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Working Memory in Perspective Working Memory in Perspective The Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Working Memory model holds a central place in experimental psychology and continues to be extremely successful in guiding and stimulating research in applied and theoretical domains. Yet the model now faces challenges from conflicting data and competing theories. In this book, experienced researchers in the field address the question: Will the model survive these challenges? They explain why it is so successful, evaluate its weaknesses with respect to opposing data and theories, and present their vision of the future of the model in their particular area of research. The book includes a discussion of the ‘Episodic Buffer’ component which has recently been added to the working memory model. The result is a comprehensive and critical assessment of the working memory model and its contribution to current research in human cognition, cognitive development, neuroscience and computational modelling. This collection serves as a case study to illustrate the range of factors that determine the success or failure of a theory and as a forum for discussing what researchers want from scientific theories. The book begins with an accessible introduction to the model for those new to the field and explains the empirical methods used in working memory research. It concludes by highlighting areas of consensus and suggesting a programme of research to address issues of continuing controversy. Working Memory in Perspective will be a valuable resource to students and researchers alike in the fields of human memory, language, thought and cognitive development. Jackie Andrade is a lecturer in psychology at the University of Sheffield. Working Memory in Perspective With a foreword by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch Edited by Jackie Andrade First published 2001 by Psychology Press Ltd 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex, BN3 2FA Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Taylor & Francis Inc, 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002. Psychology Press is part of the Taylor & Francis Group © 2001 Jackie Andrade All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Working memory in perspective/edited by Jackie Andrade; with a foreword by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-415-21198-0 1. Short-term memory. I. Andrade, Jackie, 1964– BF378.S54 W67 2001 –dc21 2001031843 ISBN: 0-415-21198-0 (Print Edition) ISBN 0-203-19415-2 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-19418-7 (Glassbook Format) To my family Contents List of figures ix List of tables xi List of contributors xii Preface xiv Foreword xv ALAN D.BADDELEY AND GRAHAM J.HITCH Acknowledgements xx PART I Introduction 1 1 An introduction to working memory 3 JACKIE ANDRADE PART II Applied perspectives 31 2 Imagery and the visuo-spatial sketchpad 33 DAVID G.PEARSON 3 The contribution of working memory to conscious experience 60 JACKIE ANDRADE 4 Language processing and working memory: A developmental perspective 79 ANNE-MARIE ADAMS AND CATHERINE WILLIS 5 The working memory model in adult aging research 101 LOUISE H.PHILLIPS AND COLIN HAMILTON viii Contents 6 Applying the working memory model to the study of atypical development 126 CHRIS JARROLD 7 Neural working memory 151 RICHARD HENSON PART III Theoretical perspectives 175 8 Computational models of short-term memory: Modelling serial recall of verbal material 177 MIKE PAGE AND RICHARD HENSON 9 Re-evaluating the word-length effect 199 PETER LOVATT AND STEVE AVONS 10 A critique of the working memory model 219 GEOFF WARD 11 Reflections on the concept of the central executive 240 JOHN N.TOWSE AND CARMEL M.T.HOUSTON-PRICE 12 Specifying the central executive may require complexity 261 JON MAY PART IV Conclusion 279 13 The working memory model: Consensus, controversy, and future directions 281 JACKIE ANDRADE Author index 311 Subject index 320 Figures 1.1 A simplified representation of the working memory model 11 2.1 Example of legitimate patterns produced using the creative synthesis procedure 44 2.2 Mean number of trials on which a legitimate pattern was produced and on which all presented symbols were correctly recalled for four, five and six symbol trials 45 2.3 Diagram depicting the involvement of working memory components during mental synthesis 47 2.4 Diagram representing how the inner scribe, central executive and phonological loop are related to a VC-VB model of the visuo-spatial sketchpad 52 3.1 Combined data from five experiments showing effects of spatial and verbal concurrent tasks (tapping and counting respectively) on mean rated vividness of visual and auditory imagery, with standard error bars 63 3.2 Mean vividness of imagery and strength of emotion ratings for personal recollections in dual task conditions, with standard error bars 66 3.3 Mean strength of emotion ratings at baseline (t ), during eight exposure trials (t ), and at one week follow-up0 (t ), with no concurrent task1–8 (control), dynamic visual noise,9 or lateral eye movements during the exposure phase (± standard error) 67 5.1 The effects of age on accuracy of (a) visual and (b) spatial memory measures 110 5.2 The Tower of London task 113 7.1 Approximate location of brain regions in (a) left and (b) right hemispheres typically associated with working memory 153 7.2 Examples of typical maintenance and manipulation tasks used in neuroimaging 155 7.3 A very tentative mapping of the WM model components onto the brain 167 x List of Figures 8.1 Data from Norris et al. (submitted) showing the disappearance of the phonological similarity effect over time 180 10.1 The temporal distinctiveness of a list of evenly spaced, to-be-remembered items, using the telegraph pole metaphor. Panel A illustrates the stimuli that are presented by the experimenter. Panel B illustrates the stimuli that are presented by the experimenter, together with the participants’ rehearsals. Panel C illustrates the stimuli that are presented by the experimenter, together with the participants’ rehearsals in the Control condition of Baddeley and Hitch (1974). Panel D illustrates the stimuli that are presented by the experimenter, together with the participants’ rehearsals in the concurrent working memory load condition of Baddeley and Hitch (1974) 226–227 10.2 The General Episodic Memory (GEM) framework 230 11.1 Counting span (mean values and standard deviations), redrawn from Towse & Hitch (1995). Span scores are highest in the ‘easy’ condition, and are lower in the ‘difficult’ and ‘easy (but lengthy)’ conditions, which did not differ 246 11.2 Idealised depiction of the relationships between memory systems and scholastic ability 251 11.3 Mean span scores and standard deviations for each age group 252 11.4 Path diagram illustrating the significant relationships between pairs of variables after controlling for all others 253 12.1 A less simplified representation of the processing and storage resources of the Working Memory model 264 12.2 An overview of Barnard’s Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS), and (inset) the common internal architecture of each subsystem 266 Tables 8.1 Data from Norris et al. (submitted) showing input and output intrusions in the recall of four-letter, visually presented lists collapsed over filled delays of 0.75s and 1.5s 181 8.2 Data from Norris et al. (submitted) showing input and output intrusions in the recall of four-letter, visually presented lists after a filled delay of 12s 181 Contributors Anne-Marie Adams Centre for Applied Psychology, School of Human Sciences, Henry Cotton Campus, Liverpool John Moores University, 15–21 Webster Street, Liverpool L3 2ET. Email: [email protected] Jackie Andrade Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TP. Email: [email protected] Steve Avons Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ. Email: [email protected] Alan Baddeley Centre for the Study of Memory and Learning, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, 8 Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 1TN. Email: [email protected] Colin Hamilton Division of Psychology, University of Northumbria at Newcastle, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE1 8ST. Email: [email protected] Richard Henson Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience & Wellcome Department of Cognitive Neurology, University College London, Alexandra House, 17 Queen Square, London WC1N 3AR. Email: [email protected] Graham J.Hitch Department of Psychology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD. Email: [email protected] Carmel M.T. Houston-Price Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3UD. Email: carmel.houston- [email protected] Chris Jarrold Centre for the Study of Memory and Learning, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, 8 Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 1TN. Email: [email protected] Contributors xiii Peter Lovatt Research Centre for English and Applied Linguistics, University of Cambridge, Keynes House, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1QA. Jon May Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TP. Email: [email protected] Mike Page Department of Psychology, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield AL10 9AB. Email: [email protected] David G.Pearson Department of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2UB. Email: [email protected] Louise H.Phillips Department of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2UB. Email: [email protected] John N.Towse Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YF.
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