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Critical Tectonic Limits for Geothermal Aquifer Use: Case Study from the East Slovakian Basin Rim

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Critical Tectonic Limits for Geothermal Aquifer Use: Case Study from the East Slovakian Basin Rim resources Article Critical Tectonic Limits for Geothermal Aquifer Use: Case Study from the East Slovakian Basin Rim Stanislav Jacko *, Roman Farkašovský, Igor Duriška,ˇ Barbora Šˇcerbáková and Kristína Bátorová Institute of Geosciences, Faculty BERG, Technical University of Košice, 04001 Košice, Slovakia; [email protected] (R.F.); [email protected] (I.D.);ˇ [email protected] (B.Š.); [email protected] (K.B.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +42-155-602-31-35 Abstract: The Pannonian basin is a major geothermal heat system in Central Europe. Its peripheral basin, the East Slovakian basin, is an example of a geothermal structure with a linear, directed heat flow ranging from 90 to 100 mW/m2 from west to east. However, the use of the geothermal source is limited by several critical tectono-geologic factors: (a) Tectonics, and the associated disintegration of the aquifer block by multiple deformations during the pre-Paleogene, mainly Miocene, period. The main discontinuities of NW-SE and N-S direction negatively affect the permeability of the aquifer environment. For utilization, minor NE-SW dilatation open fractures are important, which have been developed by sinistral transtension on N–S faults and accelerated normal movements to the southeast. (b) Hydrogeologically, the geothermal structure is accommodated by three water types, −1 −1 namely, Na-HCO3 with 10.9 g·L mineralization (in the north), the Ca-Mg-HCO3 with 0.5–4.5 g·L mineralization (in the west), and Na-Cl water type containing 26.8–33.4 g·L−1 mineralization (in the southwest). The chemical composition of the water is influenced by the Middle Triassic dolomite aquifer, as well as by infiltration of saline solutions and meteoric waters along with open frac- ◦ Citation: Jacko, S.; Farkašovský, R.; tures/faults. (c) Geothermally anomalous heat flow of 123–129 C with 170 L/s total flow near the Duriška,ˇ I.; Šˇcerbáková,B.; Bátorová, Slanské vchy volcanic chain seems to be the perspective for heat production. K. Critical Tectonic Limits for Geothermal Aquifer Use: Case Study Keywords: geotherm; heat flow; permeability; structural modeling; seismic; resources; renewable; from the East Slovakian Basin Rim. utilization; Pannonian basin; East Slovakian basin Resources 2021, 10, 31. https:// doi.org/10.3390/resources10040031 Academic Editor: Michela Costa 1. Introduction Geothermal energy represents a very attractive, economic, and ecologic energy source. Received: 2 March 2021 The utilization of geothermal energy for commercial purposes, which is mainly a result Accepted: 31 March 2021 Published: 2 April 2021 of the increase of world fuel prices, as well as new technologies, proved to be an essential action for the realization of programs benefiting from this heat source. The necessity of Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral the use of renewable energy resources (including geothermal energy) in Slovakia stems with regard to jurisdictional claims in from both international trends, above all the countries of European communities, and published maps and institutional affil- from the increase of fuel prices on the world markets. The increased interest in renewable iations. resources stems from the high priority in the human environment. All these factors caused that the topic of renewable energy is an important agenda not only for scientists, but also for politicians and business activities. As the socio-political pressure increases towards the transition to low global carbon and sustainable future, the role of geothermal energy usage worldwide intensifies [1]. In 2020, there are records quantified records of direct Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. geothermal utilization worldwide in 88 countries [2]. This is an increase in direct utilization This article is an open access article from 82 countries reported in 2015 [3], 78 countries reported in 2010 [4], 72 countries distributed under the terms and reported in 2005 [5], and 58 countries reported in the year 2000 [6]. Around 283.58 Terawatt- conditions of the Creative Commons hours (TWh) of geothermal heat are being used worldwide each year. An estimation of Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the worldwide installed thermal power at the end of 2019 is 107.7 GW which is a 52% creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ increase from 2015. Moreover, the thermal energy used increased from 2015 by 72.3% to 4.0/). 1,020,887 TJ/year [2]. The distribution of the used geothermal energy used by category is Resources 2021, 10, 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10040031 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/resources Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15 Resources 2021, 10, 31 2 of 15 2015 by 72.3% to 1,020,887 TJ/year [2]. The distribution of the used geothermal energy usedapproximately by category 58.8% is approximately for ground-source 58.8% heatfor ground-source pumps, 18.0% heat for bathing pumps, and18.0% swimming, for bath- 16.0%ing and for swimming, space heating 16.0% (of for which space 91.0 heating % is for (ofdistrict which 91.0 heating), % is for 3.5% district for greenhouse heating), 3.5% and foropen greenhouse ground heating, and open 1.6% ground for industrial heating, process 1.6% for heating, industrial 1.3% forprocess aquaculture heating, pond 1.3% and for aquacultureraceway heating, pond 0.4%and raceway for agricultural heating, drying,0.4% for 0.2% agricultural for snow drying, melting 0.2% and for cooling, snow melt- and ing0.2% and for othercooling, applications and 0.2% (desalination,for other applicat bottleions washing, (desalination, animal farming, bottle washing, etc.) [7]. Foranimal the farming,last five years, etc.) [7]. the For number the last of wellsfive years, drilled the was number 2647; theof wells combined drilled effort was of 2647; professionals the com- workingbined effort on geothermalof professionals energy working was 34,500 on geot person-years,hermal energy and was the 34,500 total worth person-years, invested intoand theprojects total wasworth 22.262 invested billion into US$ projects [2]. The was production 22.262 billion cost forUS$ geothermal [2]. The production heating is cost highly for geothermalvariable. The heating cost is is highly highly dependent variable. The on the cost quality is highly ofthe dependent geothermal on the resource quality and of the geothermalinvestment neededresource for and recovery, the investment especially needed the number for recovery, and depth especially of wells the required number and depththe distance of wells from required the wells and to the the distance point of use.from Geothermal the wells to heat the couldpoint beof transporteduse. Geothermal over heata considerable could be transported distance from over the a considerable source to consumers. distance from The longest the source single to consumers. geothermal The hot waterlongest pipeline single geothermal in the world hot is water located pipeline in Iceland in the (62 world km) [8 is]. located in Iceland (62 km) [8]. The Pannonian basin is one of the mostmost significantsignificant geologicalgeological structures in CentralCentral Europe. The The basin basin evolution is is related to thermalthermal impact when crustal fragmentsfragments havehave been directly subjected to crustal melting in thethe CarpathianCarpathian embaymentembayment [[9].9]. Heat flowflow 2 distribution inin thethe PannnoanianPannnoanian basin basin shows shows values values ranging ranging from from 50 to50 130to 130 mW/m mW/m[92– 12[9–]. The12]. The average average heat heat flow flow is considerably is considerably higher higher in the in Greatthe Great Hungarian Hungarian Plain, Plain, than than in the in theCarpathians. Carpathians. Especially Especially in in the the East East Slovakian Slovakian basin basin [13 [13–15]–15] are are heat heat flow flow valuesvalues aboveabove 2 100 mW/m2 (Figure(Figure 1).1). 2 Figure 1. TheThe heat heat flow flow distribution distribution in in the the Pannonian Pannonian ba basinsin and and their their peripheral peripheral areas areas (values (values in inmW/m mW/m). The2). TheEast EastSlo- Slovakianvakian basin basin is an is anintegral integral part part of the of the major major heat heat flow flow system system in Central in Central Europe Europe (modified (modified after after [9,10]). [9,10 ]). The East Slovakian Basin is part of the ex extensivetensive Pannonian basin that formed during the Miocene. The The basin basin is is divided divided by by the the Slan Slanskskéé vrchyvrchy neovolcanic neovolcanic chain into the eastern, eastern, i.e., the TrebišovTrebišov depression, depression, and and the the western, western, the the Košice Košice depression. depression. The The Košice Košice depression depres- sionis the is areathe area with with the the highest highest potential potential for fo geothermalr geothermal use, use, including including the the generationgeneration of electricity in Slovakia. In general, geothermal sources in the Slovakia territory and their utilization are influencedinfluenced by twotwo “unknown”“unknown” basicbasic parameters:parameters: Geothermal fluidsfluids and temperature. The main sources of geothermal water in the Western Carpathians are usually linked with the Middle-Upper Triassic dolomites. Geological processes during the closure of Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15 Resources 2021, 10, 31 3 of 15 The main sources of geothermal water in the Western Carpathians are usually linked with the Middle-Upper Triassic dolomites. Geological processes during the closure of the Carpathian orogenythe Carpathian uplifted [16], orogeny and eroded uplifted the [16 overlying], and eroded sedimentary the overlying rocks sedimentaryof the Up- rocks of the per Triassic toUpper Cretaceous Triassic age. to CretaceousThey were age.eroded They to werethe dolomite eroded to level. the dolomite Subsequent level. Subsequent karstification ofkarstification the dolomites of thecreated dolomites the ideal created aquifer the idealin the aquifer region. in The the region.heat flow The is heat re- flow is related lated to the evolutionto the evolution of the Pannonian of the Pannonian basin [17–19].
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