CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY AT SILSOE James Webster Culture’s Influence Towards Understanding Stakeholder Interactions in Rural Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion Projects Institute of Water and Environment PhD Thesis CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY AT SILSOE Institute of Water and Environment PhD Thesis Academic Year 2005/6 James Webster Culture’s Influence Towards Understanding Stakeholder Interactions in Rural Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion Projects Supervisor: Professor Richard Carter August 2006 A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy © Cranfield University ABSTRACT Variations frequently occur between the intended and actual outcomes of rural water, sanitation and hygiene promotion projects, even projects that exhibit best practice. As a result, the intended impact of poverty reduction through sustained health improvements is diminished. This thesis establishes that inadequate consideration of culture in interactions between and within project stakeholders is a major reason for these unintended project outcomes. Aspects of individual and group behaviour that are influenced by culture are examined, and an initial conceptual framework of established cultural dimensions developed. This framework is then applied to a broad variety of stakeholder groups: seven end user groups and two implementing agencies in Ethiopia and Uganda; national Governments and international donor organisations. As a result, two new cultural dimensions are proposed. Firstly, concern for public self- image, defined as ‘the degree to which an individual expresses interest in how others perceive him/herself, and the manner in which the individual seeks to influence that perception’. Secondly, spirituality, defined as ‘the nature and degree of people’s beliefs and practices concerning the existence, nature, and worship of, and connectedness to God, a god, gods, or a greater spiritual whole, and involvement of the divine or greater spirit in the universe and human life’. Aspects of these dimensions that need to be measured are identified. Hierarchies of cultural dimensions are identified where a certain combination of individual or group orientations causes the suppression or even reversal of behaviour in a dimension. Modifications to established cultural dimensions are recommended, especially long-term orientation which the author proposes renaming to ‘resistance to change’. A multidisciplinary approach that reflects the complexities of group behaviour and converges research findings is recommended, including utilising software that simulates complex systems. Recommendations are made for development practitioners, especially to enhance participation, promote femininity and achieve lasting change through training. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express sincere thanks to all the interviewees of this thesis for their openness and patience in the face of detailed questioning – this research is your mouthpiece. I am indebted to the translators, Yetesha Yemedie, Haile Yesus Bekele, Getu Garisho, Tsegaye Medihin, Gezahgn Dejachew and William Kebemera for their meticulous and hard work. It was through many experiences and discussions whilst living and working with the staff of the two implementing agencies, the Ethiopian and Ugandan church programmes, that the initial idea for this thesis emerged, and the subsequent ideas refined. To them all I am most grateful. In particular I would like to thank Rev. Canon George Bagamuhunda, Kenneth Bekunda, Mogus Mehari, Gezahgn Dejachew, Sehin Yelma, and Tsegaye Medihin for their warm friendship and contributions. The key informants provided many invaluable insights: to them, and in particular Ralph Wiegand and Keith Etherington, I am most grateful. Whilst in Ethiopia, Dr. Gerrit-Jan van Uffelen provided much needed support, encouragement and humour, and David Hicks good companionship, for which I am very thankful. Tearfund and the Kale Heywet Church agreed to allow me to dedicate one-fifth of my time to this research whilst in their employ in Ethiopia. To them and the following donors I am indebted and extremely grateful: The Alexis Trust; The Alfred Haynes Charitable Trust; Burdens Charitable Foundation; The Hinchley Charitable Trust; The Kulika Trust; Mrs L D Rope's Third Charitable Settlement; The Norman Evershed Trust; The Ogle Christian Trust; The Roger & Sarah Bancroft Clark Charitable Trust; and The Sarum St. Michael Educational Charity. I could not have wished for a better thesis committee. Dr. Peter Robbins was particularly helpful during the interviews. A very special thankyou goes to my main supervisor, Professor Richard Carter, for all his tireless and valuable input: this research would never have happened without him. James Webster Ph.D. Thesis – Cranfield University at Silsoe 2006 My wife, Deborah, has cheerfully and willingly supported me throughout these seven years of research. She has been an invaluable sounding board for ideas, and I cannot thank her enough. My three daughters, Sarah, Rebecca and Jessica have also been very understanding, and can now have their father back. In particular, Sarah can now have her bedroom / my study back – thankyou. Lastly, and by no means least, I wish to express unreserved thanks to Almighty God for the support, strength and inspiration to undertake and complete this research. DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to Genet Tesfaye, with whom I had the privilege to work alongside in the Ethiopian church programme. She was a dear sister in Christ, was loved by many and after a long struggle with cancer, finally went home in May 2006. James Webster Ph.D. Thesis – Cranfield University at Silsoe 2006 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................... i LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ORGANISATIONS.......................iii GLOSSARY................................................................................................ iv 1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................... 1 1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT......................................................................................1 1.2 BEST PRACTICE....................................................................................................4 1.2.1 Gender mainstreaming....................................................................................5 1.2.2 Hygiene promotion.........................................................................................5 1.2.3 Participation....................................................................................................6 1.2.4 Sustainability and on-going support...............................................................6 1.2.5 Monitoring and evaluation..............................................................................6 1.2.6 Information dissemination..............................................................................6 1.3 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM ..........................................................8 1.4 THE PARAMETERS OF THE PROBLEM..........................................................10 1.5 THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM....................................................................13 1.6 RESEARCH QUESTION AND PROPOSITION .................................................16 1.7 AIM AND OBJECTIVES......................................................................................16 1.7.1 Aim ...............................................................................................................16 1.7.2 Objectives .....................................................................................................16 1.8 THESIS STRUCTURE..........................................................................................19 2 METHODOLOGY............................................................................ 20 2.1 EVOLUTION OF THESIS AIMS AND METHODOLOGY ...............................20 2.2 THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF METHODOLOGY............................................22 2.2.1 Social research..............................................................................................22 2.2.2 Qualitative and quantitative research ...........................................................26 2.2.3 Principles of qualitative research..................................................................30 2.2.4 Grounded theory...........................................................................................31 2.2.5 The distinction between cultural and topical interviews ..............................31 2.2.6 Summary.......................................................................................................32 2.3 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF METHODOLOGY .................................................32 2.3.1 Author’s experience and qualifications ........................................................32 2.3.2 The research arena ........................................................................................34 2.3.3 Interview methodology.................................................................................40 James Webster Ph.D. Thesis – Cranfield University at Silsoe 2006 • Openness and confidentiality...................................................................40 • Interview location ....................................................................................40 • Dealing with interference.........................................................................41