefs and practices surrounding the and castes that constitute Nepalese society, in preparation, production, presentation and

1 David Seddon was, until taking early retirement in 2006, Professor of Development Studies at the University of East Anglia in the UK. He is now Director of an independent consultancy company, Critical Faculty, and senior research associate at the Commonwealth Studies Policy Unit, attached to the Commonwealth Studies Institute, University of London. E mail [email protected] David Seddon …..TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHY/63 consumption of food, involving distinctive styles Regional and Cocal Cuisines and processes of preparation and production of food (and drink), various distinctive forms of In the best recognized and most developed presentation of food and drink, and various national cuisines, as in France, for example, it is distinctive patterns of consumption of food and common to find ‘recognized regional cuisines’. drink. Some writers have used the term ‘’ These do not necessarily follow the in somewhat the same way, and indeed ‘kitchen’ administrative divisions of the country but are is a legitimate translation of the French word related to particular environmental, economic, ‘cuisine’; but in English, the word ‘kitchen’ has social and cultural configurations which have more of the specific connotations of the place in historically given rise to notable cooking cultures which food preparation and cooking takes place or traditions. This means that, in terms of the (eg ‘if you can’t take the heat, get out of the geography of national cuisine, there may be kitchen’). recognized identifiable regions where a distinctive cuisine is to be found, and there may The extent to which the existence of distinct also be places where there is no particular national, regional or local ‘cuisines’ are recognized cuisine or cooking tradition – in other ‘recognized’ varies considerably, largely by words, blanks on the geographical map. virtue of the extent to which they are defined and identified as such, whether by outsiders or Ultimately, a cuisine is a social construct – a by those involved. In other words, a national, historical evolving tradition, reproduced over regional or local ‘cuisine’ may be clearly and time by the people of a region or locality. This fully identified, vaguely discerned and tradition, however, may be copied, in part, by described, or not defined at all. On the other others, wishing to emulate and reproduce the hand, all societies have a distinctive set of beliefs particular tradition elsewhere. In France, as the and practices relating to food, its preparation, Larousse Gastornomique puts it, ‘the various its production, presentation and consumption. French provinces have each their particular ‘Cuisines’ are therefore social and cultural cuisine. However, it should be observed that the constructs, whose definition and characteristics dishes with a regional name are not always are subject to change through time, both as a authentically and exclusively regional’. result of historical trends and processes, and Characteristically, for example, towns and cities also through conscious action and intervention. will present a variety of cuisines and traditions, They are constantly being invented and derived from their original rural base, and reinvented, although some more rapidly and accumulated or congregated together in one consciously than others. place as a result of the movement of peoples and Cuisines are to a considerable extent defined by their food traditions, and the emergence of a the basic ingredients used in food and drink market or demand for a variety of foods and preparation, and these in turn depend on the cuisines. Here, particularly, will be found the availability of specific flora and fauna within a most cosmopolitan and sophisticated versions given territory or space – the environment. In so of regional and local traditions; here these far as food traditions tend to develop within a traditions of cuisines will be juxtaposed and will more or less defined environment, we may speak jostle each other for attention. Famous cooks, reasonably of a geography of cuisine In so far as chefs and restauranteurs may arise and become both flora and fauna themselves evolve and famous for a particular approach to cooking or change, or are changed by human agency (as for a supreme example of a particular regional when a new or animal is ‘introduced’ or or local cuisine – even for a particular dish. rendered extinct), so the environment will But regional and local cuisine is rooted in the change, and so too will the availability of crops small towns and rural areas, where the ‘natural’ and animals for consumption; food preferences ingredients are available which provide the may also change for a variety of reasons, distinct elements or components of the particular including external cultural influences and food cuisine. Thus, certain mountain areas may markets. 64/The Third Pole become known for cooking based on the wild So a local, as well as a regional and national game to be found there; areas with good rivers cuisine depends on the environment, the may become known for their focus on fish; historical cooking traditions and the available coastal regions for their sea-food; and so on. ingredients. But all of the potential ingredients Geology and soils, wild flora and fauna, climate, actually available in the locality or region may patterns of rainfall, seasonal variations, crops not be in effect of interest to the cooks and grown - all of these will play their part in defining consumers of local food. For cultural factors the authentic regional or local cuisine. ultimately determine what is seen to be available – what is considered of good quality, what is There are certain regions well-known for their considered a reasonable food stuff or ingredient sea-food, others for their fine game, others for and what is, frankly, considered inedible - the way in which the are developed, uneatable. others for their robust – a combination of local ingredients and local traditions constitutes Taboos and Prohibitions the local cuisine. Some have become famous, others remain little known, except to the locals. What is considered to be ‘available’ may vary, The same is the case, in France and some other depending on the rules prevalent in any countries, for alcoholic beverages, such as wines particular society or social group as to what may and beers. Certain regions in France (and be legitimately consumed, when and by whom. Germany and Italy, and increasingly other Many cultures have complex rules – involving countries including those of the ‘New World’ outright prohibitions (never to be consumed) and and Australasia) are well-known, indeed contingent prohibitions (to be consumed only at famous, world-wide for their wines. some times or by some people) and also Champagne, for example, has a world wide recommendations (what is considered especially reputation for its sparkling wines. The cooking ‘good’ at particular times and for particular in this region is excellent, according to the people) - as to what may or may not, should or Larousse Gastronomique, but its repertoire is rather should not, be consumed, when and by whom. limited, and depends largely on its charcuterie Most discussion of such ‘rules’ relating to food ( sausages, hams and knuckles, and pigs preparation and food consumption focuses on trotters), fresh water fish (notably carp, pike, taboos or prohibitions, often ignoring the great trout and salmon), mutton and game. One complexity of many systems of ‘food’ beverage virtually defines the gastronomic classification and particularly the common region. identification of a hierarchy of foods (from Even within recognized regions there are ‘local’ mundane to special) and the wider significance cuisines, based on local specialities, which may (practical and symbolic) of different kinds of food. not be found throughout the region. This may Most food taboos involve the of a particular because of the distinctive local flora and fauna, kind of animal, including mammals, rodents, or because of the historical traditions that have reptiles, amphibians, bony fish, and crustaceans. developed there. As regards wine, for example, Some taboos are specific to a particular part or these vary enormously, even within a region, excretion of an animal, while other taboos forbid according to the specific rainfall and other the consumption of specific plants, fungi, or climate and environmental features, the lie of insects. Some taboos relate not so much to the the land and nature of the soils in particular. kind of animal or plant but to the method of Thus each identifiable wine will have its locality killing and preparation (as in kosher or halal). and even its ‘terrain’ or ‘micro-environment’, The strength and scope of food taboos may vary. which provides its distinctive character, and For example, some animals are strictly forbidden there will be ‘good’ years and ‘bad’ years, as or ‘taboo’ at all times; others may be regarded as regards the grape harvest and the quality of the ‘dirty’ or undesirable, but may be eaten under wine produced. certain conditions; some animals may be killed, or plants uprooted, at certain times of the year, David Seddon …..TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHY/65 or under specific defined circumstances. Some There may also be ambiguous creatures, which foods may be actively encouraged or prohibited fit uneasily into the prevailing categories, at certain times of the year (eg ‘the hunting particularly as the categories change. Crow, eel, season’), during certain festivals (e.g. Dashain, singing birds, were all historically widely eaten Christmas, Lent etc), at certain times of life (e.g. in Britain; prawns, octopus, squid, etc have pregnancy), or to certain classes of people (e.g. recently entered the British menu – as have many priests), although the food may otherwise be food stuffs from around the world. For the generally permissible. Romans, ‘mice cooked in honey’ was a recognized delicacy; few, probably, would wish The system of rules relating to food preparation, to emulate them today. production and consumption in any given society is almost always linked to a wider system Food Preparation – First Stages of classification of what might be termed ‘the social environment’ – including social relations, Levi Strauss made the point that in virtually all the ‘natural’ world and the ‘supernatural’. Thus societies, important distinctions were made in they stand at the centre of the social geography the local ‘cuisine’ between different kinds of food – or cosmology, in the widest and most inclusive and different food preparation processes. His of senses – of any society. basic distinction in his book Le Cru et le Cuit (The Raw and the Cooked) was between ‘raw’ and In the Book of Leviticus (in the Bible), as Mary ‘cooked’ food. In some cultures, however, even Douglas reminded us (in her book Purity and ‘raw’ (ie un-cooked’) food may be prepared and Danger), there are complex rules set out as to in some way processed, thereby transformed what animals and plant products may be eaten from a plant or fish or animal product into a by the Jews and the early Christians and which foodstuff. Indeed, food preparation is the process may not; The Qur’an also refers to these food whereby the ‘raw’ product is transformed into rules – these cultural (in this case ‘religious’) food. prescriptions and proscriptions defined the range of what was considered edible and what The first stage of food preparation, at least as far was considered not-edible or inedible (the two as meat is concerned, is the slaughter of the being sometimes importantly different – not to animal or animals selected. How they are killed be eaten and uneatable). But the rules need not is often a matter of concern. For many cultures be underpinned by ‘religious’ systems of beliefs (including particularly Buddhism) the taking of and practices. life, if not forbidden, is regarded with great seriousness and the method of dispatch of the In many societies there are distinctions made living creature is carefully defined. Even if the between 1) animals that are wild and not eaten, technology is not capable of ensuring ‘a quick 2) animals that are wild and eaten – game), 3) kill’ – something of concern in most animals that are domestic and eaten, and 4) contemporary ‘Western’ societies – the death of animals that are domestic but not eaten - pets. the animal is often accompanied by a formal Some wild animals may be regarded as vermin recognition of some kind of the significance of and killed as such, others may be hunted and its passing. In Jewish and Muslim societies, in killed for sport, but not eaten (like the fox, or the which, for example pigs are forbidden in any lion); others may be hunted, snared or otherwise case, the method of killing other permitted caught for sport and eaten (these include in animals (sheep and , chickens etc.) is of Britain, rabbit, hare, deer, partridge, pheasant, major importance – meat not killed according to wood pigeon, quail, and several kinds of seafood the approved method and technique may not be – including fish and shell-fish). Some domestic eaten. The meat must be kosher or halal. animals may be eaten (such as calves, bullocks, pigs, sheep, lambs, turkeys, capons, cockerels, The slaughtering of the animal, or the uprooting, chickens, farmed fish); others may not (eg dogs collection or picking of the , plant or and cats, and any animal defined as a ‘pet’). fruit begins the process of its transformation from a ‘natural’ state to something different. It can no 66/The Third Pole longer go on living, even if it may retain certain and crabs are commonly tossed alive into features of a living thing for some time, if boiling water and then cooked until ‘ready’. In ‘preserved’ in, say water, for plants. In the case this process, ‘a crab’ becomes simply ‘crab’, and of animals, this process begins at once. The ‘a lobster’ simply ‘lobster’. Locusts, which are animal’s ‘corpse’ (dead body) is progressively widely consumed in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, re-defined. One of the first procedures is to experience a similar fate, in so far as they tend to remove the outer ‘layer’ or skin, after which the be fried alive and salted. This is relatively rare, ‘corpse’ becomes a ‘carcass’. It remains, most peoples preferring to ensure the however, the carcass of a cow, sheep, pig or transformation of the living creature into and whatever, until it is cut into pieces. Then it ‘anonymous’ edible form first. becomes ‘meat’. In English, in the case of a pig, it becomes ‘pork’, in the case of a calf, cow or ‘Cuts’ bullock it becomes ‘beef’, in the case of a lamb or The carcass of a dead animal, whether hunted sheep it becomes ‘lamb’ or ‘mutton’. to death or domestically slaughtered, is usually For poultry (an interesting collective noun for divided up, partly for convenience - a beef all domestic birds reared for slaughter and carcass can be very large, and cumbersome, but consumption), the term carcass is rarely used partly to convert it into ‘meat’. In some cultures, for the complete dead bird – rather it is referred specific parts are given to specific people, even to at this point as ‘the bird’. When prepared at this stage – particularly in situations where and ready for cooking, they are referred to still the animal has been either owned collectively or as ‘birds’: cookery books may say, for example, killed collectively, in a hunt, for example. ‘put the bird in the oven’, or, more specifically, Different societies prize different parts. In some ‘put the turkey into the oven’. When cooked and hunting societies, the heart and kidneys and liver dismembered or ‘cut up’ (carved’ is the term used may be eaten shortly after the kill, while still for cutting into pieces after cooking), the bird fresh and ‘uncooked’; in some cases they are becomes ‘meat’: a hen or cockerel becomes removed, grilled or roasted, and eaten. ‘chicken’, a duck becomes ‘duck’, a goose Sometimes these parts are eaten at once, before becomes ‘goose’ and so on. Individuality is the rest of the carcass is cut up, sometimes destroyed; live creatures become ‘meat’, to be allocated and taken home to be processed and classified by ‘cut’ (breast, wing or leg) or type of prepared further. meat (dark or light). Different societies recognize and make use of This kind of conceptual transformation, different parts of the animal and convert them to involving a process of ‘anonymization’, is less identifiable ‘cuts’. In many cultures, the division significant in the case of fish, particularly when of parts remains fairly arbitrary, even when a the identity, the kind of fish is reduced by being specialist is involved. But in some cultures, cooked with other ingredients (as in ‘fish pie); particularly where a professional butcher although when presented whole or as a fillet it slaughters and then prepares the meat - or a may be referred to by its name (ie fillet of sea fishmonger prepares the fish - for householders, bass, grilled trout, etc.). Such a process of the next stage of the preparation has become transformation rarely takes place in the case of standardized. In this case, the meat will be cut root or leaf , or fruit – a living carrot up into defined parts, each with its specific and an uprooted carrot are both ‘carrots’. But, standard name. when prepared and cooked it also tends to lose In England, these parts are actually known as its indefinite article and is transformed into ‘cuts’ of meat. The major cuts regularly include, ‘carrot’, or becomes entirely unrecognizable in a for beef: neck and clod, chuck and blade, thick mixture or dish. rib, thin rib and fore rib, brisket and shin, sirloin In some cultures animals may be killed by the and flank, rump, silverside and topside, thick very process of cooking – for example lobsters flank and leg. In the USA the major cuts are: chuck, brisket and shank, rib and plate, flank, David Seddon …..TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHY/67 short loin, sirloin, tenderloin, top sirloin and and clean up’ meat, are becoming apparent there bottom sirloin, round and shank. Further also. distinctions may be made, for example, again for beef: head, scrag end, neck, shoulder, ribs, The same tendencies – of processing food stuffs belly, topside, silverside, steaks (sirloin, rump more and more, taking them further and further and fillet), loin, haunch, skirt, shank, hock, shin, away from the original animal or food stuff - are leg, tail etc. In the case of pork, somewhat apparent in the processing and preparation of different and additional cuts are recognized, other items besides meat. The progressive which include ham, bacon (both of which may removal or elimination of certain ‘natural’ be cured for longevity) as well as the range of elements and the addition of ‘additives’ (to pork ribs, chops, steaks, belly and so on. In enhance flavor or to increase ‘shelf life) is part of addition to these cuts or additional items, is the the industrialisation of food processing and ‘’, which includes the internal organs - preparation and the transformation of food into brain, heart, liver, kidneys, stomach, intestine, a commodity or commodities. Food ‘preferences’ tripes – as well as some external organs - testicles have often moved in line with this tendency over (sweetbreads), udders etc. Other now-less-used the last century or so (eg white instead of parts include: tongue, eyes, brain, cheek (pig), brown; white flour instead of brown or trotters (pig) and heel (cow). wholemeal). In more recent years, however, there has been a ‘backlash’ against this tendency and, In European – and in some other national - to some degree, a reversal towards ‘authentic’, cuisines different cuts of require different ‘real’ and ‘organic’ food and drink. preparation and cooking, and are eaten on different kinds of occasion. Offal, in particular, High and Low Cuisine – Processed Food and is today regarded with suspicion by most but ‘Home Cooking’ the most adventurous or traditional cooks – and After the basic food preparation discussed even within the category of offal, there is a above, further preparation may be relatively hierarchy from the liver, kidneys, heart, simple or relatively complex. A ‘simple ’ sweetbreads (testicles), tripe(s), udders, may consist of a limited number of elements – intestines (chitlings), and stomach. Historically, dishes or ingredients – taking a relatively short these parts of the animal were often regarded time to prepare. Today, ‘’ is a term that particularly highly and eaten as delicacies; tends to identify food that is immediately certainly they tend to be highly flavoured when recognizable, is ‘clean and simple’ and that takes compared with more currently orthodox ‘cuts’. relatively little time to prepare in the home. Often, In Western societies, particularly in North however, although it may often involve a America and Britain, the processing of meat has relatively short time overall to prepare at home progressively privileged certain cuts and items (as in a bought cooked burger or ‘fish and chips’) and re-defined others, marginalizing them, and it actually involves more time in preparation giving them the status of ‘low grade’ or even elsewhere. The ultimate here is the so-called quasi-taboo food. In general, the ‘cleaner’ cuts, ‘ready meal’ which needs simply to be heated with least reference to or identification with the by the consumer to be ready to eat, but has original animal, are privileged. The additional undergone very complex processes to prepare items identified above are rarely eaten in the place where it is initially ‘manufactured’, nowadays, while it is increasingly difficult to and took a relatively long time to prepare – hence obtain offal. Worries about obesity and the ‘prepared ’ or ‘ready meals’. medical conditions associated with a ‘bad’ diet Generally simple preparation is for simple social has led to the progressive reduction of the occasions. More complex preparation is required amount of fat left on cuts from the butchers, while for more complex meals, consisting of more it is also harder to find meat ‘on-the-bone’. The complex and more elaborate dishes and, usually, rest of Europe, particularly France and the more august or special company. In general, Mediterranean countries remains less many cultures identify a ‘higher’ and a ‘lower’ concerned, but similar tendencies, ‘to simplify 68/The Third Pole cuisine, the former comprising relatively feasts, prepared for festivals and life-cycle complex dishes and a relatively complex and ceremonies, which will generally show the elaborate overall presentation of the dishes, the greatest degree of elaboration and complexity in latter simpler dishes and a simpler overall preparation, production, presentation and format. In some cultures there is a distinctive serving. ‘court’ cuisine or tradition of cooking, which represents the highest form of culinary art Food Preparation – Second Stages available. In his book on Indian cooking, for Most cuisines draw upon a range of different example, Michael Pandya, distinguishes modes of food preparation and of cooking which between pukka and kacha or may be utilized in various combinations, cooking – the former being ‘proper’ and the latter depending on circumstances. The most basic being ‘simple’ cooking. The same distinction is food preparation involves ‘cleaning’ the food made widely across the world. (meat, fish or vegetables) – this may involve Another distinction, closely related to the washing (fruit and vegetables and leaves), preceding one, is that made between ‘home taking off the ‘outside’ or ‘surface’ (peeling, cooking’ and ‘high cuisine’, between the forms removing the skin, cutting off the fat, scraping, of preparation, cooking and serving etc.) or removing various undesirable elements commonplace in the home, on the one hand, and from within (de-boning meat, de-gutting and those found in those restaurants where there is filleting fish, de-veining leafy vegetables, ‘coring’ a ‘’ rather than a ‘cook’ and the food is fruit and removing pips etc.) or sieving (flour) to expected to be ‘entirely different’ and superior, remove large and undesirable particles. This on the other. It is often said that the best way to process of ‘cleaning’ may be supplemented by get to know and appreciate a particular national, ‘trimming’. Assuming that the meat is already regional or local cuisine is through the ‘good in the form of a basic ‘cut’ (although it may not home cooking’ that characterizes it most be, in which case it will need to be ‘cut’ according effectively; but it is also the case that the ‘finest to the dish and meal to be prepared from a larger cuisine’ can be said to epitomize ‘the best’ of a part of the carcass), it may need to be further ‘cut national or even regional tradition. and trimmed’ – the meat may have the fat removed, or it may be cut into smaller pieces, the But it should be appreciated that even with fish may have its head and tail removed, the ‘home cooking’ there are differences between the vegetables may be cut into slices, the fruit into style of preparation, cooking and serving - segments. cuisine – associated with ordinary meals for the family, meals for friends and relatives, meals for Fish is generally filleted (main backbone removed special occasions, and feasts, to identify four at and other bones removed as far as is practical or the very least. ‘Every day cooking’ is minimalist else as demanded by the ‘quality’ of the dish in every sense and might be termed ‘mundane’ and the meal – although small fish may be or ‘routine’. It is what is routinely prepared for cooked whole). Often heads and tails and fins the members of the household on a normal are removed, as are scales. In some cultures, as working day. If a wider circle of relatives and/ in Japan, fish in particular may be eaten or friends are involved, it will, generally, be uncooked (‘raw’). This does not mean, however, somewhat more elaborate; if it involves ‘guests’ that it remains unprepared. Indeed, some beyond the circle of family and friends it will be varieties – delicacies – are, notoriously, more elaborate still and may involve a change of poisonous until certain parts are removed. Most ‘style’ (involve different forms of preparation, dishes of ‘raw’ fish served in Japan have been at production or cooking and presentation or the very least, cleaned and scraped where serving), and generally a larger amount will be necessary and cut into appropriate sections or provided per person. Meals for special occasions portions. Meat also may be eaten raw, or rather are again of a different order and may resemble uncooked. Thus, steak tartare, for example, meals prepared for guests. Finally, there are consists of fine cuts of raw beef, minced and served in a distinctive . David Seddon …..TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHY/69 Vegetables may be eaten raw. Leaf vegetables, procedures that do not involve cooking – such used for salads, are often uncooked and merely as marinading (meat and or fish), ‘smoking’ mixed and served with a ‘dressing’. Some other (meat and or fish), ‘salting’ (fish), ‘soaking’ vegetables (eg carrots, celery, courgettes may ( and pulses, ) or ‘tenderising’ simply be cleaned and cut into slices or sections (ie beating, immersing in vinegar, lemon juice or and served as ‘crudites’ (literally ‘raw pieces’ in some other acid, yoghurt, or adding special French), as a preface to a meal or as the condiments). Some of these methods also make accompaniment to a ‘dip’. Leaves of some green possible the preservation of foods – eg salting, vegetables and even shoots of members of the marinading and smoking. To these should be onion family may be used, uncooked, as salad, added drying – which may be applied to meat, to accompany a meal or a dish, or as a garnish fish, vegetables and fruit. Dried foodstuffs may or decoration (as in the case of parsley or be reconstituted by soaking in some liquid or coriander leaves). oil.

Fruit is often eaten raw, even in the of a Preparation and processing may include the meal (as opposed to being eaten separately), but preparation of marinades, pickles, chutneys, is usually ‘prepared’ in some way to transform pastes, collections of herbs and or that it from the original fruit to a prepared fruit – will be used in the cooking process at a later again, as with meat, fish or even vegetables to stage. A prime example of this in Indian and render it less recognizable. It may only be peeled, Nepalese cuisine is the preparation of chat masala cut into sections or segments, and arranged on a (spices for a chat, or ) or plate or dish; or it may be processed simply in (literally hot spices), which is a specific mixture some way to produce a new concoction of spices widely and commonly used in cooking. constituted of the fruit – mashed , In English this may be termed ‘a preparation’. chopped pineapple, sliced pear, apricot puree. Simple, but slightly more, processing may occur, Once the initial preparation and processing is when the fruit is mixed with some other completed, the main task may begin – the ingredient – to make fruit salad, gooseberry fool, cooking. This, at its most basic, involves applying mixed fruit puree, etc. In most cultures, heat to the selected ingredients. This can be done particularly where a wider range of other food directly, over a naked flame or fire, over charcoal stuffs is available, fruit is regarded as a or in the ashes, as in grilling and roasting; or in complement or supplement to a meal – a dessert an oven, where the heat may be direct, as in at most – rather than a component of a meal, roasting or baking in a gas or electric oven (or in unlike vegetables or pulses, which in vegetarian a pit, where much the same effect may be obtained cuisines may be the only ingredients apart from as in an oven, but without the more or less herbs and spices. permanent structure involved with an oven). Heat may also be applied indirectly, with the The importance of fruit varies, however, from foodstuff on a griddle, plate or pan of some kind cuisine to cuisine. In some cuisines (eg Moroccan (eg wok), as in searing, pan-frying, stir-frying, and Persian), fruit plays an essential part as an either ‘dry’ or with some fat, butter, or oil. ingredient in dishes whose major elements are The use of pots and pans – containers that can meat or, to a lesser extent, fish. In this case, more retain liquid – allows a range of additional complex processing, involving the cooking of cooking methods to be utilized, including boiling the fruit together with other ingredients may (in water), simmering (in stock or some other take place. Vegetables may also be made into liquid), pot-roasting (where the meat and or purees and , but these will need cooking vegetables are cooked in a closed pot which them and sieving before this transformation takes itself placed in an oven) and stewing. place. Towards a Conceptual Framework Once ‘cleaning’ is complete and ‘cutting and trimming’ is done, other forms of processing or Over the centuries and millennia, there has been preparation may take place. These may include a gradual and progressive evolution in the complexity of the technology associated with 70/The Third Pole cooking, but also there has been a complex (and Thus, Claudia Roden initiated Western readers not necessarily contradictory) process of into the food traditions of the Middle East with development, involving both the emergence of her Book of Middle Eastern Food (in 1968) and distinct and differentiated local and regional and Elizabeth David, at a slightly earlier period, was even national and imperial or international able to introduce western Europeans to the food cuisines, and also the exchange and interchange traditions of the Mediterranean with her Book of of ingredients, cooking methods and traditions, Mediterranean Food (first published in 1950). More leading to a mingling and inter-mixture of recently, however, Claudia Roden has identified traditions and forms of fusion. more specific national and cultural food traditions, in her books on Jewish food, As a result of these historical processes, it is often Moroccan, Turkish and Lebanese food, while possible to recognize and identify distinctive Elizabeth David has written extensively on cuisines, but the ‘classification’ of such cuisines French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese food. needs to be tempered and qualified on the basis In the last two or three decades, a multitude of of the recognition that ingredients, methods and cookery books dealing with food from all over techniques, traditions and styles of cooking are the world has been published. The identification cultural forms which evolve and interact with of regional/international and national cuisines each other over time and space. In a real sense, as food traditions developing in specific more- therefore, the ‘cuisine’ is a historical and cultural or-less defined geographical areas and in artifact or construct whose features, constantly evolving historical socio-economic characteristics and boundaries are and cultural contexts, with specific ingredients environmentally, economically, socially, and with distinctive approaches to and methods culturally and historically determined. In so far of preparation, processing, production and as the cuisine as a bounded entity is also presentation, is still, however, very generalized generally more or less spatially defined (as are and surprisingly little explored. cultures and traditions of all kinds) it is a geographical phenomenon. The focus is still very much on recipes and the taste of the food itself rather than on the Most cookery books which discuss the notion of historical, social and cultural context of its ‘cuisine’ implicitly identify ‘national cuisine’ as preparation, production and presentation, a conceptual category (although they rarely although some writers, such as Claudia Roden, examine in any detail the process of do provide more of a context than most other categorization or discuss the term cuisine as a food writers. In the ‘great French tradition’, little concept, as I have tried to do in the earlier sections recognition is given to any other cuisine. In the of this article). Thus, in common parlance, as in Larousse Gastronomique, for example – a classic books on food, there is a tendency to speak of source of information on the French approach French cooking, Italian cooking, Chinese to food and cooking - ‘Italienne’ is described as cooking etc. Good Housekeeping’s World Cookery ‘a name given to various dishes made of meat, (1962), for example, is largely divided into poultry, fish and vegetables, in all of which, chapters on the basis of individual countries, finely-diced or chopped mushroom are used’. It although sometimes – where the identification is as though the only defining characteristic of or recognition of national cuisine is poorly is the use of chopped mushrooms. developed - they are grouped into larger entities, Indian cuisine is, perhaps not surprisingly, not as with the Middle East, the Far East (which mentioned at all. includes India, Pakistan and Ceylon). These larger ‘food traditions’ also, however, are based In the Good Housekeeping’s World Cookery, on identifiable common characteristics – Indian cooking is mentioned under ‘The Far whether ingredients, food preparation and East’, together with Pakistan and Ceylon. This processing, styles and methods of cooking and was published in the 1960s, at about the same forms of presentation – even if these may not be time as Claudia Roden’s Book of Middle Eastern clearly defined. Food, when ‘Indian cuisine’ was still little known in the West and a distinctive British-‘Indian’ David Seddon …..TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHY/71 tradition was being invented by expatriate Even today, Indian cookery books and books on Bangladeshis for the most part. The section of Indian cuisine tend to amalgamate recipes recipes is prefaced by a short introduction – without regional distinction, preferring the more ‘some notes on Indian cooking’. It notes that, by conventional division into types of dish the 1960s, ‘many Indian condiments can be according to ingredients (meat, fish, vegetable) bought here (in Britain), including or into elements of the meal in typical French , chilli paste and Bombay duck’. It states banquet sequence (, hors d’oeuvre, fish, that ‘ powder and curry paste can be bought roast meat, vegetables (entremets) entrée, poultry, in prepared form’, but also emphasizes that ‘you salad, , sweets or desserts). When they do can obtain even better results… by using the fresh distinguish regions, it is common to find Indian spices of which they are composed: these are cooking as a whole divided roughly into major chiefly coriander, , cumin seed, ginger, geographical regions - northern, eastern, mace, cloves, cardamom and pepper’ and southern, central and western – each of which recommends that ‘spices should be freshly is ‘characterised’ in extremely broad or sketchy ground if possible..’ It goes on to remark that terms. ‘the cooking of many starts with the frying of the spices’. The idea clearly developed here is Thus, Michael Pandiya in his Complete Indian that there are distinctive aspects to ‘Indian Cookbook (1996) identifies a ‘northern cuisine’ cuisine’, but there is no reference in these ‘Notes’ which he equates with Kashmiri and Punjabi on differences between different ‘Indian’ cuisines. He suggests that the former specialises cuisines, despite the size of the sub-continent in friend meats and curries without onion and and variety of different forms of preparation, garlic, the latter in tandoori, paraunthas, sweets cooking and presentation to be found there. and delicacies. Very generally, he suggests, ‘Indian cuisine’ is presented as an dishes are accompanied by made of wheat undifferentiated whole. flour rather than rice, although ‘liquid dishes’ (with sauces – ie ‘curries’) do tend to be served In France, by contrast, and in the writing on with rice. He speaks, vaguely, of the influence of , it is common to find specific the Mughals. He also identifies an ‘eastern ‘regions’ identified as gastronomic regions or region’ including Bengal and Bihar. Here there as having their own distinctive cuisine, since at is ‘a considerable use of fish’. Rice is central as least the 18th century. The Larousse Gastronomique an accompaniment to all dishes. Cooking is (Paul Hamlyn, London 1961) remarks that ‘the generally in , and favourite spices various French provinces have each their include mustard, cumin, anice and fenugreek. particular cuisine’ while warning that ‘it should Great sweets and savouries are also be observed that dishes with a regional name characteristic of the eastern cuisine. The central are not always authentically and exclusively region is said to be ‘complex and fine’ and to be regional’. It goes on to identify specific regional dominated by Mughal style cooking. But little cuisines, including Alsace, Anjou, Artois, more is provided. Auvergne, Bresse, Brittany, Champagne, Lorraine, Languedoc, Lyon, Normandy, The western region includes Mumbai and Goa. Provence etc. but on the basis largely of the Goan food is described as ‘usually hot, with lots significance of the cuisine rather than simply of , boiled into thick or thin gravies, on the basis of a geographical or administrative and use of tamarind juice, as in south India’. region. So, Lyon, though a small region Spices are ‘usually ground before use, rather than comprising only two departments ‘deserves a fried or roasted whole before crushing’. Long place in the first rank for its excellent cuisine. slow cooking is characteristic. South Indian food Lyons can in fact be regarded as the gastronomic is ‘largely vegetarian with rice the main capital of France’. accompaniment to a meal’. There is widespread use of mustard oil; coconut, tamarind, and Indian coconut milk widely used. Curries are thin and hot (eg vindaloo), particularly around Madras. 72/The Third Pole And paper-thin papadoms are a speciality. Meat, given by the Larousse Gastronomique applies here when used, ‘is rubbed with spices rather than also: ‘it should be observed that dishes with a marinaded as in the north’. regional name are not always authentically and exclusively regional’. Khalid Aziz, in his earlier Indian Cooking (1983) also identifies the same five main regions, but Most so-called ‘Indian restaurants’, in Britain refers also specifically to the Deccan (Hyderabad) at least, present an ‘all-Indian menu’, usually and the use of coconut. He points out that undifferentiated as to the region or locality in dhansak (which involves a dish combining meat which the particular meal or dish is a part of the with lentils is a Parsee dish (‘dhansak’ means traditional cuisine, but often divided as to the ‘wealthy’). The northern cuisine is ‘characterised main ingredient (meat, chicken, vegetable), by meat cooking. There is strong Mughal cooking style (tandoori, curry, biriyani, dry or with influence and cooking is tandoori style with naan sauce/gravy) and degree of ‘hot-ness’ (as and ’. The Goan gol guppa (a snack) is defined by the amount of chillies and pepper mentioned specifically. Meera Budhwar also used). Again, sometimes, the name of the recognizes five regions of Indian cuisine, but particular dish is associated with the traditional identifies Kashmir and Rajasthan as ‘the cuisine and place of ‘origin’ – as in Punjabi northwest’ – and sees it as characterized by meat chicken, meat Madras, etc. On the other hand, cooked in a sealed clay pot – dum. She recognizes as regards the identification of an ‘authentic’ also the cuisine of Bengal, that of Lucknow, that Indian cuisine, it is interesting to note that most of Mumbai in the west, and that of Kerala, of the ‘Indian’ restaurants in Britain are in fact Cochin – in the south. run by Bangladeshis and that the cooks may be Indian, Bangladeshi, Nepalese or, more rarely, So even with respect to Indian cuisine, which Pakistani. has been far more widely discussed and explored than Nepalese cuisine, there is still a very crude During the last five years in Britain, there has regionalization and identification of different been a growing tendency for restaurants to distinctive cuisines. Individual recipes, however, advertise ‘authentic Indian and Nepalese food’. sometimes indicate the regional origin and It is still rare, however, to find a restaurant background. Thus, even World Cookery identifies relying simply on Nepalese food and the a number of dishes from different parts of the Nepalese cuisine. It is also difficult to find country: Some of the recipes provided clearly Nepalese cookery books or even collections of indicate their origin in a more specific cuisine, recipes, outside Nepal itself. In part, this is thus ‘Bengal curry’, ‘Calcutta Beef Curry’, because little attention has so far been paid to ‘Madras Meat Curry’, ‘Bengal Chicken Curry’, the features and characteristics of Nepalese Madras Chicken Curry’, ‘Deccan Duck Curry’, cuisine. We shall attempt to remedy this in the ‘Deccan Meat Burtas’, ‘Madras Chicken Pellao’, second part of this article. and ‘Deccan Curry’. But the warning

References Aziz, Khalid (1983). Indian Cooking, Perigree. Budhwar, Meera (1992). The Complete Indian Cookbook. David, Elizabeth (1950). A Book of Mediterranean Food. Douglas, Mary (1972). Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. Good Housekeeping (1972). World Cookery. London: Ebury Press. Levi Strauss, Claude (1969). The Raw and the Cooked. London: Jonathan Cape. Pandiya, Michael (1996). Complete Indian Cookbook, Chancellor. Roden, Claudia (1968). The Book of Middle Eastern Food. Penguin Books.