62/TheThe Third Third Pole, Pole Vol. 8-10, PP 62-72:2010 TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHY OF NEPALESE CUISINE David Seddon1 Abstract This is the first part of an article which proposes to break new ground in developing a conceptual framework for and presenting a preliminary empirical analysis of ‘the geography of Nepalese cuisine’. This part of the article sets out some of the elements required for an exploration of national, regional and local cuisines. It elaborates the concept of ‘cuisine’ as a historical but constantly evolving socio-economic and cultural construct (a food tradition) within a more-or-less defined geographical area. It considers the significance of ‘food availability’ and the ways in which the ‘natural’ world is classified and categorized to define what is considered edible and what is not. It explains how food preparation and processing transforms an animal, fish or plant into a food stuff or ingredient and examines how food preparation, production (including cooking) and presentation may differ and may be associated with different styles of cuisine (high and low, complex and simple, etc.). It introduces a distinction between national, regional and local cuisines and briefly considers the treatment of ‘Indian’ cuisine. Key Words: Cuisine, Food, Food tradition, Nepal, Nepalese, Newari, Dalbhat Introduction some cases referring to the crops they grow, the livestock they produce, and the foodstuffs they It is said that ‘fools rush in where angels fear to buy and sell and consume, and in some cases to tread’. This article represents an example of just the ceremonial, religious and other ritual such a foolish initiative. I propose to initiate what occasions on which they perform various rites I believe to be a new focus in the broad field of and consumer various foods and beverages. the Geography of Nepal. Claude Levi-Strauss has, famously, written about Much has been written about the role of the symbolic and structural significance of food agriculture in the Nepalese economy; and in his book The Raw and the Cooked (Le Cru et le something, although much less, has been written Cuit) and influenced several other social about the history and development of anthropologists, such as Mary Douglas and agriculture. There has been a continual concern, Edmund Leach, to write about the logic of food from the 1950s onwards, if not before, with issues taboos. of food production and food security, including, But to my knowledge, no-one has attempted, to particularly among the most practical agencies develop a systematic approach to the geography associated with issues of food security (such as of food and, more particularly, to the geography the World Food Programme), with the geography of Nepalese cuisine. Before I venture into this of food security. Economists have been interested new field (in part two of this article), let me first for many years in patterns of trade both within (in part one) clarify a number of concepts and the country and between Nepal and the outside issues relevant to the development of a world, and to some extent in the commodity ‘geography of cuisine’ or food traditions. chains associated with food stuffs and with other goods. PART ONE ‘Cuisine’ Social anthropologists have written extensively about both the daily lives and the cultural By ‘cuisine’ I understand a distinctive sets of traditions of the various different ethnic groups beliefs and practices surrounding the and castes that constitute Nepalese society, in preparation, production, presentation and 1 David Seddon was, until taking early retirement in 2006, Professor of Development Studies at the University of East Anglia in the UK. He is now Director of an independent consultancy company, Critical Faculty, and senior research associate at the Commonwealth Studies Policy Unit, attached to the Commonwealth Studies Institute, University of London. E mail [email protected] David Seddon …..TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHY/63 consumption of food, involving distinctive styles Regional and Cocal Cuisines and processes of preparation and production of food (and drink), various distinctive forms of In the best recognized and most developed presentation of food and drink, and various national cuisines, as in France, for example, it is distinctive patterns of consumption of food and common to find ‘recognized regional cuisines’. drink. Some writers have used the term ‘kitchen’ These do not necessarily follow the in somewhat the same way, and indeed ‘kitchen’ administrative divisions of the country but are is a legitimate translation of the French word related to particular environmental, economic, ‘cuisine’; but in English, the word ‘kitchen’ has social and cultural configurations which have more of the specific connotations of the place in historically given rise to notable cooking cultures which food preparation and cooking takes place or traditions. This means that, in terms of the (eg ‘if you can’t take the heat, get out of the geography of national cuisine, there may be kitchen’). recognized identifiable regions where a distinctive cuisine is to be found, and there may The extent to which the existence of distinct also be places where there is no particular national, regional or local ‘cuisines’ are recognized cuisine or cooking tradition – in other ‘recognized’ varies considerably, largely by words, blanks on the geographical map. virtue of the extent to which they are defined and identified as such, whether by outsiders or Ultimately, a cuisine is a social construct – a by those involved. In other words, a national, historical evolving tradition, reproduced over regional or local ‘cuisine’ may be clearly and time by the people of a region or locality. This fully identified, vaguely discerned and tradition, however, may be copied, in part, by described, or not defined at all. On the other others, wishing to emulate and reproduce the hand, all societies have a distinctive set of beliefs particular tradition elsewhere. In France, as the and practices relating to food, its preparation, Larousse Gastornomique puts it, ‘the various its production, presentation and consumption. French provinces have each their particular ‘Cuisines’ are therefore social and cultural cuisine. However, it should be observed that the constructs, whose definition and characteristics dishes with a regional name are not always are subject to change through time, both as a authentically and exclusively regional’. result of historical trends and processes, and Characteristically, for example, towns and cities also through conscious action and intervention. will present a variety of cuisines and traditions, They are constantly being invented and derived from their original rural base, and reinvented, although some more rapidly and accumulated or congregated together in one consciously than others. place as a result of the movement of peoples and Cuisines are to a considerable extent defined by their food traditions, and the emergence of a the basic ingredients used in food and drink market or demand for a variety of foods and preparation, and these in turn depend on the cuisines. Here, particularly, will be found the availability of specific flora and fauna within a most cosmopolitan and sophisticated versions given territory or space – the environment. In so of regional and local traditions; here these far as food traditions tend to develop within a traditions of cuisines will be juxtaposed and will more or less defined environment, we may speak jostle each other for attention. Famous cooks, reasonably of a geography of cuisine In so far as chefs and restauranteurs may arise and become both flora and fauna themselves evolve and famous for a particular approach to cooking or change, or are changed by human agency (as for a supreme example of a particular regional when a new crop or animal is ‘introduced’ or or local cuisine – even for a particular dish. rendered extinct), so the environment will But regional and local cuisine is rooted in the change, and so too will the availability of crops small towns and rural areas, where the ‘natural’ and animals for consumption; food preferences ingredients are available which provide the may also change for a variety of reasons, distinct elements or components of the particular including external cultural influences and food cuisine. Thus, certain mountain areas may markets. 64/The Third Pole become known for cooking based on the wild So a local, as well as a regional and national game to be found there; areas with good rivers cuisine depends on the environment, the may become known for their focus on fish; historical cooking traditions and the available coastal regions for their sea-food; and so on. ingredients. But all of the potential ingredients Geology and soils, wild flora and fauna, climate, actually available in the locality or region may patterns of rainfall, seasonal variations, crops not be in effect of interest to the cooks and grown - all of these will play their part in defining consumers of local food. For cultural factors the authentic regional or local cuisine. ultimately determine what is seen to be available – what is considered of good quality, what is There are certain regions well-known for their considered a reasonable food stuff or ingredient sea-food, others for their fine game, others for and what is, frankly, considered inedible - the way in which the sauces are developed, uneatable. others for their robust stews – a combination of local ingredients and local traditions constitutes Taboos and Prohibitions the local cuisine. Some have become famous, others remain little known, except to the locals. What is considered to be ‘available’ may vary, The same is the case, in France and some other depending on the rules prevalent in any countries, for alcoholic beverages, such as wines particular society or social group as to what may and beers. Certain regions in France (and be legitimately consumed, when and by whom. Germany and Italy, and increasingly other Many cultures have complex rules – involving countries including those of the ‘New World’ outright prohibitions (never to be consumed) and and Australasia) are well-known, indeed contingent prohibitions (to be consumed only at famous, world-wide for their wines.