UNIT 3 POLITY AND ECONOMY IN DECCAN AND SOUTH

Structure Objectives Introduction Geographical Setting Political Formations in the Deccan Political Formations in South India 3.4.1 Rise of the Kingdoms 3.4.2 States in Malabar Nature of Polity : Different Approaches The Ruling Elite Economy Let Us Sum Up Key Words Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit you will'be able to know about 'the: a geographical influences on polity and economy of Deccan and South India; politi&l formation and its qature in Deccan and South India; a role of the ruling elite (nayak and poligan) in polity and economy, and a emerging economic trends i.e. the impact of the advent of the Portuguese in the region.

- 3.1 INTRODUCTION

This Unit provides a link between the developments of the 8-15th centuries and what followed after the decline of the two big empires-the Bahrnani and the Vijaynagar in Deccan and South India. It also gives the background for the developments witnessed in the region with the entry of the Mughals. The study of this unit would help in understanding the change and continuity during the 16th century in respect of polity and economy of the Deccan and South Indian states.

3.2 GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING

Geography plays a ,c+l role in the politico~conomicdevelopments. Certain salient geographical features of South India and Deccan influenced the developments in the region (see Block 3 of EHI43). Broadly, the whole tract lying south of the river Narmada is known as South India. However, technically speaking, this tract consists of two broad divisions, Deccan and south India. Dean In Unit 12 of EHI43 w touched upon the gecgaphy of Deccan. Deccan is bounded in the north and northcast by Nannada and 'Mahanadi riven, while Nilgiri hills and Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU Pennar river form its southern boundary. To the west and east lie the Western and Eastern Ghats along with long coastal strip on both the sides. The area between the pOb adEeonoW h vast vestern seacoast and the Sahyadri ranges is known as Konkan, a sub-region of ~~.nd~outb~ Deccan. The whole strip is full of dense forest, and the soil.& pot adequately fertile. The area boasts of great strategic importance. Therefore, a nmhr of strong forts were built there. The famous ports of Chaul and Dabhol also come under this region. On account of its difficult access. local chieftains (deshmukhs) often manifested shifting loyalties and at times defied the Central authority. You would find that it was this geographical location that played crucial role in the rise of the Marathas. On account of its hilly and forest tracts, the Deccan states were difficult to penetrate, but, from the side of southern Gujarat it had an easy access through the fertile Baglana tract. For this reason it repeatedly fell under the sway of the Gujarat rulers. Finally in the 16th century, the Partuguese altered the balance in that region. With minor variations, Goa marked the boundary between the Bahmani and the Vijaynagar states. The central Deccan (from the Ajanta ranges to the Nilgiri hills and Palaghat gap) possesses black soil which is good for cotton cultivation. The Khandesh and Berar tracts of Maharashtm lying along the banks of the Tapti and the Wardha and Painganga rivers were known for fertility. This led to frequent encounters between the ~alvkand Bahmani rulers for the occupation of Kherla and Mahur. (for details see Units 11, 12 and 28 in course EHI-03). Between the Krishna and Godavari lies the flat plain whicb &'also famous for its rich 'cotton' soil. Then comes the Telangana region: its soil is sandy and does not retain moisture. The rivers, too, are not perennial; as a result, tank irrigation became important. Along the Krishna valley lies the Kurnool rocks where the famous Golkonda mines were located. The southern Deccan plateau (parts lying in modem ) is also richin mineral resources (copper. lead, zinc, iron, gold, manganese etc.). South Indt The region south of the Krishna Tungabhadra doab formed South India. The coastal belt in the east is known as Coromandel while the western tract from south of Kanara (from the river Netravati down to Cape Comorin) is known as Malabar which is bounded by the Western Ghats in the east. We have already discussed (See Units 12 and 27 of course .EHI03) how during the Chola period the focus of activity was confined mainly around the Kaveri tract which, during the Vijaynagar period, shifted further northzast towards Tungabhadra-Krishna doab (the Rayalseema tract) where the capital of Vijapgar was situated. Throughout the 13-16th century, this tract remained the centre of struggle: first, between Vijaynagar and Bahmani, and later between Vijaynagar and its successor Nayak states and the Bijapur rulers. The Qutb Shahi rulers also joined the conflict frequently. Another feature that influenced the 16th century South Indian polity, economy and society was the migration of the Telugu population from the northern tracts (of South India) which started from the mid-15th century and continued during the 16th century. Interestingly, this movement was from the coastal and deltaic wet land areas, which were greatly fertile, wellcultivated and well-irrigated. There might have been numerous reasons for these migrations like, the Bahmani pressure; deliberate attempts on the part of the Vijaynagar rulers to extend their dominion further south; natural process, that is, movement from more densely populated areas; the soil was well suited to the migrants since it was excellent for dry farming, etc. At any rate, it had deep socioeconomic impact. For example, the development of dry farming led to the rise of tank irrigation which became the crucial part of the 16th century South Indian economy. Secondly, its compamtively low productivity yielded low surplus which helped in the rise of what the modem scholars call 'portfolio capitalists" in this tract.

3.3 POLITICAL FORMATIONS IN THE DECCAN

The decline of the Bahmani power gave way to the rise of five kingdoms in the Deccan (see Unit 28 of EH103). The death of Mahmud Gawan, an Afaqi noble, virtmlly sealed the fate of the tlahmani power in the Deccan and, finally, the death Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU of Mahmud Shah ( 14kl-I qlKb of the Bahmani rule. The crucial factor in the decline 'I IIIW in the 16th Century was the longdrawn conflict between the Afaqis and the Deccanis. Both of these factions were dissatisfied. For example, the Deccanis blamed the Sultan for showing extra favour to the Afaqis while the Afaqis felt their position was no more secure and stable. The factors which contributed towards the establishment of the Deccah kingdoms had starled emerging during the Bahmani rule itself. The Bahmani rule was on the decline. It is important to note that the founders of all the Deccani kingdoms were at we point of time Bahmani nobles who had served one or the other Bahmani ruler. Yusuf Adil Sh'ah, the founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty at Bijapur (1489) was the tanfd-r of Bijapur; Nizam Shah Bahri, the founder of the Nizam Shah kingdom at Ahmednagar (14%) was incharge of a number of forts in the Sahyadri ranges; Qasim Band ul Mamalik, founder of Band Shahi dynasty at Bidar (1504) sewed as kotml of Bidar as well as wakil during Mahmud Shah's reign; Fathullah Imad Shah, the founder of the Imad Shahi dynasty of Berar (1510) served as tanfdar of Berar; and Quli Qutbulmulk, the founder of the Qutb Shahi dynasty at Golkonda (1543) held the governorship of Telangana. Out of the five states that emerged after the decline of the Bahmani kingdoms, the founders of the three-Bijapur, Bidar and Golkonda-were Afaqi nobles. Ahmednagar and Bemr were under the Deccani nobles. But the Afaqi-Deccani factor hardly dominated their relationships. Instead, it was based more on what suited their interest, circumstances and exigencies of the time. Accordingly, even an Afaqi state could join hands with a Deccani power against another Afaqi and vice-versa. The history of the 16th century Deccani states cannot be studied in isolation. Each wanted to extend its dominion at the cost of the other. As a result, alliances and counter-alliances were a ngular feature. As repeatedly pointed out geography played a crucial role in the Deccan politics. The geographic location of Ahmednagar (in the north), Golkonda (in the east) and Bijapur (in the south) was such that it provided them enough room for extension towards further north and south. Thus, these kingdoms had the natural advantage to 'gain stnngth. Bidar and Berar (situated in the central Deccan) sandwiched as they wen baween the power blocks, remained as men pawns in the hands of one or the ather Deccani power. Perhaps, shifting loyalties was the only strategy for their existence. Bijapur (surrounded by Ahrnednagar in the nokh, Bidar in the east and Vijaynagar and its successor Nayak states in the south) coveted the fertile plains of the Krishna- ~u&bhadra dorb. This clashed with the interests of the South Indian states and also with those of Bidar and Golkonda. Again, its interests in Sholapur and Naldurg were the chief factor behind the conflict with Ahmednagar. For Golkonda (surrounded by Berar in the north, Bidar in the west and the Vijaynagar and successor Nayak kingdoms in the south), the existence of Bidar and Berar was very important to serve as a buffer between Golkonda and Bijapur and Ahmednagar and Golkonda. The latter preferred the help of Ahmednagar for its ambitious plans in the Mudgal and Raichur doab. On the other hand, Ahmednagar, too, needed the help of Golkonda against the aggressive designs of Bijapur over Naldurg, Sholapur and Gulbarga. Berar was in constant conflict with Ahmednagar in the west, and Golkonda in the south. The only state left to ally with was Bijapur. Therefore, Bijapur-&rar alliance was more lasting during the first half of the 16th century. Bbt during the second half of ihe century, the situation gradually changed. This was because Bijapur's interests lay more in gaining the favour of Ahmednagar and Bidar , iqits conflict against Golkonda and Vijaynagar. Bijapur helped Murtaza Nizam Shah to occupy Bemr in 1574. Bijapur annexed Bidar in 1619. However, the scene in the Deccan changed drastically with the rise of the Mughals who invaded Ahmednagar in 1595. This invasion compelled the Deccani kingdoms to seek for new compromises and balances (for further details see Unit 9).

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA 16th Century \

BENGAL ARABIAN

Check Your Progress 1 I ) Define the following : Kdnka~ ...... , ......

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU Malabar ......

Coromandel ...... 2) Match the following: A B i) Bijapur Nizam Shahi ii) Golkonda Barid Shahi iii) Berar Adil Shahi iv) Bidar Imad Shahi v) Ahmednagar Qutb Shahi 3) Put a y/ for True and a X for False statement. i) Nizamshahi rulers wanted to occupy Raichur ctoab. ii) Afaqi-Deccani factor hafly played any significant role in the post-Bahmani politics in the Deccan. iii) After 1550's them occurred a change in Tjapur's relations with Berar. iv) Golkonda wanted to occupy Mudgal and Sholapur.

3.4 POLITICAL FORMATIONS IN SOUTH INDIA

By 1500, the entire South India formed part of the Vijaynagar empire with the exclusion of Malabar (the south-western coast) and Tinmelveli. Later, even Tirunelveli, too, was annexed (in 1540) by the Vijaynagar empire. At the onset of our period under study, there were four independent kingdoms in the Malabar region: Kolathunad (Cannanore), ruled by the Kolathiris, Kozhikode (Calicut) under the Samudri raja, Venad under the hegemony of the Tiruvadis and, the upcoming Cochin state. During the course of the 16th century, within the Vijaynagar empire, we see the emergence of the Nayak kingdoms of Ikkeri, Senji (Gingee), Odeyar Mysore, Madurai and Tanjore which continued to remain notionally subordinate to Vij aynagar. The political formations in South India under Krishnadeva Raya and his successors h~vcbeen dealt with in Unit 27 of the Course EHI-03. Hen our emphasis is on the Nayak khgdoms and Malabar states. 3.4.1 Rise of The Nayak Kingdoms When did the Nayak kingdoms emerge? For some historians (Nilakantha Sastri, etc.) the defeat of Vijaynagar (in 1565) generated rebellions. It also led to the growth of the 'tyranny of Palayagars* which resulted in the independence of Nayaks of Madura, Tanjore and Senji. But for others (Burton Stein, etc.), the rise of the Nayaks may be traced to the 1530's. Let us trace briefly the development of each Nayak kingdom.

Senji The bingdom of Senji (along eastern coast from Palar in tht north to ~oleroonin the south) under a napk seems toehave originated during Krishnadevaraya's reign. Its first nayak was Vaiappa. (1526-1544). Till 1592,sall the nayaks of Senji remained loyal to Vijaynagar. However, the Vijaynagar ruler, Venkata I shifted his capital after 1592 from Penukonda to Chandragiri in order to strengthen Vijaynagar's hold over the nayaks. This gave rise to resentment among the nayaks as they expected Vijaynagar's interference in their internal affairs. (This was the main reason for frequent evasion of payment of tribute by the yak^ to Vijaynagar which ultimately led to civil war after Venkata 1's death in 1614.) One instance of such interference pas that the nayak of Vellore, who was subordinate to Senji Nayak, was encouraged by Venkata I to disregard the latter's authority. Venkata I followed the.policy of 'divide and rule' to weaken the nayaks of whious tracts within the Empire. All this l@ the myab of Vellore and Senji to rebel (sometime after 1600). Later, Vellore and Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOUSenji were taken over by Venkata I (1600-1608!. Tanjore Tanjore (modern Tanjore and North Arcot) under a nayak emerged during Achyuiaraya's reign in. 1532 under Sewappa Nayak. The myaks of Tanjore remained loyal to Vijaynagar throughout the 16th century. They always sided with the Empire in its battles. For example, they helped Venkata I againsi Golkonda invasion and this loyalty continued till Ven.kataLI'sdeath in 1614.

Madura Madura (south of the Kaveri) was put under a napk sometime during the last years of Krishnadevaraya's reign (1529). The first nayak was Vishvanath (d. 1564). By and large, he and his successors remained loyal to Vijaynagar even at the~battleof Talikota. They helped the Empire against the Portuguese. But in the early 1580s. tension cropped up between Venkata I and Virappa Nayak. Perhaps, the lattcr attempted to evade tribute which was taken care of by Venkata I by sending his army to collect revenue. Again, when Muttu Krishnappa Nayak evaded tribute around 1605 Venkata I had to send his army once again. This shows that during the closing years of .his reign when Venkata I imposed moreand more centralization, the nayaks attempted to challenge his authority.

The nayaks of Ikkeri (north Karnataka) also arose during Krishnadevaraya's reign. The first nayak was Keladi Nayaka Chaudappa who served Achyutaraya and Ramaraja. Sadasiva Nayak (1540-65), the successor and son of Chaudappa, was behind Bijapur's defeat at the hands of Ramaraya and, as a reward received the title of 'Raya'; later, his military exploits won him the title of 'Raja' from Ramaraya. Tulu nayaks of Ikkeri remained loyal to Vijaynagar throughout the 16th century, but in the early years of the 17th century they became practically independent under Venkatappa Nayaka I (1586-1629). The nuyaks of Ikkeri always remained under heavy pressure from Bijapur, but they were able to repel the latter's attacks. Besides, they also met hostility from the Odeyar nayaks of Mysore. The Ikkeri myaks also cast greedy eyes over Gersoppa, the richest tract for pepper in north Canara. This led to regular campaigns to subdue the queen Bhairavadevi of Gersoppa.

Odeyar Mysore The history of the Odeyar chiefs goes back to 1399 when they settled in this region. But it was under Chamaraja 111 (1513-53) and his son Timrnaraja (1533-72) that the Odeyars came into prominence. Vijaynagar's hold over this territory &specially Umr nttur) was never complete. We find that the most powerful of the Vijaynagar ruler Krishnadevaraya found it difficult to curb these Umrnattur chiefs. Odeyar nayaks continued to defy the Vijaynagar might till the~Rajafinally succeeded in 1610 in ousting the Vijaynagar viceroy of Serir~gapatamand made it his capital. 3.43 States in Malabar By the turn of the 15th century, there were three prominent kingdoms in Malabar: (i) Kolathunad or Cannanore (north of Calicut, from Netravati river in the north to Korafipuzha in the south, ruled by Kolathiris); (ii) Kozhikode or Calicut (between the Kolathiri kingdom in the north to the Tiruvadi kingdom in the south, ruled by the Zamorin) and, (iii) Venad or Travancore (from Quilon in the nolth to Cape Comorin in the south). Besides, Cochin was the emerging state. The main feature of the 16th century Malabar polity was perpetual warfare between Kolathunad and Kozhikode; and between the latter and Cochin (Nayar) rajas. Both, Kolathunad and Cochin (Kshatriya) rajas claimed superior lineage. Besides these four major rulers, there existed a number of small chiefslrajas at Tanur, %nganore, Mangat, Idappalli, Vedakkurnkur, Procaud, Kayamkulam and Quilon. The rajas of Cranganore, Idappalli and Vedakkumkur were subordinated to Calicut. Idappali wa's important for Calicut for it provided a base for their operations against Cochin. ntert , n ,ly, the socio-political structure of was such that often the rajas held d rlgil. and pr&perty in each other's territory. Thus, in the Malabar political structure ' there was enough room for extra-territorial claims. For example, Calicut had many rights over the temples of Cochin and Travancore. Similarly, there were many rajas who were not subotdinate to Calicut but they exercised authority over many temples in the ZamorinS territdry. During the 16th century, Calicur had certain distinct Content. Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU advantages over othdr Malabar kingdoms.; first, it was the great centre of Western Indh In the 16th Century trade; secondly, it had strong naval power and; thirdly, it had the support of Arab traders who provided arms and horses.

The 16th century history of Malabar coincides with the early history of the Portuguese in India (for the'establishment of the Portuguese power in Malabar see Unit 04). The Arab merchants of Calicut were apprehensive of the Portuguese designs from the very beginning. The Zamorins supported them against the Europeans. On the other hand, Calicut's rivalry with Citnnanore and Cochin forced . them to cultivate friendship with the Portuguese. Every Zamorin used to depose the then Cochin raja at his accession. Besides, they forced Cochin to sell all its products through Calicut. To retaliate this was an apt opportunity for Cochin. Its ruler ailowed the Europeans to establish a factory in Cochin.*The Portuguese exploited the situation to their advantage. They realized that Calicut was the major hindrance to control the Malabar trade. Hence, throughout the 16th century, the Portuguese carried on armed clashes against Calicut. With a view to drive out the Portuguese, the Zamorins at times allied with Bijapur, Gujarat, Ahmednagar and Egypt. However, the efforts were without success. At any rate, the Zamorins continued to harass the Portuguese on lands. Even on the seas the Portuguese found it difficult to destroy Calicut's naval power which was organized under the celebrated Marakkar family of admirals. From 1528 to 1598, the Portuguese-Zamorin clashes were mainly confined to the seas. It was only in 1599 that the Portuguese succeeded in making a breakthrough against the Marakkars. The Portuguese control was effective at only those places where they had built their fortresses-Cannanore, Cuchin, Prucaud and Quilon. But their highhandedness and cruelty compelled even these allies to part with them in spite of their traditional rivalries with Calicut. For example, the Cannanore rulers, who supported the Portuguese against Calicut in the early years, later supported the Zamorin in 1558* against the Portuguese. Similarly the raja of Tanur, who had become a Christian and supported the Portuguese against Calicut, turned his back to the Europeans. In fact, it were only Cochin, Prucaud and Quilon with whom Portuguese succeeded in maintaining a lasting friendship.

Check Your Progress 2 1) Name the kingdoms of Malabar.

2) When did the Nayak kingdoms emerge? ......

3) Discuss the nature of Nayak-Vijaynagar relations durina the 16th century.

4) Who were the Zamorins? Discuss their relations with the Portuguese...... r

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU PoUty and bnomy h 3.5 NATURE OF POLITY :DIFFERENT APPROACHES Deccrn and South Indir

The nature of the political fornations of the Deccani kingdoms was somewhat different from that of the South India. However, according to a recent study (Sanjay Subrahmanyam), there exists 'little difference between the states north and south of Pennar', i.e. between the Deccan and Vijaynagar and successor Nayak states. Sanjay Subrahmanyam says that everywhere one finds 'tributary chieftains' (nayaks and Palaiyakkarars etc.), and presence of revenue farming. The Deccani states borrowed extensively from the system of their predecessor i.e. the Bahmanis. That is why Turko-Persian elements were dominant. This provided the crucial background for the newly established states. M.A. Nayeem characterises the Bijapur state as 'feudal'. For him, the system was based on 'contractual relations' i.e., in lieu of protection the nobles promised 'allegiance and service' to the ruler. But all the Deccani states were 'centralized' monarchies where Sultan's power was almost absolute. Besides, there also existed fiscal linkage between the periphery and the core. There was no notion of shared sovereignty in contrast to Vijaynagar. Whatever power the Velama, Reddi or Maratha chiefs might have enjoyed under the Deccani rulers, they were under direct central control. However, when the Deccani states started expanding towards further south they satisfied themselves with tributes only, as it was practically difficult for them to directly administer those distant regions. J. F. Richards defines Golkonda as a 'conquest state'. No doubt, the 16th century Deccan polities as such, are marked by constant warfare (see Unit 9). Nevertheless, we cannot describe them a 'conquest state' on the lines of Vijaynagar. The nature of expansion of Vijaynagar differs entirely from that of the Deccani kingdoms: in the fornler ,the 'Telugu nayaksl were instrumental in the expansion, whereas in the latter the montirchy or the centralised state was directly involved in the expansion process.

As for the nature of South Indian states, some historians have termed the Vijaynagar state as 'feudal;' some call it a 'war state' others have highlighted its 'segmentary' character. We have already discussed it in detail in Blocks 3 and 7, Course EHI-03. In the 'feudal' model, the chiefs were required to render military service to their overlords, but they were free to administer their territories. I11 the 'segmentary' state, the periphelal chiefs recognized the ritual sovereignty of the Centre, but the agrarian surplus did not flow from the segment tothe core. However, Sanjay Subrahmanyam does emphasize that (even as late as 17th century) revenue flow from Madurai, Senji and Tanjavur regions was substantial. 1n.any case, during the 16th century, the 'segmentary' character gradually changed towa* centralization. For Rurton Stein, who is the major propounder of the 'segmentaj' state theory, the process began as early as Krishnadevaraya's reign. The change occurred mainly because of the widespread unrest among the Karnataka (Ummattur) and Tamil chiefs that led Krishnadevaraya to think of more comprehensive strategies. These included : monopoly of force under royal control; posting trusted Brahman commanders at the forts and recruitment of local force from the forest people (poligars), etc. We have also seen how Venkata I, especially after his shift of capital from Penukonda to Chandragiri, attempted to gain firm control over the growing might of' the nayaks. But that resulted irl the nagaks'revolts during the early 17th century. Yet we see that the process that began during the 16th century was completed during the 18th century in the formation of the strong centralized state of Mysore ui~derHyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. During the 16th century, specially.from Rama Kaya's reign onwards. another feature developed in the South Indian polity, that is what Burton Stein describes as the rise of 'partrirnonialisrn'. Rama Raya replaced the Brahman commanders of the fbrts (who had no kinship affinities with their overlords) by his own kinsmen and granted more autonomy to the Telugu chiefs Ispecially in Karnataka-Andhra region). He even placed the army in the charge of' his two hrothers Tirumala and Venkatadri. Thus began the 'patrimonial' polity. This filtered further. 'The nayaks artempted to expand their powers and influence on the basia,of 'patrirnunv' ---speciallvthe chiefs of Maravar who, later in the I 7th i:rnliir),, succeeded in establishing an independent kingdom at Ramnad and those of' Kallars In Pudukkottol (Raqalseerna). .I.hrr,uqh their clan!caste cotrnectlons. the 'L1arava.r chlet'u exlcntl~~dtt~cit ~rliluence over Ramesvaram, Madurai and Ra~nnad((heir hurncland). The Kallar cl~iefsextended Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU their au!hority over almost the whole ot Puduhkottai through thr~rkinsh~p ties. They got the land in the form of warrants (paths) issued by the Kallar Tondairnan raja. Similarly, the Lapahhi nayaks attempted to create 'patrimony' around Lapakshi. Virapannyga Nayaka controlled Penukonda rajyam, while his other two brothers held offices in fortress of Chitradurga (under Achyutadevaraya). These nayaks continued to follow the same rituals and practices that were due to the Vijaynagar kings. Madurai Nayaks followed same coronation rituals which were followed by Krishnadeuaraya. Vishvanatha Nayaka of Madurai also initiated royal practice of communal dining with his kinsmen and close supporters. Madurai nayaks even revived the old Kakatiya practice of associating chieftains with fortress and hence for the kingdom as a whole. Visvanatha Nayaka started the system of 'military encampment' under plniyakkamr-each was the protector of a fort and, thus, they became members of the Madurai's ruling elite, kumarnvarukkam. The Malabar kingdoms were organised more on 'feudal' lines. The Nayar chiefs enjoyed autonomous powers in their temtories for which they performed compulsory military service to their overlords. However, these 'feudal' chiefs were hereditary owners of land.

THE RULING ELITE

The ruling elite of the 16th century Deccan and South India enjoyed almost autonomous status in their territories. In spite of the fact that the character of the nobility as such was similar everywhere, there also existed differences among them as far as the composition and powers were concerned.

The composition of the Ahmednagar and Bijapur nobility was much the same but the nature of Golkonda nobility differed. The majority of the inhabitants in the 16th century Golkonda comprised mainly the Telugu speaking Hindus while the nobility and the sovereigns were Muslims. Besides, as we have already discussed, the centre of activity shifted from the wet-area (Rajahmundry) to the less fertile tracts of the interior Telangana that led to the use of dry farming based on tank irrigation. This gave rise to the Telugu Reddi and Velama nayak cultivators from the Bahmani period onwards. The problem of the Qutb Shahi rulers was how to counteract this powerful local elite. These Telugu nayaks got frequent support from their Telugu counterparts i.e. the Vijaynagar rulers (this problem could only be completely solved after the defeat of the Vijaynagar ruler in the battle of Talikota, 1565). However, the shrewd policy of Ibrahim Qutb Shah (1530-80) of patronizing Tamil culture, projected himself more as an indigenous ruler rather than an invader. He knew Tekgu and had a Telugu wife. Moreover, he distributed revenue free land to both the Brahmans and ulema. Unlike Bijapur, he did not impose jiziya. The result was that when the Golkonda rulers faced the threat of the Vijaynagar might under Aliya Ramaraya between 1542-65, his Telugu nayaks remained loyal while his own kinsmen of the Tungabhadra doab supported the Vijaynagar rulers. However, these Telugu nayaks enjoyed little autonomy compared to their South Indian counterparts: we find them placed under some Muslim control. The more strategically important places were under Muslim commanders. But the revenue offices were almost entirely dominated by the Brahmans in the entire Deccan and South India. In the rest of the Deccani states, nobility was recruited mostly from a select band of the Muslim elite. The latter had to maintain a fixed quota of troops for which they recelved moqasas (see Sec. 3.7). They could holdrthe office till they enjoyed Sultan's favour and remained loyal to him. Their holdings were liable to transfer, but it happened rarely. They were left free in their areas where they enjoyed almost complete autonomy. When the Bijapur rulers expanded further south, they found it difficult to administer the tract directly. As a result, the Sultans followed the policy of 'condominiums' and satisfied themselves with an annual tributes only.

South India The nayaks were the ruling elite in South India. The details about the nayaks and their privileges and duties, erc. have been discussed in Unit 27 of Course EH143. Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOUHere our emphasis is on. the changes in the 16th century agrarian structure when the ~alaiyakkamrscontrolled the agrarian economy, and the nayaks' relations with their subordinate palaiyakkarars/poligars, especially after 1565. As for the composition of Polity and Economy in the palaiyakkarars, it was made of Telugu. Kannidigas, Kaladi, Kallars, Morasu Decan and South lndh Vokicaligas, Tamils, Mulbagal, etc. During the 16th century, the palaiyakkarars tried to replace the Tamil peasant elite by granting lands to the temples and by 'controlling the regal function of temple protection'. On the other hand, temple lands were often transferred to warrior chiefs. Such transfer of lands led to the decline of the temple economy-especially they lost

I I their monopoly of record-keeping. The nayaks centralized record-keeping with the help of the Marathas and Kannadigas who had no locai base. Thus, 'the nayaks i created the conditions necessary for the emergence to inchoate centralised polities. I The destruction of the local power-base and the abridgement of the institutional economy of temples were the first steps towards the emergence of absolutist state formations'. However, the transfer of agrarian power into the hands of the warrior chiefs did not wholly replace the peasants. In a kudiningadevadana, for example, the b peasants acquired a permanent share in the produce of the land and hence they I could not be evisted.

The warrior chiefs reclaimed large quantities of land and developed them into towns known as palaiyams its head was known as palaiyakkarar. Their control was almost i complete over these palaiyams. They used to impose various taxes on peasants, artisans and merchants. The burden of taxation under these chieftains was very heavy which often led to tensions and unrest, especially among the peasants. On the other hand, the nayaks at Madurai attempted to bring palaiyak@arar/poligar (subordinate warriorchief) into the fold of the ruling elite itself. They were made incharge of fortslmilitary encampments and became members'of the ruling estate when they were called kumaravamkkam. However, this was not the case with other nayak kingdoms where the relationship was more of confrontation and conflict than of cooperation. At Tanjavur and Senji there existed no palaiyakkarars. Instead, the Brahmans and Vellala chiefs were dominant with no proper military control over them. The nayaka of Ikkeri and Mysore constantly clashed with their subordinate chiefs. I kkeri nayak Sadasiva (1 540-1 565) dealt severely with the poligars of Andige, Muppina, Velur, Mabasale, Kanave and Sirvanti. Similarly, chiefs of Danivara, Kumbesi, Yalavandur, Hebbe Mandagadde, Karabura, Morabadi and Salanda raised their heads during Venkatappa 1's reign (1586-1629), though all were successfully repulsed. Tlie ruling elite of the Malabar was drawn almost entirely from the Nayars. They were called Nambiars, Kaimals, Mannadiars, Kartavus and Kurups. They controlled the local power and in return were supposed to render compulsory military service. They had their own military o~ganisation-kalaris. Sometimes they owed allegiance . to more than one raja. They held absolute power over the lands under their control. I Interestingly, the Malabar law hardly provided any privilege to the sovereign to either depose OJ confiscate the property in case of rebellion of any hereditary chief. r

I 3.7 ECONOMY

We will deal in detail about the land revenue system and agrarian relations of the Deccan an3 South India in Units 19 and 20. Here we will take up these aspects very briefly. Economy of all the South Indian and Deccani states was primarily based on agriculture. The coasts were well irrigated by rain water. For other areas, a well- developed system of tank irrigation was in operation, especially in the Andhra tract. Towards the west, canal irrigation was a'-. 'mportant, especially in Ahmednagar.

For Karashima, Subbarayalu and Heitzm peasants were the proprietors in South Indla. However, Burton Stein and Sanjay Subramanyam cast some doubts. Since the peasants/tenamts had the right to sell shows the existence of proprietorship. But during this period a distinction was made between the proprietorship on 'land' and

proprietorship over the 'privileges' (fiscal rights). It was latter that was assured. a Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU There also existed communal holdings. India in thc 16th century Land tax was the major source of states' income. In South India, the old system of the Vijaynagar continued. Revenue demand varied from 116th to 114th. In Golkonda, however, it was 112 of the produce. The states preferred to realize the revenue in cash. However, the Malabar states were exceptions where no land tax existed. The Malabar rulers depended more on customs dues, janman holdings, etc. But some historians emphasize that the land tax did. exist. However, most of the land was held by the Namputhiri Brahmans which was revenue-free. Since rent payment to temples was comparatively less than the payment to the state the peasants preferred the former. Primarily there existed three types of lands: i) the crown land which in South India was known as bhanlravndn; in Bijapur muamnh or qalah and in Golkonda khnllsa. ii) the land granted to the nobles, subordinates, etc. known as nman (in the South) and moqnsu (in the Deccan). These nobles paid a fixed sum annually to the ruler. iii) revenue-free grants-mnnyn (in south) and inam (in Deccan). The prevalent form of revenue realization was revenue farming; i.e., right to collect revenue was given to the highest bidders who used to pay to the statelnobles a fixed sum annually and they were usually left free to collect from the peasants as much as they could. The Deccani rulers retained the local revenue collection machinery. Revenue officials of different ranks worked at different levels. For instance, the tax official for crown land was called hnvaldar while, at pargnnn level, there were desai and deshmukh. Accountants were known as deshkulknmi and deshpnnde. he village headmen, accountants etc. were named muqnddnm, pntel and kulkami. All of them received monetary share in the revenue for their work which varied from state to state. In the coastal belt, separate governors (sar-sarnntu) were appointed who paid a fixed sum annually, similar to the revenue farmers. Though amib were appointed to serve as check on their powers, the states' interest lay more in getting regular payment instead of the welfare of the peasants. Besides land tax, the state derived revenue from other sources as well-tributes, booty from war and plunder and, above all, from the customs. Bijapur rulers also derived considerable income from jiziyn; licence fee for private minting of coins was also a good source of income. The Golkonda rulers acquired handsome income from diamond mines. The right to collect taxes other than land revenue was held by the trade guilds who used to pay a fixed sum annually and appoint their own officials (like the revenue farmers). Mostly, they were from the Telugu mercantile castes. An important feature of the 16th-17th century was the rise of 'portfolio capitalists'. Some scholars thought that the trading activity in India was in the hands of merchants who held no political or military power. However, recently (Sanjay Subrahmanyam) this is being argued, especially in the case of Coromandel, that the , revenue fanners (mostly the palaiyakkarnrs). played constructive role in the development of economy. Besides their role as revenue collectors, they also indulged in agricultural trading, development of irrigation. shipping, banking, etc. We get evidence of diverse sorts of merchants in this period: the Armenians, Portuguese, Telugu Balija Naiyudus, Chettis, Komatis, Arabs, Gujaratis, etc. The internal trade was largely in the hands of the Muslim Mapillas. On the Kanara Coast the chief beneficiaries were the Hindu and Jaina chiefs, while Coromandel coast was controlled mainly by the Arabs, Marakkarar converts, the Mapillas. Some Scholars hold that the economy In South India did not deteriorate in the 16th century as thought by others. They emphasize that the naynks stimulated economic activity by establishing market-places, towns, etc. The argument of constant warfare, after 1565 is countered on the ground by them that it was a general feature that existed even during the early centuries.

Check Your Progress 3 1) During the 16th century South Indian states show the signs of centralization. Comment.

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2) Discuss the naiure and composjtion of the Golkonda nobility.

3) Define the 'portfolio capitalists'......

3.8 LET US SUM UP

The 16th century Deccan and South Indian polity was marred by internecine warfare. This century saw the decline of the Vijaynagar Empire. The opinion that after the battle of Talikota, Vijaynagar was dismantled and the nayaks carved out their own independent regimes cannot go unquestioned. The irony is that the nayak chiefs grew up when Vijaynagar was at its zenith under Krishnadevaraya. The mighty noyaks of Senji, lkkeri, Madura and Tanjavur remained Ic,yal to the Vijaynagar rulers even after 1565. and it was only during the 17th century that Venkata 1's policies forced them to rebel. The 16th century Vijaynagar polity shows some tendency towards centralization. Also, this was the period of the rise of 'patrimonial politics'. During this period, there emerged e class of 'portfolio-capitalists' who were not mere exploiters but contributed ailot to economic development. This century witnessed the rise of the Portuguese power in the Deccan and south India. At any rate, in spite of constant warfare in the two polities, the economy of the entire region did not deteriorate duiing this century.

3.9 KEY WORDS

Afaqi : the new Deccani nobles who came from Iran, Iraq and Transoxiana Amil : revenue collector Baglana Tract : fertile tract north of the Ghatmatha region in the north-west corner of the present Nasik district with strong forts of Salher, Mulher and Hatgarh; the latter protecting the route from and into Gujarat. This area acknowledged the suzerainty of Khandesh. Gujarat, Ahmednagar or the Mughals as circumstances demanded Condominiums : joint sovereignty Deccani : the old Deccani nobility Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU Janman : hereditary proprietorship ladh In the 16th Cmtury Kudiningadevadana : devsdana (temple land) land granted as kanipparm (land tenure) to warrior chieftains Munmala/Qalah : in Bijapur the terms were used for crown lands. However. muamala were centres of trade and traffic while 'qalah' were strategic points along the Western Ghat.. Nnyak : warrior chief Patrimolly : patronclient relationship based on kinship ties Sahyadri Ranges : the mountain terrain in the west which begins from south of the river Tapti; also known as Western Ghats

3.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1 I) You have to discuss their geographic location and characteristic features. See Sec. 3.2. 2) i) Adil Shah11 ii) Qutb Shahi; iii) Band Shahi; iv) Imad; v) Nizam Shahi. 3) (i) x (ii) 4 (iii) / (iv) x

Check Your Progress 2 I) Mention their names as well as their geographic location. See sec.3.4; Sub-Sec. 3.4.2. 2) Discuss in general the emergence of nayaks. See Sub-sec. 3.4.1. 3) You have to mention whether nayaks remained loyal even after 1 565 or there occurred changes in their relatiotls with Vijaynagar rulers. See Sec. 3.4. 4) Identify who were Zamorins and very briefly discuss the nature of Portuguese- Zamorin relations. See Sub-scc. 3.4.2.

Check Your Progress 3 I) Discuss how there occurred changes in the 'segmentary' character and why? See sec. 3.5. 2) Discuss how and why the Golkonda rulers retained the local elites but under central control; and also discuss the position of Muslim elites. In composition. discuss various categories of nobles. See Sec. 3.6.

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