CYBERPSYCHOLOGY & BEHAVIOR Volume 4, Number 1, 2001 Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. How Spatial Is Hyperspace? Interacting with Hypertext Documents: Cognitive Processes and Concepts PATRICIA M. BOECHLER ABSTRACT The World Wide Web provides us with a widely accessible technology, fast access to massive amounts of information and services, and the opportunity for personal interaction with nu- merous individuals simultaneously. Underlying and influencing all of these activities is our basic conceptualization of this new environment; an environment we can view as having a cognitive component (hyperspace) and a social component (cyberspace). This review argues that cognitive psychologists have a key role to play in the identification and analysis of how the processes of the mind interact with the Web. The body of literature on cognitive processes provides us with knowledge about spatial perceptions, strategies for navigation in space, memory functions and limitations, and the formation of mental representations of environ- ments. Researchers of human cognition can offer established methodologies and conceptual frameworks toward investigation of the cognitions involved in the use of electronic envi- ronments like the Web. INTRODUCTION only a new cognitive environment (“hyper- space”) where information is perceived, stored, OR CENTURIES, TEXT-BASED LITERATURE has manipulated, and retrieved in new ways, but Fbeen the primary mode for disseminating also a new social environment (“cyberspace”), and receiving information. The cognitive where one individual’s cognitions about this processes involved in reading and writing new environment interact with those of other books have been studied extensively for people who share it. Unlike physical space, the decades as they have played a crucial role in World Wide Web is not constrained by dis- the development of humankind. In the past two tance. Interactions between individuals can be decades, hypertext systems (computer-based numerous and instantaneous. The possibilities information systems of interconnected docu- for enhancing individuals’ lives through easily ments) have become increasingly pervasive in accessed personal interactions and the avail- work, home, and educational environments. ability of online services are abundant. With the advent of the World Wide Web, these The study of hypertext systems is a multi- information systems are heavily influencing disciplinary venture. Psychologists, computer how we develop as a society. However, unlike scientists, and educators all bring different ap- traditional text information sources, the World proaches and goals to the effort. Cognitive psy- Wide Web is interactive. This has created not chologists wish to know how humans concep- Psychology Department, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 23 24 BOECHLER tualize hyperspace and the nature of the men- performance, and spatial processing. Under- tal representations they form of hyperspace. standing the cognitive aspects of hyperspace Social psychologists want to understand how will help us to develop optimal technologies this new way of communicating impacts an in- that will guide the way we use the social envi- dividual’s sense of self, their social sphere, the ronment of cyberspace. Understanding the cog- group dynamics of this new environment, and nitive processes that shape many different in- the effect on society at large in both a regional dividuals’ perceptions of hyperspace will and global sense. Clinical psychologists are in- facilitate the creation of technologies that are vestigating the ways that these systems can be accessible to a wide range of people with a used to provide psychological services. Com- wide range of characteristics (e.g., age differ- puter scientists and software developers want ences) and skills (e.g., level of literacy). For the to know how to design an optimal interface for uninitiated, traversing the World Wide Web in users. Educators are interested in how this search of solutions to everyday problems can technology can be applied to enhance learning. be extremely daunting and can often end in This can be advantageous as a broad knowl- failure to locate useful information or access edge base and diverse perspectives are brought needed services. Providing navigation tools to bear on the topic. However, it also results in that are based on the cognitive processes of the lack of a unified theoretical foundation for users will do much toward making the World hypertext. Relative to many other areas of psy- Wide Web an accessible resource for everyone. chological study, research on the cognitive as- Psychological processes are often described pects of using such systems is in its infancy; via metaphors.3,4 Hyperspace is a dynamic, in- models and paradigms are still being devel- teractive space requiring new psychological oped. metaphors, new ways of thinking and inter- One point to note is that the above-mentioned preting information. However, before we can endeavors are not as distinct as one might ini- devise new metaphors that portray this envi- tially suppose. Basic cognitive processes (e.g., ronment accurately, it is prudent to closely ex- memory, perception, etc.) are the underpin- amine previous metaphors to identify benefi- nings for more complex processes (e.g., so- cial aspects that can act as a foundation for new cial–emotional responses to our environment). metaphors. In the real world, we’ve identified many rela- One overarching metaphor seems to domi- tionships between basic cognitions and social nate the hypertext literature: the spatial responses.1,2 There are numerous instances of metaphor. The spatial metaphor arose out of a our perceptions of physical space producing need for a common language to discuss hy- psychosocial consequences (e.g., personal space pertext issues and a framework within which being violated, overcrowding, feeling lost). It is to develop usable interfaces. Its basic premise reasonable to suppose that how we perceive is that locating information in hyperspace has hyperspace may affect our social interactions similar psychological features to navigating in within it. Understanding our cognitive reac- physical space. Therefore, promoting mental tions to hyperspace may well aid us in pre- representations of spatial layouts of informa- dicting some of our social and emotional re- tion is a good approach to improving the hy- sponses to this new environment. To fully take pertext user’s ability to access information.5,6 advantage of the opportunities offered by cy- Navigational tools modeled after real-world berspace, we need to comprehend clearly how navigational aids such as maps appear to en- individuals take in information from hyper- hance performance on some measures7–11 but space. not on others.12–16 Correlational data on the re- To this end, the traditional paradigms and lationship between spatial ability and perfor- theories of cognitive psychology have much to mance has shown increases in speed of perfor- offer, providing us with established method- mance with higher spatial ability,17,18 but ologies and conceptual frameworks for explor- marginal effects on the accuracy of perfor- ing different facets of cognition relevant to hy- mance.19 Therefore, the empirical evidence to pertext navigation, such as memory, task date has not resolved the issue of how or to HOW SPATIAL IS HYPERSPACE? 25 what degree spatial processing is involved in uments that contain images, audio, and video the efficiency and effectiveness of hypertext clips are referred to as “hypermedia” docu- use. ments. In the hypermedia literature the terms The spatial metaphor seems easily under- “hypertext” and “hypermedia” are often used stood by novice users. However, if it is not an interchangeably. 20 accurate metaphor for the mental processes Each hypertext window contains icons that that humans engage in as they interact with hy- can be pictorial symbols or highlighted words pertext, or if we do not understand the aspects (hotwords). A window can contain any num- of the comparison that make the metaphor ben- ber of these icons. The icon represents the link eficial, then as more and more complex, pow- to the database for that particular piece of in- erful systems are developed this metaphor will formation. When clicked on with a pointing de- eventually be less useful. This would be so for vice (usually a mouse), the icon activates the both the goal of achieving optimal access to in- link to the referenced node in the database and formation and the goal of presenting informa- a new window is instantaneously opened con- tion in a form that can enhance social interac- taining the information in that node. Nodes tion or learning. that hold related information are linked. Some The following review draws from many di- nodes will have a multitude of links, both to verse areas of cognitive psychological study to and from other nodes based on their related- bring forth questions whose answers could ness, whereas other nodes may only have in- greatly impact the benefits we are able to gar- coming links. It is important to stress that links ner from cyberspace. It is an in-depth look at are not merely connections between nodes but the possible ways we can view the new envi- that they should specify the semantic relation- ronment of the World Wide Web. This may or ships between nodes. The author of the hyper- may not be as a space, therefore, this review text document is the engineer of the links based also critically examines the spatial metaphor on his or her semantic network; that is, his or for hypertext interaction. her conceptions of the interconnectedness of ideas within the chosen material.21,22 Links can be organized in two ways: in a hi- erarchical structure or in a network structure. AN INTRODUCTION TO HYPERTEXT In a hierarchical structure, nodes are only linked to the superordinate information above What is hypertext? them or the subordinate information below Generally, a hypertext system is an electronic them.21,23 In a network structure, any node can system of interconnected units of information be linked to any other. Multiple links can exist or text nodes.