C are in C aptivity

Captive Care of the African spurred tortoise, Geochelone sulcata Kendra E. Stauffer, DVM Patton Veterinary Hospital, 425 E Broadway, Red Lion PA, 17356, USA

A bstract: The African spurred tortoise, Geochelone sulcata, is a popular species kept in captivity due to its high reproductive rate and relative hardiness. Unfortunately, because of their large size, tortoise adoption facil­ ities are being overwhelmed with unwanted adults. Husbandry, reproduction, medical and surgical considerations are addressed to better inform the practitioner and the caretaker. Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhms/article-pdf/13/4/38/2208039/1529-9651_13_4_38.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021

Key W ords: African spurred tortoise, Geochelone sulcata, pyramiding, cystic calculi, mycoplasma, reptile, anesthesia.

I ntroduction convention. Habitat destruction, capture for international trade, and consumption by the local people, have significantly j Commonly known as the African spurred, furrowed, or decreased populations in their native countries (Lambert,! Sulcata tortoise, Geochelone sulcata originates in the Sahel 1993). African spurred tortoises are a symbol of longevity and region of Africa, along the southern edge of the Sahara are considered good luck charms in Mali and are therefore Desert. This 500 km wide strip includes parts of Ethiopia, commonly kept as pets (Perloni, 1988). There are several cap-| Chad, Niger, Mali, southern Mauritania and Senegal tive breeding programs located in Senegal with the intention (Pritchard CH, 1979, Ernst and Barbour, 1989). African of repopulation, additional information can be found at spurred tortoises are listed in the Appendix II of the CITES www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html.

Figure 1. An adult male African spurred tortoise, Geochelone sulcata, at the Miami Natural History Museum in Florida. Photo by Donal M. Boyer, courtesy of the Zoological Society of San Diego.

38 Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery Volume 13, No. 4,2003 Housing - African spurred tortoise should have a clean, dry enclosure with access to food and water, full-spectrum light­ ing, warm and cool areas (allowing for thermoregulation), a simulated (or real) burrow or hide-box, and protection from predators or other hazards. A six-inch juvenile will be easier to house than a two-foot adult, but the same general needs must be met. A juvenile tortoise can be easily housed in a large plastic tub or similar container, and as it grows (rapidly), can be moved to a “tortoise table” which is an enclosure with low sides built of wood or plastic (further described on the hous­ ing section of the African spurred tortoise care sheet at www.chelonian.org) or “tortoise room” as size dictates. The best place for an African spurred tortoise is outside pen (with Figure 2. An adult male actively pursuing a female African a sturdy solid surface fence) to allow exposure to sunlight andDownloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhms/article-pdf/13/4/38/2208039/1529-9651_13_4_38.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 spurred tortoise. Photo by Donal M. Boyer, courtesy of the more natural foraging and digging behaviors. This can be Zoological Society of San Diego. done on a temporary basis when daily conditions permit in The native habitat of the African spurred tortoise consists of colder climates, or more permanently in warmer arid dry savannah and semi-desert areas. They rely on mois­ areas.Physical damage to the tortoise and the fence will occur ture in food to meet their needs, and conserve water by if the fencing used is a broken surface such as chain link or several methods. These tortoises have thick skin to limit lattice. Wherever you house them, specific conditions must be moisture loss, they expel very little liquid urine, and they dig met to maintain health as described below. burrows (avg. 76 cm depth) to escape the hottest, driest part African spurred tortoise prefer a temperature range of 20 gj of the day. The deepest part of the burrow has a higher 32°C (70 - 90°F). During the day, there should be a basking humidity level and decreased air flow when compared to sur­ area 29 - 35°C (85 - 95°F), and a cool area 18 - 24°C (65 - face air contributing to increased water conservation by the 75 °F) to allow the animals to regulate their preferred tempera­ tortoise. African spurred tortoise is the world’s third largest ture. Recommended day length is 12 hr. Nighttime land chelonian, surpassed only by the Galapagos and Aldabra temperatures may drop to 16°C (60°F) but ideally should be tortoises. Adults will frequently exceed 60 cm (24 in) in kept around 20°C for adults. Remember that although they can survive lower temperatures, it stresses the animals, and length, and can weigh 6 8 kg (150 lbs) or more (Figures 1 and 2). Full size is usually achieved by 10 to 15 yr of age, longer contributes to health problems. Heat provided by radiant in the wild. The shell is generally oval, and the carapace is sources such as heat-lamps or ceramic emitters more accu­ dorsally flattened with steep sides. The scutes are generally rately simulate solar warming during basking than under-tank brown to beige, and display prominent growth rings. Some heaters and “hot rocks” (which are likely to bum animals individuals may have darker scute margins surrounding tan when used as a heat source). Temperatures should be moni­ centers. The plastron is a cream to tan color, and the thick tored regularly as over-heating can lead to dehydration, and skin is a golden brown. The plastron is well developed and cold temperatures will favor respiratory disease and poor has a deep anal notch, and prominent, forked gular scutes. digestive function. The head is fairly blunt, with a mildly hooked upper beak. The African spurred tortoise does NOT hibernate. This tor­ The forelimbs have longitudinal rows of large, knobby scales, toise is active all year although it may go through periods of and the hind leg displays two or three large, conical tubercles winter cooling and summer estivation. or spurs (Ernst and Barbour, 1989, Alderton, 1992). Although controlled studies are lacking, it is suggested to Males are generally larger, and have longer thicker tails than provide full-spectrum lighting, including both UVA (stimu­ females, as well as a more concave plastron and reach sexual lates natural behavior) and UVB (activation of vitamin D). maturity at 35 cm (14” - 15”) (Ernst and Barbour, 1989). Natural sunlight is best, and tortoises that spend some time Females reach sexual maturity at 45 cm (17” - 18”), have a outside will probably get enough ultraviolet exposure. Most glass and plastic block ultraviolet light however, some prod­ shorter tail, and have a wider, rounder anal notch (Gurley, ucts allow for penetration of UV light. These can be used in 2002). Both sexes have large gular projections but in males, greenhouse applications or for skylights and windows. these tend to be larger and more flared (Figures 3 -4 ). Products are: Solacryl SUVT™ panels (Polycast Technology Corp., Stanford, CT) with 85% UV-B transmission, and Captivity - African spurred tortoises have become very pop­ Acrylite® OP-4 Acrylic Sheet (Cyro Industries, 100 ular in captivity. This is due to their robust nature, engaging Enterprise Drive, Rockaway, NJ) with 80% transmission of personalities, and successful captive breeding. Housing and UV-A and UV-B. Fluorescent full spectrum lights should be feeding can become a problem for some due to their longevi­ within about 30 - 45cm (12 - 18") of the animals to provide ty, large size, burrowing habits, and voracious appetites. This enough intensity. The self-ballasted mercury vapor lamps pro­ has led to a surplus of adult tortoises that have outgrown their vide heat, UVA, and UVB and depending on bulb wattage, owners’ facilities or attention spans. Potential owners should should be placed from 30 cm to 1.2 m (1 - 4 ft) from basking be counseled regarding the major commitment of time and site (Active UVHeat bulbs distributed by Wild Inside Box space they are making when purchasing these animals. 228 Mina, NV, T-Rex Products Inc., 1124 Bay Blvd Suite A,

Volume 13, No. 4,2003 Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery 39 Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhms/article-pdf/13/4/38/2208039/1529-9651_13_4_38.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 Figure 4. An adult female African spurred tortoise, Geochelone sulcata, showing a much less pronounced gular projection. Photo by Donal M. Boyer, courtesy of the Zoological Society of San Diego. For indoor tortoises, a wide range of materials can be used! for substrate, from simple newspaper, to hay, or commercially'! available pelleted substrates. Pelleted alfalfa is often too high J in protein and other minerals and likely to contribute to I improper growth of juveniles. The main concerns with a sub-f strate are that it be kept clean, and that it be non-obstructing! when ingested. Most reptiles eat bedding, whether by acci-i dent or intentionally. Items like pebbles, tree-bark, crushed I walnut shells, corncob, or silica-sand can be problematic'! because of the potential to form obstructions of the gastro-B Figure 3. A mature adult male African spurred tortoise, intestinal tract that may require surgical correction. Similarly, j Geochelone sulcata, showing the large gular projection which is any foreign objects in their enclosures may be ingested if pos- 1 used in combat. Photo by Donal M. Boyer, courtesy of the sible, so any small objects should be avoided. Zoological Society of San Diego. African spurred tortoise are very big, very strong, and very 1 persistent. Enclosures need to be sturdy enough to withstand 1 Chula Vista, CA and Zoo Med Laboratories, Inc. 3100 constant and repeated assault by a single-minded tortoise that I McMillan Rd, San Luis Obispo, CA). has decided that a wall or fence is not going to keep it from 1 Although they are adapted to arid conditions, these tortoises traveling in a particular direction. They will wear grooves in 1 do need some moisture to avoid dehydration. An occasional the floor with their claws, dent the walls with their shells, and 1 (one to two times per week) warm-water soak (five to ten dig in the least convenient places. In one case, an African I minutes) is a good way to provide extra moisture. A shallow spurred tortoise flooded an owner’s basement with heating oil 1 container filled with enough warm water to cover the plastron when it ripped the oil line off the furnace (Innis, pers. com. , 1 will allow the tortoise to gain needed water by drinking or by 2002). However, if one is equipped to take care of a African fl absorbing it through the vent into the bladder or colon. It will spurred tortoise, it will make a long-lived, interesting and! also stimulate urination and defecation. Outdoor tortoises can rewarding reptile pet. be given access to a shallow pool or dish of water (keep it clean), or an occasional “rain” from the hose when the weath­ Nutrition - Like most grassland tortoises, the African spurred 1 er is warm. tortoise is a vegetarian, subsisting in the wild on a variety of i A “burrow” can be as simple as a cardboard box, a small grasses, succulent plants, blossoms and occasionally fruit. I wastebasket, or other structure that the tortoise can get in or The actual native diet is difficult to replicate in captivity, but I under. It should be dark and semi-enclosed, offering the ani­ African spurred tortoise seems to do quite well with a variety I mal a place to feel secure. The burrow temperature should be of grasses, hays, vegetables and a small portions of fruits. It I about 21 -23°C (70 - 75°F) to support digestion. For larger should also be noted that in captivity they tend to be I tortoises housed outdoors, a plastic doghouse makes for a coprophagous. This may be a way to gain vitamins produced I good shelter, and also can be easily cleaned or moved as by the bacteria in the hindgut but there are no controlled stud- 1 needed. Limit movement of shelters to minimize stress to tor­ ies or published literature regarding this. toises. The best outdoor situation would be to allow the An important component of the tortoise diet is plant fiber. B tortoise to dig it’s own burrow. Burrows should be in an area Fiber is important for bacterial fermentation in the large inteS-1 that will not flood during heavy rains and should be moni­ tine. The product of this process is volatile fatty acids, which I tored regularly for structural integrity as cave-ins could trap are absorbed from the intestine and metabolized as an energy I tortoises. Fencing of the enclosure should be sturdy, solid, source for the body. A balanced tortoise diet should be 1 and recessed into the ground at least 60 cm ( 2 ft). approximately 22 - 23% fiber (Donoghue, 2002) on a dry I

40 Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery Volume 13, No. 4,2003 matter basis. This fiber should consist primarily of cellulose, by 25 cm, 9 in by 9 in) is located at the bottom of the nest, and may be derived from Opuntia sp. cactus (spineless prick­ which may be up to 60 cm wide (23 in) and 30 cm (12 in) ly pear), various grasses (timothy, Bermuda, buffalo, fescue), deep. It is difficult to provide appropriate nesting sites if alfalfa, clovers, mulberry leaves, grape leaves, leafy green indoors. Up to three or four clutches of eggs per breeding sea­ vegetables (romaine, collards, endive, dandelions, mustard), son may occur in captivity. and smaller amounts of fruits and blossoms. The best way for Eggs should be incubated in a warm humid environment to tortoises to get their required fiber is by grazing, as they prevent drying out. In environments similar to native ones, would in the wild. Most grasses and clover will supply an i.e. southwestern United States, most hatch without artificial adequate base for the diet. Grazing areas should be free of incubation. Moist vermiculite is a good substrate for incuba­ pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. If grazing is not an tion. A small amount of air exchange is important to provide option due to space or climate, pasture grasses can be grown oxygen to the developing embryos. This can be as simple as indoors or purchased and fed to tortoises. High quality grass periodically opening the lid of the incubator, or can involve hay is another option and can also make a good base for a air holes for constant exchange. The temperature of incuba­ nutritious diet. tion will determine the time to hatching and sex of the The other main requirement for a healthy diet is a balanced hatchlings. Success has been achieved in the range of 27 -

array of minerals and vitamins. Calcium is important for most 32°C (81 - 90°F). At 28°C (82°F) hatching may take 120Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhms/article-pdf/13/4/38/2208039/1529-9651_13_4_38.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 - body functions because it is required for many cellular 170 d and produce mostly males, but at 30°C (8 6 °F), this may processes including contraction of smooth and skeletal mus­ be reduced to 85 - 100 d and will produce mostly females. At cle, egg shell production, nerve impulse transmission and 30°C (8 6 °F) the majority of the hatchlings will be females and glandular secretion. A good diet maintains a calcium:phos- the lower temperature for incubation will produce mostly phorus ratio of 2 - 3:1, which can be achieved by limiting males. From the first pipping, it can take 24 to 72 hr for fruits and non-leafy vegetables, which tend to be higher in hatchling emergence (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1996, Highfield, phosphorus. Providing a calcium supplement can help raise 1996, Paul, 1997, Wilson, 1997). dietary calcium, however this should not be required with a The needs of hatchlings are similar to older tortoises. There proper diet. Ongoing nutritional studies support a calcium must be a heat source to allow for thermoregulation. Diet level of 1.2 - 2.5% on a DM basis (Donoghue, 2002). Some should be similar to older animals, but cut into bite-sized leafy vegetables contain oxalates that bind to calcium, pre­ pieces, with a small amount of vitamin/mineral supplementa­ venting its absorption. These include spinach, kale, rhubarb tion two to three times a week. Walkabout Farms Hatchling leaves, and to a lesser degree collard and mustard greens. Mix, is a balanced diet and extra supplementation is not nec­ There are also several weed species that can contain oxalates. essary. Periodic soaking in room temperature or warm, Local extension offices should be able to help with identifica­ shallow water will keep them hydrated, and encourage elimi­ tion of such plants. Further research with controlled studies nation. A shallow, clean water source should also be available needs to be performed to determine the relevance of oxalates at all times. Hatchlings should be housed in an area with lim­ in tortoise nutrition (Innis, 1994). A list of toxic plants can be ited terrain to prevent situations which may lead to them found at www.chelonia.org/Articles/plantsthatposion.htm. A flipping over. In the past year, hypomelanistic and albino few of the more common ones are foxglove, mistletoe, olean­ morphs have become available on the pet trade. der, poinsettia, rhododendron, and yews. The author uses Walkabout Farm’s Quantum Series grass­ Common Medical Problems - Pyramiding - Fast growth in land tortoise mixes for animals housed indoors and as an young tortoises can lead to “pyramiding” of the carapace addition to outdoor grazing. They can be purchased from scutes, in which each scute has a raised profile, suggestive of Nutritional Support Services Inc., Walkabout Farm, PO Box a pyramid. The etiology of pyramiding is multi-factorial and 625, Pembroke VA 24136, http://herpnutrition.com/grassland- probably includes diet, hydration, temperature, activity level tortoises.htm. and genetics (Innis, 1994). Until further research is complet­ ed, growth rates should be regulated with diets that are high Reproduction - African spurred tortoise is a prolific breeder in fiber, appropriate ratios of soluble:insoluble fibers, nutri­ in captivity, which accounts for the wide availability of this ents balanced to metabolizable energy, with opportunities for tortoise in the pet trade. Males typically reach maturity at 35 exercise on substrate with sure footing (Donoghue, 2001). cm (14 in) length and will become more aggressive toward The main portion of the diet should be high-fiber, low energy each other. Their combative behaviors may result in lacera­ foods such as grass or hay. tions or trauma to the head and limbs. Mature males should be housed separately, or in large enough enclosures to limit Obesity - The abundance of food coupled with the lack of male rivalry. exercise in captivity predisposes land tortoises to obesity. Captive breeding in North America occurs in summer and Annual or biannual physical exams by a veterinarian are rec­ fall, depending on local conditions. The male mounts the ommended to monitor growth and overall health. As in other female several times per day, pinning her with his weight. animals, obesity can lead to heart disease, liver disorders, and Breeding takes about 1 5 -3 0 min, during which the male musculoskeletal stress. may vocalize repeatedly. Eggs are usually laid approximately 30 d later, in a clutch of 15 - 30 eggs. The females will usual­ Parasites - Careful inspection should be made for ticks and ly exhibit reduced feed intake and nesting behavior for these should be removed manually. Permethrin (Permethrin several days or weeks before oviposition. She may dig several II, Aspen Veterinary Products, Kansas City, MO and Provent- trial nests if the substrate permits. The egg chamber (25 cm a-Mite™, Pro Products, Mahopac, NY) and cyfluthrin

Volume 13, No. 4,2003 Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery 41 (Cylence®, Bayer Corp., Shawnee Mission, KS) diluted to a Trauma - As with other chelonians, wild or captive, trau­ 0 .0 1 % solution, have been shown to be safe and effective as matic injuries are common. Frequent causes include attacks an ectoparasiticide (Burridge, 2000). African ticks can be the by dogs or other predators (especially raccoons), and com­ vectors for foreign animal diseases, and suspected African bative behavior by other tortoises. Housing of tortoises in the ticks should be submitted to state or federal authorities same enclosure with dogs is not recommended. Different (Burridge, 2000, Wozniak, et al, 2000). Subepidermal mites techniques for shell repair have been discussed in the litera­ have been reported in one African spurred tortoise. The mites ture (Barten, 1996, Bonner, 2000, Richards, 2001). caused an excoriating lesion and were treated effectively with chlorhexidine diacetate surgical soap. The taxonomic Bladder stones - Bladder stones are a common problem in identification of the mites is under investigation (Nicasio, et some tortoise species. Although the cause is unknown, they al, 2002). Myiasis can occur when damage to the integument may occur from dietary mineral and/or protein imbalances, has occurred or in debilitated tortoises. Ill or injured tortoises lack of adequate hydration, urine retention, abnormalities in should be housed indoors during treatment. excretion of minerals, and altered urine pH. In a study com­ Flagellated protozoans in the genuses H exam ita, prising 49 samples of six lizards and 43 chelonians, the most Trichomonas, Leptomonas, and Giardia are common and frequent substance was uric acid dihydrate followed by Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhms/article-pdf/13/4/38/2208039/1529-9651_13_4_38.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 may be quite debilitating to the tortoise. Treatment of ammonium urate, sodium urate, calcium urate, and potassi­ Entamoeba invadens and other amoeba species infections um urate (Koelle, 2001). Medical treatment consisting of depends on the severity and location of the infections. A re-hydration by soaking or cloacal lavage, and antibiotics if common protocol includes the use of metronidazole ( 2 0 needed for cyctitis, may be sufficient to allow passage of mg/kg PO QOD) (Abbott Laboratories North Chicago, IL) small stones. Celiotomy and cystotomy may be required to and iodoquinol (50 mg/kg PO SID) (Yodoxin® Glenwood, remove large calculi (Bennet and Lock, 2000, Bennett and LLC, Englewood, NJ) for 3 wk (Bonner, et al, 2001). Mader, 1996). Improvements in husbandry should be made Other endoparasites such as nematodes, cestodes, and to prevent recurrence. trematodes should be treated accordingly. When multiple tor­ toises are housed together, parasites may spread rapidly Respiratory Diseases - Mycoplasmosis has been identified among the group, due to their grazing behavior and their in sulcata tortoises by PCR and serology (Berry, et al, 2002, coprophagic tendencies. Oxyurids are common, usually non- Innis, pers.comm., 2002). Dyspnea, serous to mucopurulent pathogenic, endoparasites in most captive tortoises and nasal discharge, rhinitis, and conjunctivitis are common treatment by the author depends on the quantity found and signs. Other Gram-negative bacteria infections such as physical condition of the tortoise. Fecal analysis is recom­ Pseudomonas sp., Morganella sp. and Seratia sp., can be mended on new tortoises, tortoises presenting for medical secondary pathogens. Mycoplasmosis can be treated with problems, and at annual exams. Ivermectin toxicity has been flouroquinolones, tetracyclines and macrolides, but the reported in other chelonians but African spurred tortoise may organism may not be completely eliminated and the tortoise be resistant to the toxic effects, however ivermectin should should be considered a permanent carrier and kept separately still not be used in African spurred tortoise until further from other tortoises (Origgi and Jacobson, 2000, Berry, et al, research is conducted (Hannon, 1997). 2002). These signs are also very similar to the ones seen with her­ Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism (NSHP) - As pesvirus. Tortoises affected with herpesvirus often have with most reptiles, NSHP is a concern in animals with pro­ diffuse severe stomatitis/glossitis lesions, not seen with longed deficiency of calcium and/or vitamin D, improper mycoplasmosis. Antiviral drugs have been used to reduce Ca:P in the diet, and inadequate/improper exposure to ultra­ viral replication but tortoises infected with herpesvirus violet light. This is most frequently observed in young, should be quarantined from other tortoises. The transmission growing animals, and may present as weakness, pathological route of herpesvirus in chelonians is unknown but horizontal fractures, or softening of the shell. Diagnosis is based on and vertical transmission is suspected (Origgi, et al, 2000, physical exam, history, plasma calcium and phosphorus lev­ Marschang and Origgi, 2003). The diagnostic laboratory els, and radiographs. Improvements in diet and husbandry are should be contacted prior to sending samples for proper mandatory to correct the problem. Permanent damage to the medium, storage and transport techniques. bones, kidneys and other tissues may occur (Boyer, 1996| Gibbons, 2001). Reproductive disorders - The two most common reproduc­ tive disorders seen with sulcatas in captivity are egg retention Diarrhea - The fecal material of sulcatas is generally well and penile prolapse. Signs of egg retention can include pac­ formed and firm. Parasitism, improper diet (including higher ing, frequent digging of nests, straining to lay eggs, and a moisture content and insufficient fiber content), bacterial debilitated anorexic tortoise. Because of the tortoise’s large overgrowth, and foreign bodies may lead to diarrhea. Helpful size, finding appropriate nesting sites can be problematic. diagnostics may include an extensive history, fecal direct and Complete blood counts and chemistry profile, inguinal fossa floatation examination for parasites, fecal culture, plain and palpation under sedation, radiographs, and ultrasound are contrast radiography, colonoscopy, exploratory surgery and indicated. Problems identified on physical exam or on blood biopsy. Treatment should be directed by diagnostic results work should be corrected before utilizing oxytocin. If med­ and correction of husbandry issues. ical therapy is unsuccessful, per cloaca obstetric procedures or other surgical procedure should be considered. Surgical

Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery Volume 13, No. 4,2003 procedures have been documented in the literature (Bennett R e fe r e n c e s and Mader, 1996, Innis and Boyer, 2002). African spurred tortoises will periodically erect the penis, Alderton D. 1992. Turtles and Tortoises of the World. Facts on especially with shell scrubbing, but it usually returns to the File Inc: 39-40. cloaca within an hour. Metabolic bone disease, constipation, Barten SL. 1996. Shell damage. In Mader DR (ed): Reptile gastrointestinal foreign bodies, neurogenic defects, and irrita­ Medicine and Surgery. WB Saunders Co, Philadelphia, PA:413- tion or trauma to the penis are potential causes for penile 416. prolapse that need to be evaluated. Penile amputation is indi­ Bartlett RD, Bartlett P. 1996. Turtles and Tortoises: A Complete cated if the tissue is necrotic, massively engorged, or severely Pet Owner’s Manual. Barron’s Educational Series, Inc., damaged. Other reproductive disorders include infertility Hauppauge, NY:102-103. (environmentally induced or pathological), oophoritis, egg- Bennet RA, Lock BA. 2000. Nonreproductive Surgery in yolk coelomitis or tumors of the reproductive organs (Innis Reptiles. The Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic and Boyer, 2002). Animal Practice, 3(3):715-732. Bennet RA, Mader DR. 1996. Soft Tissue Surgery. In Mader Other Considerations - If sedation or anesthesia is required, DR(ed):Reptile Medicine and Surgery. WB Saunders Co, Ketamine HC1 (Ketaset lOOmg/ml, Phoenix Pharmaceuticals Philadelphia, PA: 287-298. Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhms/article-pdf/13/4/38/2208039/1529-9651_13_4_38.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 Inc., St Joseph, MO) can be used at 20 - 80 mg/kg IM com­ Berry KH, Brown DR, Brown M, Jacobson E, Jarchow J, bined with Diazepam (Diazepam Injection USP, 5 mg/ml, Johnson J, Richey L, Wendland L. 2002. Reptilian mycoplasmal Elkins-Sinn Inc., Cherry Hill, NJ) at 0.2 - 1.0 mg/kg IM. infections. J Herp Med and Surg, 12(3):8-20. Alternatively ketamine 5-10 mg/kg IM combined with Bonner BB. 2000. Chelonian therapeutics. The Veterinary medetomidine (Dormitor® Pfizer Animal Health Ny, NY) Clinics of North America:Exotic Animal Practice, 3(l):257-289. 0.10 - 0.15 mg/kg IM and reversed with atipamezole Bonner B, Denver M, Gamer M, Innis C. 2001. Entamoeba hydrochloride (Antisedan® Pfizer Animal Health NY, NY) invadens. J Herp Med and Surg, 11 (3): 17-22. (Carpenter, et al, 2001, Heard, 2001). Medetomidine (50 - Boyer TH. 1996. Metabolic Bone Disease. In Mader DR 100 mg/kg)-ketamine (5 mg/kg) IV combinations with rever­ (ed):Reptile Medicine and Surgery. W.B. Saunders Co, sal with antipamezole have been used for effective short-term Philadelphia, PA:385-392. immobilization in tortoises and turtles (Dennis and Heard, Burridge MJ. 2000. Significance and control of exotic ticks on 2002, Chittick, et al, 2002). Induction of anesthesia is best imported reptiles. Proc ARAV, 121-122. accomplished with Propofol (Propofol lOmg/ml, Abbott Carpenter JW, Mashima TY, Ruipper DJ. 2001. Exotic Animal Laboratories Inc., North Chicago, IL) at 5 - 10 mg/kg IV. Formulary, 2nd edition. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA:58- Unless the patient is debilitated, IV access without a pre­ 69. medication is difficult because of their ability to withdraw Chittick EJ, Stamper MA, Beasley JF, Lewbart GA, Home into the shell. The subcarapacial vein, however, can be WA. 2002. Medetomidine, ketamine, and sevoflurane for anes­ accessed even when the limbs and head are withdrawn into thesia of injured loggerhead sea turtles: 13 cases (1996-2000). the shell. The jugular vein, occipital venous sinus, brachial JAVMA, 221(7): 1019-1025. vein, ventral caudal vein, caudal artery, femoral vein or car- Dennis PM, Heard DJ. 2002. Cardiopulmonary effects of a diocentesis may also be used (Jenkins, 1996, Lloyd, 1999, medetomidine-ketamine combination administered intravenously Hernandez-Divers, et al, 2002). Venous access will allow for in gopher tortoises. JAVMA, 220(10): 1516-1519. blood sampling, IV drug administration, or fluid therapy. Donoghue S. VMD, DACVN. Personal communication. 2002. Fluid therapy can also be provided per cloacal (soaking or Nutritional Support Services, Inc. Walkabout Farms, PO Box 625 enemas), oral, epicoelomic, intracoelomic, or intraosseous Penbroke, VA 24136. administration. Ernst CH, Barbour RW. 1989. Turtles of the World. Maintenance of anesthesia by inhalation agent via endotra­ Smithsonian Institution Press:249-250. cheal tube is quite adequate. Occasional positive pressure Gibbons PM. 2001. Comparative vertebrate calcium metabo­ ventilation may be needed because of anesthetic induced lism and regulation. Proc ARAV, 267-279. apnea or hypopnea (Heard, 1999). Sedation, anesthesia, and Gurley R. 2002. The African Spurred tortoise, Geochelone sul­ analgesia of reptiles can be safely and effectively performed cata in captivity. Taxon Media Publishing, Lansboro, MN:59-62. using commonly available drugs and equipment. The reptile Hannon D. 1997. Inadvertent administration of ivermectin to anesthetic procedure should be able to be performed as readi­ two spurred tortoises, Geochelone sulcata, without apparent ly as similar procedures for traditional veterinary patients. toxic effects. BARAV, 7(1):4. Heard DJ. 1999. Advances in reptile anesthesia. Proc N Am. Vet Conf, 770. Heard DJ. 2001. Reptile Anesthesia. The Veterinary Clinics of North America:Exotic Animal Practice, 41(1):83-117. Hernandez-Divers SM, Hernandez-Divers SJ, Wyneken J. 2002. Angiographic, anatomic and clinical technique descriptions of a subcarapacial venipuncture site for chelonians. J Herp Med Surg, 12(2):32-37. Highfield A. 1996. 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Volume 13, No. 4,2003 Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery 43 Innis CJ. VMD. Personal communication. 2002. VCA Origgi FC, Jacobson ER. 2000. Diseases of the respiratory Westboro Animal Hospital, 155 Turnpike Road Rt. 9, Westboro, tract of chelonians. The Veterinary Clinics of North MA, 01581. American:Exotic Animal Practice, 3(2):537-549. Innis CJ. 1994. Considerations in formulating captive tortoise Origgi FC, Jacobson ER. 2000. Diagnostic tools for her­ diets. Bulletin ARAV, 4(1):8-12. pesvirus detection in chelonians. Proc ARAV, 127-128. Innis CJ, Boyer TH. 2002. Chelonian reproductive disorders. Pauli R. 1997. Great African Spur-thighed or Sulcata Tortoise The Veterinary Clinics of North America:Exotic Animal Geochelone sulcata. Green Nature Books, Homestead, FL:40- Practice, 5(3):555-578. 42. Jenkins JR, 1996. Diagnostic and clinical techniques. In Perloni M. 1988. Geochelone suclata-chez les Dogons. La Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery. WB Saunders Tortue 8:9-10. Co, Philadelphia, PA: 268-269. Pritchard P C.H. 1979. Encyclopedia of Turtles. T.F.H. Koelle P, Hoffman R. 2001. Cystic calculi in reptiles. Proc Publications, Inc. NJ: 258-262. ARAV, 191-192. Richards J. 2001. Metal bridges-a new technique of turtle shell Lambert M. 1993. On growth, sexual dimorphism, and the repair. J Herp Med Surg, ll(4):31-34. general ecology of the African spurred tortoise, Geochelone sul­ Vosjoli P de. 1996. The General Care and Maintenance of Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/jhms/article-pdf/13/4/38/2208039/1529-9651_13_4_38.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 cata, in Mali. Chelon. Cons. Biol., l(l):37-46. Popular Tortoises. Advanced Vivarium Systems, Califomia:33- Lloyd M, Morris P. 1999. Chelonian venipuncture techniques. 35. BARAV, 9(l):26-29. Wilson R, Wilson R. 1997. The care and breeding of the Marschang RE, Origgi FC. 2003. Diagnosis of herpes virus African spurred tortoise, Geochelone sulcata. Carapace Press, infections in tortoises - A Review. Verh.ber. Erkrg. Zootiere, England:21-24. 41:47-52. Wozniak EJ, DeNardo D, Burridge MJ, Walker DH, Funk RS. ] Nicasio J, Campillo B, Frye FL. 2002. Preliminary report of 2000. Ectoparasites. J Herp Med and Surg. 10(3&4): 15-21. subepidermal mite infestation in an African spurred tortoise, Geochelone sulcata. Proc ARAV, 17.

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