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Lead Compounds from Mangrove-Associated Microorganisms marine drugs Review Lead Compounds from Mangrove-Associated Microorganisms Elena Ancheeva †, Georgios Daletos *,† and Peter Proksch * Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Universitaetsstrasse 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] (G.D.); [email protected] (P.P.); Tel.: +49-211-81-14173 (G.D.); +49-211-81-14163 (P.P.) † These authors contributed equally to this work. Received: 7 August 2018; Accepted: 29 August 2018; Published: 7 September 2018 Abstract: The mangrove ecosystem is considered as an attractive biodiversity hotspot that is intensively studied in the hope of discovering new useful chemical scaffolds, including those with potential medicinal application. In the past two decades, mangrove-derived microorganisms, along with mangrove plants, proved to be rich sources of bioactive secondary metabolites as exemplified by the constant rise in the number of publications, which suggests the great potential of this important ecological niche. The present review summarizes selected examples of bioactive compounds either from mangrove endophytes or from soil-derived mangrove fungi and bacteria, covering the literature from 2014 to March 2018. Accordingly, 163 natural products are described in this review, possessing a wide range of potent bioactivities, such as cytotoxic, antibacterial, antifungal, a-glucosidase inhibitory, protein tyrosine phosphatase B inhibitory, and antiviral activities, among others. Keywords: mangrove microorganisms; bioactive natural products; endophytes; drug leads 1. Introduction Mangrove (mangal) communities represent a coastal habitat located in tropical and subtropical intertidal estuarine zones, occurring in 112 countries, and mostly attributed to latitudes between 30◦ N and 30◦ S[1]. Special ecological conditions of mangroves include relatively high tidal range, high average temperature with little seasonal fluctuation, high salinity, strong winds, and muddy anaerobic or sandy soil [1–3]. The flora of these communities includes the so-called “exclusive” or true mangroves as well as “nonexclusive” mangrove species that inhabit other terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems (semi-mangrove or mangrove associates). Tomlinson defines true mangroves by several criteria, including exclusive occurrence in mangrove ecosystem, morphological adaptations (e.g., aerial roots and viviparous, water-dispersed propagules), physiological mechanisms for salt exclusion/excretion, as well as taxonomical distinctness from terrestrial species (at least at the generic level), albeit all these characteristics are not necessary to be present among one plant species [1]. One of the main extreme habitat factors that influences mangroves is high salinity, resulting in the following specific leaf traits and osmotic properties of true mangroves: lower specific leaf area, higher succulence, lower K+/Na+ ratio, higher Na+ and Cl− contents, and hence higher osmolality in contrast to semi-mangrove plants [4]. Since mangrove ecosystems can be viewed as an extreme environment, which demands various morphological and physiological adaptations of inhabiting species, the biosynthetic potential of the latter to produce a distinct array of novel chemical entities is apparent. Thus, the mangrove ecosystem is considered as an attractive biodiversity hotspot that is intensively investigated in the hope of discovering new structural scaffolds, including those with Mar. Drugs 2018, 16, 319; doi:10.3390/md16090319 www.mdpi.com/journal/marinedrugs Mar. Drugs 2018,, 1616,, 319x FOR PEER REVIEW 22of of 3132 applications. Indeed, studies on secondary metabolites from mangrove plants in the past were found medicinalto be quite applications.fruitful, and gave Indeed, rise to studies new carbon on secondary frameworks metabolites accompanied from by mangrove pronounced plants biological in the pastactiviti werees [2]. found Notable to be quiterecent fruitful, examples and of gave bioactive rise to derivatives new carbon from frameworks mangroves accompanied include the by pronouncedtetranortriterpenoids biological xylogranatins activities [2]. NotableA–D [5] recent and krischnadimer examples of bioactive A [6], derivativesas well as fromthe triterpenoid mangroves includeparacaseolin the tetranortriterpenoids[7] possessing potent xylogranatins cytotoxic activit A–D [y5 ]toward and krischnadimer cancerous cell A [s,6], the as welllimonoids as the triterpenoidkrishnolides paracaseolinA–D with anti [7]-HIV possessing activity potent [8], and cytotoxic thaixylomolin activity towardB with anti cancerous-inflammatory cells, the properties limonoids krishnolides[9]. Furthermore, A–D withsecondary anti-HIV metabolites activity [8 ],from and thaixylomolintypical mangrove B with plants anti-inflammatory of the genera properties Xylocarpus [9]., Furthermore,Avicennia, Rhizophora secondary, and metabolites Bruguiera signific from typicalantly mangroveenriched our plants current of the knowledge genera Xylocarpus of the chemistry, Avicennia of, Rhizophoracomplex tetranorterpenoids, and Bruguiera significantly (limonoids), enriched di- and ourtriterpenoids, current knowledge and iridoids, of the among chemistry others of [2,10]. complex tetranorterpenoidsMangrove-associated (limonoids), microorganisms, di- and triterpenoids, including and fungal iridoids, and amongbacterial others endophytes [2,10]. , as well as microbesMangrove-associated derived from soil microorganisms, samples, have including likewise fungal drawn and the bacterial attention endophytes, of natural as product well as microbesresearchers. derived Remarkable from soil discoveries samples, have of bioactive likewise drawnxyloketals the attention with unprecedented of natural product structures researchers. from RemarkableXylaria sp. [11] discoveries and salinosporamide of bioactive xyloketals A from the with mangrove unprecedented bacterium structures Salinospora from Xylaria tropicasp. [12] [11 in] andthe salinosporamideearly 2000s indicated A from a great the mangrovepotential for bacterium drug discoverySalinospora and tropica inspired[12] further in the early studies 2000s on indicatedmicrobes aderived great potential from mangroves. for drug discovery Intensive andinvestigation inspired further of the studieslatter resulted on microbes in more derived than from350 publications mangroves. Intensivethat appeared investigation during of the the latterlast ten resulted years in, morefocusing than on 350 natural publications product that appearedchemistry, during bioactivity, the last tenbiotechnology years, focusing, and on chemical natural productsynthesis chemistry, of their bioactivity, bioactive biotechnology,metabolites, thus and demonstrating chemical synthesis the ofpotential their bioactive of mangrove metabolites,-associated thus microbes demonstrating as a prolific the potential source of of lead mangrove-associated compounds [13]. Particularly, microbes as aover prolific the sourcelast decade, of lead research compounds on these [13]. Particularly,microbes resulted over the in last characteri decade,z researchation of onalmost these 1 microbes000 new resultedmetabolites, in characterization among them, ~850 of almost derived 1000 from new fungi metabolites, (the majority among of them,them obtained ~850 derived as endophytes) from fungi, (theand majority~120 from of bacteria them obtained [14]. Thus, as endophytes),the overall trend and in ~120 the fromnumber bacteria of experimental [14]. Thus, articles the overall dedicated trend into thedescription number ofof experimental new/bioactive articles mangrove dedicated-derived to description metabolites of over new/bioactive the past ten mangrove-derived years, remains metabolitespromising (Figure over the 1) past[13].ten years, remains promising (Figure1)[13]. Figure 1.1. NumberNumber ofof publicationspublications describingdescribing newnew and/orand/or bioactive mangrove-associatedmangrove-associated secondary metabolites covering the period 2007–2017.2007–2017. Source: MarinLit database and series of annual reviews by Blunt etet al.al. in Natural Product ReportsReports [[13,14].13,14]. ArticlesArticles onon mangrove-associatedmangrove-associated fungi and bacteria include bothboth ecologicalecological groups,groups, plant-plant- andand soil-derivedsoil-derived microorganisms.microorganisms. Attempts to estimate estimate fungal fungal and and bacterial bacterial diversity diversity from from soil soil samples samples collected collected in inmangroves mangroves of ofSaudi Saudi Arabia, Arabia, China, China, Brazil Brazil,, and and India India showed showed a ahigh high diversity diversity of of associated associated microbes microbes [15 [15––1919].]. Interestingly, aa studystudy directeddirected towardstowards thethe estimationestimation of bacterial diversity, utilizing 16S rRNA sequencing, demonstrated that the bacterial communitycommunity of pristinepristine mangrovemangrove sedimentssediments containscontains species that are mostlymostly unrelatedunrelated toto knownknown bacteriabacteria [[19].19]. Moreover, analysis of culturableculturable fungal endophytes collectedcollected in in Brazil Brazil indicated indicated that that among among fungal fungal isolates isolates some speciessome species could not could be classified not be withinclassified any within known an generay known [20 genera]. These [20] investigations,. These investigations, together with together promising with promising results from
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