Re-Writing the Past - the Pillars of Middle-Earth

Influences and origins Re-writing the past - The pillars of Middle-earth

Andreas Gloge

Translation from the original German by Marie-Noelle Biemer

he best place to start, when Rings, no less than fifteen languages attempting to comprehend This paper is extracted in slightly edit emerge (cf. Noel 1977, 28ff). They ed form from the author’s ‘ Tolkien’s mythic dimensions, vary from the only hinted at to the T J.R.R. Tolkien’s Der Herr Her Ringe’ extensive, in conversations, names, merely hinted at in stories, songs, and published in 2002 by the Erster lore in The Lord of the Rings, is with Deutscher Fantasy Club. songs, poems, or lore. In a letter to The Silmarillion. Tolkien tried hard to W.H. Auden, shortly after the publica have both books published at the to Mathews, The Silmarillion serves as tion of the last volume of The Lord of same time because he was convinced a primary source for the actions and the Rings in 1955, Tolkien said about they were too closely linked to each motivations of different cultures and his love for languages: other to be separated (cf. Carpenter traditions in Middle-earth and thus ‘Most important, perhaps, after 1991, 182ff). But the publishers shrank explains the geographical and socio Gothic was the discovery in Exeter from his demands. They judged The political structures in The Lord of the College library, when I was sup Silmarillion unsuitable for the contem Rings. For this reason, The Silmarillion posed to be reading for Honour porary market and in any case it is included in the following examina Mods, of a Finnish Grammar. It was largely consisted still of a complex, tion of the influence of old myths and like discovering a complete wine- disordered pile of innumerable manu legends. cellar filled with bottles of an amaz scripts and revisions. In the event, The ing wine of a kind of flavour never Silmarillion was published posthu The importance of language tasted before. [...] All this only as mously by Tolkien’s son Christopher, J.R.R. Tolkien found international fame background to the stories [of who made what he thought the best as an author but first and foremost he Middle-earth], though languages choices amongst his father’s manifold was a philologist who taught for 39 and names are for me inextricable notes. A few years later, the twelve vol years at the universities of Oxford and from the stories. They are and were umes of The History of Middle-earth Leeds. Besides his penchant for Old so to speak an attempt to give followed, also edited by Christopher background or a world in which my Tolkien. It filled many gaps as regards expressions of linguistic taste could content and offered alternative ver "And now the songs have come have a function. The stories were sions to The Silmarillion based on down among us out of strange comparatively late in coming’. hitherto neglected scripts by J.R.R. places and walk visible under the (Carpenter 1995, 214) Tolkien.1 Sun." (TT, 191) Inspired by his own poems, the There will never be an authorised invention of his own grammar, and by version of The Sllmarillion, so many old mythologies (as for example the interpretative approaches should only English, he also possessed a various relatively new Finnish epic Kalevala 2), be considered with care. However its ly extensive knowledge of Latin, Tolkien began to work on private sto literary value for The Lord of the Rings Greek, Finnish, Gothic, Welsh, and ries, which would give his "taste for is beyond question. "In any case it Icelandic. According to his biographer language" a function and a sense, in served as a primary source for The Carpenter he was "well versed in all 1917. Those episodes, which were Lord [of the Rings]" (Mathews 1978, dialects of Anglo-Saxon and Middle only published after his death as The 56) and "[b]y incorporating various English” while additionally "during Silmarillion and which depict the cre epic traditions and types into one form 1919 and 1920, when he was working ation and world history of Middle-earth - and one, moreover, which closely on the Oxford Dictionary he made over a period of more than 6000 years, adheres to the requirements Aristotle himself acquainted with a number of formed an inspirational well for his two prescribed for the epic in his Poetics, other early Germanic languages” most successful books, The Hobbit including unity of action - Tolkien (Carpenter 2002, 178f). and The Lord of the Rings. devises a unique form of fantasy writ It is thus no great surprise that in Tolkien invented not only two ing" (Mathews 1978, 57f). According his great life’s work, The Lord of the elvish languages, Quenya and

1. A rough abstract of The Silmarillion can be found in Carpenter (1991a, 190-241) where a more than ten thousand word long letter from Tolkien to Milton Waldnrann (Collins publishers) in 1951 has been summarised. In it, Tolkien explains the relevance of The Silmarillion. In Garbowski (2000, 59-63) more information and explanation concerning the posthumous publication of The History of Middle-earth and Unfinished Tales of Numenor and Middle-earth (1980, George Allen & Unwin), published as Nachrichten aus Mittelerde in German, can be found. These works illuminate the mythical background of Middle-earth and have contributed consider ably to the character of the world of The Lord of the Rings. 2. The Finnish national epic was finished in its complete revision in 1849. See http://virtual.finland.fi/english/kalevala.html (13.4.2002)for more details.

44 Re-writing the past... Sindarin (cf. RK, 493-530), with vocab And then his tongue was loosed does not accord with the phonetic ulary, grammar, and pronunciation but and his voice cried in a language structure of English and sounds too he also supplied his fictitious peoples which he did not know: outlandish for the Shire. with appropriate language patterns A Elbereth Gilthoniel It [‘tobacco’] is an import from some that clearly distinguished them from o menel palan-diriel, unknown Caribbean language via one another in the story: le nation si di’nguruthosl Spanish, reaching English only Tolkien used English to represent A tiro nin, Fanuilos! after the discovery of America, the Common Speech, Westron, (TT, 425) sometime in the sixteenth century. spoken by the hobbits and most of Even though neither Sam nor the [...] ‘Pipe-weed’ shows Tolkien’s the Free Peoples of Middle-earth. reader can grasp immediately the wish to accept a common feature of The relationship of English to the exact meaning of these words, the English modernity, which he knew languages of other peoples indi passage has a certain effect and could not exist in the world of elves cates those peoples’ relationships meaning because of the strange lan or trolls, and whose anachronism to the hobbits. Throughout most of guage. Helmut W. Pesch ascribes this would instantly be betrayed by a LOR, Anglo-Saxon based English function to a reflection of the magical word with the foreign feel of ‘tobac is used to give the effect of simple character of language as well as to its co’. (Shippey 1982, 53) dignity and proximity to nature. In function as a medium of creation In contrast to all the special and the Shire, the English Tolkien used which in turn determines the magical magical moments of the newly-formed was informal and often unsophisti character (cf. Pesch 1982, 183). language elements, Tolkien also cated and provincial. In Rohan, Tolkien himself felt that the creative proves his ability to deal critically with actual Old English words, names use of language was almost equal to the use of language. Thus he portrays and phrases were used to show an act of creation, which would bring Saruman, the head of the White that their relationship to Modern us closer to God (cf. Tolkien 1987, Council, who in the end falls prey to English reflects the similarities 157). The imagination of the reader at his own lust for power, as a master of between the tongues of the Shire this is as much engaged as by the cre manipulation using only the sound of and the Mark. These two languages ative power of words. his voice: had a common source in the During the long years of writing ‘Suddenly another voice spoke, low speech of Wilderland, where both and revising Tolkien reconsidered and and melodious, its very sound an the hobbits and the Rohirrim origi rewrote almost every single word in enchantment. Those who listened nated. In Gondor, French and other LOR and he grew very fond of his own unwarily to that voice could seldom Latin-based words were used to creations, such as the newly devised report the words that they heard; suggest a language still more plural of dwarf (dwarves instead of and if they did, they wondered, for removed and noble than the dwarfs). Even though the publisher’s little power remained in them. Common Speech used elsewhere. typesetters corrected ‘dwarves’ to Mostly they remembered only that it This was because the inhabitants of ‘dwarfs’,’ elvish’ to ‘elfish’ and ‘further’ was a delight to hear the voice Gondor spoke not only Westron but to ‘farther’ at first, Tolkien showed an speaking, all that it said seemed Elvish as well.’ (Noel 1977, 29) impressive determination concerning wise and reasonable, and desire While the language diversity in his own Middle-earth orthography and awoke in them by swift agreement Middle-earth is often only hinted at, it grammar, finally managing to establish to seem wise themselves. When shows distinct depth elsewhere, with his unconventional forms in spite of others spoke they seemed harsh the elves, for example. The entire con the critical efforts of his publisher’s and uncouth by contrast; and if they ception, at any rate, proves Tolkien’s typesetters (cf. Carpenter 1991, 45, gainsaid the voice, anger was kin love of languages and the sound of old 224, 225, 409, 410). dled in the hearts of those under words which renders LOR stylistically In addition to these word varia the spell. For some the spell lasted more interesting - though some read tions, which lend his texts a personal only while the voice was spoke to ers unfamiliar with elvish vocabulary touch independent of the grammatical them, and when it spoke to another might wonder about the exact sense of style, Tolkien put every single word, they smiled, as men do who see the words. Here Tolkien’s propensity though it was only concerned with triv through a juggler’s trick while oth for symbolism shows. It is less the ial things, in LOR under consideration ers gape at it. For many the sound clearly definable sense and more the to see whether or not its derivation of the voice alone was enough to function for the plot or the magic of the and operation was to the immediate hold them enthralled; but for those atmosphere that determines his cre purpose of the world of Middle-earth. whom it conquered the spell ative direction. It can be found in the For example the tobacco that Gandalf endured when they were far away, poems in elvish as well as in some iso and the hobbits enjoy throughout the and ever they heard that soft voice lated, seemingly wistful, remarks: story and which even gets its own whispering and urging them. But “Galadriel’ he [Sam] said faintly, chapter "Concerning Pipe-weed’ (FR, none were unmoved; none rejected and then he heard voices far off but 26) in the prologue of LOR, is its pleas and its commands without clear: the crying of the Elves as described as pipe-weed not as tobac an effort of mind and will, so long as they walked under the stars in the co. Though Tolkien clearly classifies its master had control of it.’ (TT, beloved shadows of the Shire, and this pipe-weed as tobacco through its 228) the music of the Elves as it came mode of production and usage, he Here Tolkien illustrates how the through his sleep in the Hall of Fire calls it pipe-weed in his own unique power of language can be misused for in the house of Elrond.’ language. The reason for that might propagandist and manipulative ends Gilthoniel A Elbereth! be, as Shippey suspects, that tobacco as it was practised by the great pow-

45 Mallorn XLI ers everywhere in the world in bears a striking if at first hidden mean designed too accurate an adaptation Tolkien’s time. ing (at least for linguistic amateurs) of Norse mythology. Saruman and to some extent his that contributes to the texture of In addition to the dwarves, other servant Wormtongue, as well as Middle-earth. The studies of Ruth Noel peoples and characters In LOR are Smaug in The Hobbit, have the knowl (1977), T.A. Shlppey (1982), and modelled on the gods and heroes of edge and talent to use this powerful Armin Dahlke (1998) can be referred the Edda and its legends. Thus the medium to gain ascendancy over oth to here. In their books they point out Norse god Odin has his successors in ers. In spite of his love of language, the integral characteristics of Tolkien’s the wizard Gandalf as well as in the Tolkien does not avoid the ambiva methodology3. dark lord Sauron. Odin’s personality lence of language as a means of com A mere list of the different origins has been split by Tolkien so that all his munication but contrasts the wonder of words In this paper certainly cannot good characteristics are mirrored in ful songs of the elves with a dark mirror their importance in the readers’ Gandalf and his bad in Sauron. warning that language can be used for perception, but the intensity of Gandalf is, besides his similarity in evil purposes by cunning individuals Tolkien’s investigations and efforts can appearance to Odin (cf. Noel 1977, such as Saruman. be demonstrated. They ultimately 111), wise, learned, benevolent, a Language has also the function of revert to the cultural roots of nearly all master of fire, a man of many and sim transferring into the present knowl Western European peoples. The sub ilar names; he has a connection with edge of and about the past, in order to liminal familiarity with Middle-earth eagles and ravens and has a similar extract new wisdom from it. It is impor thus formed Is as relevant for the function to the god of storm reflected tant to note that the effectiveness of impact of LOR as the influence of In the sobriquet "Gandalf Stormcrow" language elements consciously used mythology and religion which is elabo (LOTR II, 143). His ‘etymological by the author lends Middle-earth plau rated upon in the following. I have to nature’ can be found in the Old Norse sibility and authentic depth and thus point out, though, that in letters and word Gandalfr which means "elf furthers his purpose in creating a conversations Tolkien freely admitted versed in magic" (cf. Dahlke 1998, 50- myth. to these parallels and inspirations, but 53). Besides, Odin possessed a magic ‘For a not inconsiderable number of many similarities to old myths are horse which can be compared to readers and critics the languages based on speculations which in turn Shadowfax, Gandalf’s exceptional with their oddly genuine resonance rest on a knowledge of the author’s steed, which also understands human contribute to the ‘inner consistency expertise. This conflicts with Tolkien’s speech (cf Noel 1977, 111). of reality’ of Middle-earth that the view that a literary work should be the Sauron is never described in his author desired. Certainly the lan only source for interpretation, ignoring physical form but is exclusively char guages (together with the more all the author’s personal history. acterised by dark symbolism: a lidless fragmentary ones) as they have eye, a master of magic rings, an been incorporated into the mytholo The heritage of Norse mythology authority similar to the gods of war and gy bolster the sense of historicity of The most important Norse myths and death, a thief of old wisdom in order to Middle-earth.’ (Garbowski 2000, 71) legends can be found in the Edda, the implement his own plans. All this can This ‘inner consistency of reality’ is epic of the Scandinavian gods. It be traced back to Odin’s darker side the basis for the reader’s fascination serves Tolkien as an inspiration for (cf Dahlke 1998, 56-58). with LOR. Because the secondary names and actions in Middle-earth’s The fallen wizard Saruman world of Middle-earth Is so plausibly cosmos. The process starts with the emerges as a link between these two drawn it stands as a literary construct dwarves in The Hobbit. They obtain Odin figures. He, like Loki of the Norse so complex that even after repeated their names almost exclusively from pantheon, can be identified by his var reading as yet undiscovered details the Old or Poetic Edda and assume iegated appearance which is emblem can be found. the essential characteristics of their atic of his different faces and manipu How important those language ele names in their original meaning. lative falsehoods. Just as Loki leaves ments were for Tolkien can be seen In Additionally, Tolkien adapts the the gods, Saruman turns his back on the following etymological and mytho dwarves’ appearance and way of life the White Council to pursue evil (cf logical analyses of a few names and from the Siegfried saga by describing Dahlke 1998, 53), misuses and con passages in his books. It would be them as small in stature, stubborn, temptuously mocks his old friends and beyond the scope of this paper to gold-loving craftspeople and assigning is finally killed by Grimcf Wormtongue, retrace the original, mostly Old them the mountains as a home. These like the serpent’s poison that drips English, meanings of every single adaptations have been clearly down on Loki when he is fettered as a name in LOR that have been drawn retraced by Armin Dahlke (1998, 22- punishment for his evil deeds. But from secondary literature. It has to be 26). It is interesting to note that Tolkien Saruman is not as vital to the course mentioned, though, that almost every takes the main features of the elves, of events in LOR as Gandalf or Sauron invented name in LOR, be it that of a who are considered to be the counter are. Thus his character is not supple creature, an item or a geographical part of dwarves amongst the free peo mented with Anglo-Saxon or Biblical feature, either has Old English as a ples in the history of Middle-earth, mythological symbolism ass are the source or is rooted in the Nordic world from an Anglo-Saxon background. By latter two. The creation of Gandalf and of gods and heroes. These roots have the use of this contrast he immediate Sauron as binary opposites, or been so carefully chosen by Tolkien ly breaks the symbolic fetters which antipoles, stemming from one com that the bases of these names always would have restricted him had he mon source mixed with additional

3. Tolkien’s essay “Ein heimliches Laster” about his attitude towards the love of words and language can be found in Tolkien (1987. 209-235).

46 Re-writing the past • ••

47 Mallorn XLI and differentiating elements can be character’s function are completely dif ly choosing mythic elements for his traced back to Tolkien’s notion of sec ferent. secondary world and the action taking ondary creation. This differs from mere Numerous small similarities and place in it. adaptation to this extent; although he analogies to Norse mythology could transfers parts of Norse mythology to be mentioned here, as for example the The influence of Anglo-Saxon Gandalf and Sauron, he completes trees bestowing life in The Silmarillion. mythology them with different components of They equal the World Tree Yggdrasil, a One of the best known Old English varying origin and thus creates some giant ash, in their status and link to the texts is the almost 3000 line long thing entirely new. gods. But the few examples already heroic poem Beowulf which was prob Further parallels to Odin and Loki mentioned should be sufficient to draw ably written in the seventh century4. can be found in Frodo and Gollum’s an adequate picture of Tolkien’s Tolkien’s known interest in and fasci relationship. Frodo’s name stems from methodology and his intention to take nation with Beowulf shows in the Fro, a different name for the selected fragments of Scandinavian adoption of significant strands from Scandinavian goddess of fertility mythology and Insert them into his Beowulf in The Hobbit. The scenes Freya. It means ‘wise’ or ‘fertile’. He own. Tolkien digresses from the avail with the dragon clearly follow also emerges as Froda in Beowulf but able material, though, and gives It a Beowulf's adventure, though they shows special parallels to the Danish whole new and modified meaning; not have of course been adapted to the king Frodi, a descendant of Odin. necessarily a more topical one, but a story (cf. Noel 1977, 60f). Shippey Those parallels manifest in a similar meaning transformed. (1982, 220) calls Beowulf "[t]he single attitude towards their homeland (cf. ‘Tolkien was irritated all his life by work which Influenced Tolkien most" Noel 1977, 59ff). Gollum first appears modern attempts to rewrite or inter and Dahlke (cf. 1998, 7ff) also sees in a grotto below ground when he pret old material, almost all of which the basis for Tolkien’s mythological meets Bilbo In The Hobbit. This recalls he thought led to failure of tone and foundation of Middle-earth in it. Both the dwarf Andvari who withholds a spirit. Wagner Is the most obvious authors, as well as Ruth Noel (cf valuable ring from Lokl and eventually example. People were always con 1977, 81 ff), mention numerous etymo curses its thief. necting LOR with Der Ring der logical examples as evidence for their The dramatic meeting between the Nibelungen, and Tolkien did not like assumptions. These examples show Fellowship and the Balrog in the Mines it. [...] [Wjhat upset Tolkien was the that many names and places of the of Moria also reflects the end of the fact that Wagner was working, at human peoples of Middle-earth, like world as announced in the Edda. The second-hand, from material which Rohan and its inhabitants, have been Balrog shows strong parallels to the he knew first-hand, primarily the taken from Beowulf or other Old god Surt for "[b]oth were giant figures heroic poems of the Elder Edda English tales. Whether Tolkien was combining darkness and consuming and the later Middle High German searching for appropriate Old English fire. Each was armed with a flaming Nibelungenlled. Once again he saw words which fitted his ideas or sword and each fought high on a frail difference where other people saw whether his stories were inspired by bridge, breaking it down" (Noel 1977, similarity. Wagner was one of sever the names in the old heroic epics, is 146). Surt was one of the vital powers al authors with whom Tolkien had a difficult to reconstruct. that presaged Ragnarok, the end of relationship of intimate dislike: The legend of King Arthur Is cer the world, and the fight with Gandalf is Shakespeare, Spenser, George tainly formative for the development of described just as it happens in the MacDonald, Hans Christian some of the characters and actions, Norse legend "with the powerful wiz Andersen. All, he thought, had got contrary to Ulrike Killer’s statement ard destroyed in overthrowing his something very important not quite that Tolkien never reverted to the enemy, but returned to life In a higher right.’ (Shlppey 1982, 220) "matière de Bretagne" even though form" (Noel 1977, 147). Though the It is Important therefore to assess the legendary King Arthur is consid world does not end in LOR, Tolkien how far Tolkien adapts the elements ered to be Great Britain’s national hero describes a world of decline full of taken from his numerous sources to fit (cf. Killer 1991, 424). The final scene vanishing ancient peoples and the them into his own world. He Is not as at the Grey Havens for example shows beginning of a new, less magical, age much concerned with reanimating the some remarkable parallels to which Is foreshadowed, amongst other old Norse legends as with integrating Mallory’s Le Morte D’Arthur (cf Noel things, by the Balrog’s Ragnarok sym the still existing spirit of these worlds 1977, 54). The most striking analogies bolism. of legend into, his own secondary cre can be found in Aragorn and Gandalf’s Further elements typical of Norse ation in a different form. This can be characters, which reflect Arthur and mythology are mirrored in the barrow especially seen in reference to style, Merlin to a certain extent. Ruth Noel downs, the graves of warriors of old, in structure and the epic battles In The cites no less than seventeen crucial, Boromir’s funeral on a boat floating Silmarlllion but also in the characters and as many more small, resem down the river, and in the female war in LOR. Tolkien pays tribute to the old blances between the development of rior Eowyn who is compared to the legends while at the same time cre Arthur and Aragorn (cf. Noel 1977, 68- Valkyries of the Edda (cf. Noel 1977, atively enhancing his own stories or, 76) and almost a dozen Instances 83f). As with Gandalf and Sauron this as Garbowski (2000, 71) puts it: he suggesting that Gandalf is modelled is only partly true for Eowyn’s charac produces an "inner consistency of on Merlin (cf Noel 1977, 109f). The ter. Though she hides behind a reality" not only through the diversity relationship between the two is inter Valkyrie mask, her true nature and the of languages but also by systematical esting as well: the wizard acts as a

4. cf Graddol (1997, 59). The exact date of origin is in dispute. In other sources the eighth century is mentioned.

48 Re-writing the past... counsellor and guide behind the and she thought to read our bits, in their plainness, greediness, scenes at the beginning while the thoughts for her own purpose; but frequent embarrassments, distrust proud warrior waits for his chance to almost I should have said that she of ‘outsiders’ and most of all in their accede to the throne of his kingdom, was tempting us, and offering what deceptive ability to endure rough his rightful heritage. she pretended to have the power to handling form an easily recognis Another aspect that owes some give. It need not be said that I able if again old-fashion self-image thing to Celtic mythology is certainly refused to listen. The Men of Minas of the English. The calquing is most the portrayal of the elves. Tolkien's Tirith are true to their word.’ But evident, however, on the map.’ elves are similar to the Celtic elven- what he thought that the Lady had (Shippey 1982, 77-78) folk, the Sidhe, in both appearance offered him Boromir did not tell.’ As a matter of fact, many place and behaviour (cf. Noel 1977, 113ff (LOTR I, 464-465) names in the Shire are taken from the and Dahlke 1998, 21). In contrast to Like Macbeth, Boromir cannot Oxford area, which supports Shippey’s other races of Middle-earth, the elves’ shake bff the vision of power and suc analysis. The reason that the hobbit names are not derived from Old or cess, and impatience and ambition passages, especially the early chap Middle English but go back to the lan gnaw at him from the inside. In the end ters, in LOR are, proportionally, more guages Tolkien invented himself. That he oversteps the bounds of what Is per humorously written might derive from Is why this people receive the greatest mitted and becomes treacherous. In the possibility that they derive from depth and independence in Middle- contrast to Macbeth though, he does actual experience in Tolkien’s own earth. This can especially be seen in not commit murder, but Instead repents neighbourhood. Tolkien always disap the Silmanllion episodes which are pri and sacrifices himself for his friends. proved of attempts to interpret his marily concerned with the history of The prophecy of the Weird Sisters texts as an adaptation of his time and the elves. concerning the death of Macbeth can contemporaries but it is striking that The influence of Shakespeare on also be applied to the Witch-King, Lord the seriousness in form and expres Tolkien’s mythological foundation for of the Nazgul, who was foretold that sion is far less developed In the Shire LOR cannot be ignored, in particular, "No living man may hinder me!” (RK, than in all the other episodes of The Macbeth. The most obvious example 136), "Implying his invincibility but Lord of the Rings. The exact reason Is the march of the Ents towards actually outlining a strange doom [...] remains speculative but the possibility Isengard. Tolkien explains without [and] he was destroyed within the of ironically dealing with his fellow reserve that the march as well as the framework of the prophecy - at the beings through the eyes, ears and role of the Ents themselves was hands of Eowyn, a woman, and mouths of hobbits at least stays com inspired by Shakespeare’s play: Meriadoc, a hobbit" (Noel 1977, 139). prehensible from Shippey’s ‘But looking back analytically I As a last important feature of the viewpoint5. should say that Ents are composed Anglo-Saxon influence, hobbits have to of philology, literature, and life. They be mentioned even though they cer The Bible and Christendom in owe their name to the eald enta tainly are one of Tolkien’s most self- Middle-earth geweorc of Anglo Saxon, and their contained new creations. Tolkien does J.R.R. Tolkien’s strong adherence to connexion with stone. Their part in not revert to literary sources of the his Catholic faith is well known. In a the story is due, I think, to my bitter English culture here but to soclo-hls- letter to his son Michael, who had disappointment and disgust from torical ones. Just like the ancestors of been wounded a few weeks before in schooldays with the shabby use the English people, the hobbits settled 1941, he wrote: made in Shakespeare of the com at their new home in three different ‘Out of the darkness of my life, so ing of ‘Great Birnam wood to high tribes after having fought for their much frustrated, I put before you the Dunsinane hill’: I longed to devise a country in decisive battles (cf. FR, 20f). one great thing to love on earth: the setting in which the trees might Thus historically the Shire is Blessed Sacrament ... There you really march to war.’ (Carpenter like/unlike England, the hobbits are will find romance, glory, honour, 1995, 212) like/unllke English people. [.»] Both fidelity, and the true way of all your The fateful prophecies uttered by emigrated in three tribes, Angles, loves upon earth, and more than the Weird Sisters in Macbeth also find Saxon and Jutes or Stoors, that: Death: by the divine paradox, their counterpart in LOR. Boromir’s Harfoots and Fallohides, all since that which ends life, and demands preoccupation with the power of the then largely mingled. The English the surrender of all, and yet by the ring does not leave him even after his were led by two brothers, Hengest taste (or foretaste) of which alone meeting with Galadriel. The change in and Horsa, i.e. ‘stallion’ and ‘horse’, can what you seek in your earthly him following this prophetic encounter the hobbits by Marcho and Blanco, relationships (love, faithfulness, joy) is obvious to the reader. From that cp. Old English marh, ‘horse’, blan- be maintained, or take on that com point on, Boromir is convinced he has ca (only In Beowulf) ‘white horse’. plexion of reality, of eternal found the right way even if it means All four founded realms which endurance, which every man’s heart resorting to violence and shedding his evolved into uncharacteristic peace desires.’ (Carpenter 1995, 53f) friends’ blood: [...] Organisationally too the Shire, Tolkien’s commentary on Middle- “To me it [the test of Galadriel] with its mayors, musters, moots and earth’s religiousness is found mainly seemed exceedingly strange’, said Shirriffs, is an old-fashioned and in The Silmarlllion which shows clear Boromir. ‘Maybe It was only a test, idealised England, while the hob parallels to the Bible in content and

5. Though similarities to Jonathon Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1726) as regards hobbits can be identified, there is no concrete evidence of a conscious adaptation on Tolkien’s part.

49 Mallorn XLI style even though it is full of pagan ilish traits. These counterparts of the and tales of The Lord of the Rings. mythology. It starts with the genesis of biblical Satan can be found in the the world by Eru, the one god, and shape of the Valar outcast Melkor and Conclusion continues with the fall of Melkor (also his follower and later successor Sauron Tolkien always wanted to publish The called Morgoth) and that of the elves, who wake the dormant egoistic long Silmarillion and The Lord of the Rings as well as with their exodus from ings of humans, dwarves and elves to together. He did not succeed even Valinor, home of the gods. An almost wage their eternal wars against their though he was convinced of its impor endless story of wars, loss, tragic immortal arch-enemies, the Valar. While tance: deaths and hopeless friendships is Melkor weaves his treacherous webs ‘Its shadow [that of The Silmarillion] created in The Silmarillion, which during the First Age Sauron takes over was deep on the later parts of The derives its name from the Silmarilli, that role in the Second Age and up to Hobbit. It has captured The Lord of the three primordial jewels in which the time of LOR. Randel Helms accu the Rings, so that that has become the light of Valinor, an analogy of rately notes that Sauron’s career is simply its continuation and comple Christian paradise, has been caught. modelled on the biblical and Miltonic tion, requiring The Silmarillion to be The jewels symbolise a last vestige of Satan (cf. Helms 1991, 49). But I fully intelligible - without a lot of ref perfection in a fallen world and believe he errs in his assertion that in erences and explanations that clut become the principal objects of lust of the Satan myth Tolkien finds an alto ter it in one or two places.’ all creatures during Middle-earth’s gether satisfying starting point for his (Carpenter 1995, 136f) First Age. The Second Age describes own exploration of absolute evil (cf. Tolkien’s original intention before another fall, this time that of the Men Helms 1991, 49). Elrond explains in he wrote even one sentence of The of Numenor who dare attack Valinor, Rivendell that nothing, not even Lord of the Rings was the land of the gods, in the pride and Sauron, is evil from the beginning (cf. ‘to make a body of more or less conceit that they are equal to them. FR, 350) "which suggests that he is, connected legend, ranging from the This is similar to the building of the like Satan, a fallen being of great large and cosmogonic, to the level Tower of Babel. But the Valar destroy power" (Purtill 1974, 103). This is also of romantic fairy-story [...] -which I the mighty fleet and conceal the way true of Melkor who fell into disgrace could dedicate simply to England; to their paradisiacal shores. Only the during the creation of the world to my country. [...] The cycles remaining elves have the ability to sail because his troublesome individuality should be linked to a majestic into the West, thus leaving Middle- did not please his fellow gods who were whole, and yet leave scope for earth forever. In the mythology this striving for harmony. Accordingly, many other minds and hands, wielding heralds the Third Age, in which the parallels can be drawn between The paint and music and drama. echoes of these powerful and dramat Silmarillion and the Bible. Absurd.’ (Carpenter 1995, 144f) ic events of The SHmarillion form the ‘But the main point about The Even though the origin of many foundation for the action and motiva Silmarillion is that it is a kind of passages and much creation in LOR tion in The Lord of the Flings. As we bible, an encyclopaedic epic of and The Silmarillion can be traced see later with Boromir, Denethor, return which shows us ways of liv back to old myths and legends6, the Saruman and Gollum sin and forgive ing with loss and the pain of recov form of legend which influenced ness play a pivotal role in the stories of ery. Nearly contradictory to the Tolkien the most, and which of these Middle-earth. It is not difficult to identi theme of loss in the tales is the has the biggest part in his works, are fy Tolkien’s staunch Catholicism: medium itself, the great wealth of not questions that play a decisive role ‘In the letter to Waldman Tolkien mythic and archetypical invention, in assessing Middle-earth’s mytholo claims his mythology is concerned creation, recovery which The gy. It is only important to recognise with, among other things, the Fall Silmarillion contains. [...] The and evaluate the symbolism formed by ‘and that in several modes’, since Silmarillion is a crown of light, a myth and religion which is extant in the he felt the Fall is something always properly inspiring testament to be world of Middle-earth and thus also in present in human history. If the First returned to and reread with growing The Lord of the Rings. Age was primarily about the Fall of pleasure. It is both the beginning Tolkien plunges into the sacrality of the elves, the Second Age is domi and the culmination of Tolkien’s the natural; he delves into basic nated by the Fall of men, especially subcreation’. (Mathews 1978, 59) human emotions and a symbolic those privileged to live in Numenor. The biblical influences on content, structure that is so widely distrib Nevertheless, far more than with structure and style which are so pre uted over cultural boundaries that it the remaining Silmarillion mytholo dominant and evident in The can be called fundamentally human gy, the Numenor cycle’s signifi Silmarillion are less obvious in The symbolism. The stories evoke par cance was only to be attained in its Lord of the Rings, though they never ticipation in a secular religion - that relationship to the Third Age.’ vanish. As a starting point it can be is, a religion in which all is sacred (Garbowski 2000, 67) reasonably assumed that the mythical because all things, even the most Also associated with the biblical fall framework of Middle-earth avails itself natural, are related to one another of mankind, which has its counterpart of the Bible as a model, mixed with the and to a founding transcendence.’ in The Silmarillion as indicated above, aforementioned texts of Norse legends (William Dowie: Salu 1979, 267) is the presence of a personified demon and parts of Anglo-Saxon culture, all During the Middle Ages, a period ic power which seduces and perverts combined in The Silmarillion whose that has served as a model for almost everything natural, thus assuming dev episodes are embedded in the songs every fantasy novel regarding society,

6. A comprehensive list of literary influences in the areas mentioned in this paper can be found in Shippey (1982, 220-226).

50 Re-writing the past... politics and evolution, the world of leg the past on a different level. He is not intended things mix with guided ones ends, ghosts and mythical creatures, as much concerned with the conver so that it becomes impossible to of heroes and epic poems possessed sion of literary texts into a more topical decide who imitates and sets out to a real aspect which influenced peo and suitable form in structure or con repeat what has already come to ple’s superstitions and everyday life. tent, as with an entirely new creation pass: the person or fate. [...] Because From the earliest days of human soci which refers to what he considers rel we follow in the footsteps of others ety these kinds of convictions formed evant and traditional archetypes. Thus and all life Is completion of mythical the first legends, stories which are the new creation pays tribute to its presence.’ (cf. Thomas Mann: in denied their validity and relevance In older template and is primarily adapt Tschirner, Susanne 1989, 157) today’s materialistic and no longer ed to the texts, not concerned with the But however one classifies spiritually oriented society. readers’ expectations. Tolkien’s form of ‘imitation’, in view of Considering that in the old myths, leg ‘Even where old texts are recollect the mythical historicity of the second ends and fables, which were taken ed, the effort of adapting old mod ary world Middle-earth the existence seriously in the past, is hidden a deep- els to the modern situation is often of mythic substance plays an enor seated human longing for explanation striking: whenever Tolkien’s con mous role when looking at the power and comprehension of their own envi temporaries James Joyce, T.S. Eliot ful symbolism of that world. ronment, it is easy to understand that or Eugene O’Neill let themselves be Tolkien’s vocabulary and proficien it is a topical necessity of human life to inspired by old myths and legends it cy in languages are also very impor revert to old things in order to create was only to try and experiment with tant. By clever and deliberately uncon something new out of them - just as their relevance for Man in the 20th ventional usage of old and reshaped Tolkien did. Tolkien does not take on century. Even T.H. White with all his words, Tolkien triggers his readers’ board all Christian or all legendary love for the magic world of the unconscious familiarity with the roots interpretation of the world, but avails Arthurian epics changed the figures of their own language in order to find himself of those sources of the past of his revised Morte d’Arthur, The their way around in Middle-earth and which were appealing to him. That is Once and Future King (1938-58) at the same time makes them feel also why they cater for such a variety into modern, psychologically Inter emotionally safe and intellectually of different readers. Other fantasy esting people. He thus achieves an challenged. authors such as Alan Garner have ironic distance from the original. ‘Tolkien used word-play in promot given their opinion on the value of And It Is this ironic distance which ing the idea that LOR describes an mythologisation: Tolkien dispenses with in his deal age dimly remembered in historical ‘I need some kind of crutch, some ings with the old material. It does vocabularies. This helps to arouse kind of framework, I suspect. My not occur to him to alter the tradi the reader’s interest when words most reputable reason for doing it is tional material when he starts to from historical contexts are used. that myth is not an attempt to enter implement his plans in 1917 which For example, he used the Old tain, it is an attempt to explain would eventually lead to The English word ent and ore for highly something. Originally people did Silmarillion. He wants to create specific types of creature, which he not sit around and cook up fairy sto something new based on old mod suggests were only vaguely or Inac ries to get through the long winter els.’ (cf. Petzold 1980, 35) curately remembered In Old English evenings. They were trying to come The purely mimetic activity in the mythology. Tolkien often gave histor to terms with their environment, so Aristotelian sense of imitating the old ical words a misleading meaning for you find that over the millenia [sic] according to human nature is not what the sake of a pun. For example, he myth contains crystallised human this is all about. What counts is to made the "Cracks of Doom" (tradi experience and very powerful Imag show ordinary and well-known things tionally meaning the signal for the inary. This imaginary is useful for a In a construct such as a secondary Day of Judgement) into a physical writer if he uses it responsibly. It can fantasy world to give them a new and landmark - fissures in the interior of work against him if he does not use more important context in ftrder to Mount Doom, where, as it happens, it properly, but if he uses it correctly gain insights about oneself and one’s a type of day of judgement took then he has very powerful cutting environment; an ability which might place.’ (Noel 1977, 32) tools in his hands which work have been lost in the course of time. Further examples of the use of old, beneath the surface.’ (Alan Gamer According to C.S. Lewis, the virtue of a almost forgotten words pervade Lord in: Swinfen 1984, 101) myth is "that It takes all the things we of the Rings. The characteristics of But there is a crucial difference know and restores to them the rich what is described in Middle-earth are between Tolkien and other authors of significance which has been hidden by always linked to the meaning in Old fiction, such as Alan Garner, who also the veil of familiarity" (Purtill 1974, English or Norse mythology (cf. Noel borrow from old legends in order to 154). The same is true of Tolkien’s 1977, 32ft). This applies especially to add substance to their stories. As with treatment and transformation of geographical occurrences but also to most other authors Tolkien of course mythology. It Is still unclear about names and characters. This complex read much literature before ever pro many parallels to old legends in methodology enhances the remark ducing lierature of his own. But Tolkien’s Middle-earth whether he put able mythical value of the literary con because of his academic career and them in on purpose or whether they text to a certain extent and at the same his love for languages he was proba crept into the stories unperceived due time arouses linguistic interest in the bly more erudite than many of his con to Tolkien’s academic knowledge. reader. In all probability, it serves also temporaries. Tolkien stands out for ‘And it is mysterious to witness how in to further the author’s enjoyment in the dealing with the work of authors from the phenomenon of succession creative use of language.

51 Mallorn XLI Appendix I would like to mention some points about the new German translation of The Lord of the Rings , published nation wide in 2000. In accordance with my foregoing thesis I believe the new translation's effects steer in a doubtful direc tion. In the "Tolkien Times", published by Klett-Cotta publishers who own the German rights to Tolkien’s books, a scene in Bree is quoted which shows both the old and new translation next to each other (with a commentary by the translator Wolfgang Krege). A clear tendency to update Tolkien’s language can be seen. The text is adapted to modern German thus altogether disregarding Tolkien’s intentional old-world quality of the language and its special effect. The following examples should suffice to demonstrate my meaning. Striking differences are italicised.

Original version (FR, 208-209): Old translation (Tolkien Times, 4): New translation (Tolkien Times, 4): (1) "Where are you, you woolly-foot (1) „Wo steckst du denn, du (1) „Wo steckst du, Nob, du flaum- ed slow-coach?" wollfüßiges Faultier1?" füßiger Penner3?" (2) "A cheery-looking hobbit bobbed (2) „Ein vergnügt aussehender (2) „Ein aufgeweckt4 aussehender out of a door..." Hobbit schoß aus der Tür heraus..." Hobbit kam aus einer Tür her vorgeschossen..." (3) "But we’ve got a room or two in (3) „Aber wir haben ein paar Zimmer (3) „Aber im Nordflügel haben wir ein the north wing that were made spe im Nordflügel, die eigens für Hobbits paar Zimmer, die wurden speziell für cial for hobbits, when this place was vorgesehen wurden, als dieses Haus Hobbits angelegt, als dieser Laden built." gebaut wurde2." hier gebaut wurde.5 " (4) "Here is a nice little parloui11 (4) „Hier ist eine nette kleine (4) „Hier haben wir ein nettes kleines Gaststube" Kiubzimmefi.“ (5) "If we don’t come, ring and shout' (5) „Wenn er nicht kommt, läutet und (5) „Wenn er nicht kommt, nochmal ruft' lauter bimmeln und brüllen7" 1.Sloth 2. when this house was built 3. fluffy-footed dosser 4.bright 5. when this here pile was built 6. club room 7.jangle [the bell] and yell again Of course, these are only small changes but even in these few passages a more or less subliminal imitation of modern German usage is revealed. Even though the hobbits can be said to communicate in the most modern form compared to all other peoples in Middle-earth, too modern a translation of Tolkien’s carefully selected prose runs the risk of destroying the magic of this remote world by making the language sound too vulgar.

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