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A MACRO-ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS OF COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER by Marc C.M. van Bree, B.A. A thesis submitted to the Graduate College of Texas State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Business Administration with a Major in Business December 2019 Committee Members: Alexis Stokes, Chair Melissa S. Baucus Brian K. Miller COPYRIGHT by Marc C.M. van Bree 2019 FAIR USE AND AUTHOR’S PERMISSION STATEMENT Fair Use This work is protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States (Public Law 94-553, section 107). Consistent with fair use as defined in the Copyright Laws, brief quotations from this material are allowed with proper acknowledgement. Use of this material for financial gain without the author’s express written permission is not allowed. Duplication Permission As the copyright holder of this work I, Marc C.M. van Bree, authorize duplication of this work, in whole or in part, for educational or scholarly purposes only. DEDICATION To Willem, who outshines the morning sun. To Elizabeth, who will compel the world to include women in the sequel. To Tania, best of wives and best of women. You will come of age with our young nation We’ll bleed and fight for you, we’ll make it right for you If we lay a strong enough foundation We’ll pass it on to you, we’ll give the world to you And you’ll blow us all away Someday, someday Yeah, you’ll blow us all away Someday, someday - Lin-Manuel Miranda ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the committee members—Dr. Stokes, Dr. Baucus, and Dr. Miller—for their insights and guidance and for the discussions and encouragement during moments of doubt. Thank you to the professors, staff, and students at Texas State University who fanned the flames of curiosity, in particular Dr. Mendez who graciously spent much time answering my questions after class was dismissed and Christy Johnson who walked the thesis path before me. Nothing would have been possible without my family. Thank you Tania, Elli, and Willem, for the inspiration first and the understanding second. This is all for and thanks to you. And thank you to my parents, though an ocean away, for the pillar on which I rest. Thank you to the folks at ShipStation where the grass of employment has been greenest. Particular gratitude goes to Charla Session-Reed who is a gracious mentor and an unapologetic advocate for education. And thank you to all those on the autism spectrum for teaching all us neurotypicals a new perspective from which to see the world. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ xi ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 2. AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER .................................................................. 4 2.1 What is Autism? .................................................................................... 4 2.2 Epidemiology and Prevalence............................................................... 6 2.3 Conditions Comorbid with Autism Spectrum Disorder........................ 8 2.3.1 Common Comorbid Disorders ............................................... 9 2.4 Transition to Adulthood ...................................................................... 11 3. ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING .................................................................. 13 3.1 Strategic Management and Environmental Scanning ......................... 13 3.2 The PEST Analysis ............................................................................. 14 3.2.1 Political ................................................................................ 15 3.2.2 Economic ............................................................................. 15 3.2.3 Social.................................................................................... 15 3.2.4 Technological ....................................................................... 16 4. THE POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................... 17 4.1 A Brief History of Social Welfare Policy in the United States ........... 17 4.2 Disability Rights: The Rehabilitation Act and Section 504 ................ 19 4.3 The Americans with Disabilities Act: Title I ...................................... 21 4.3.1 Introduction .......................................................................... 21 vi 4.3.2 The ADA at the Supreme Court Before the 2008 Amendments ..................................................................... 22 4.3.3 The ADA Amendments of 2008 .......................................... 23 4.3.4 Qualifications and Essential Job Functions ......................... 24 4.3.5 Reasonable Accommodation and Undue Hardship ............. 27 4.3.6 The ADA and Employment Rates, ASD, and Business Size ........................................................................................... 28 4.4 Other relevant legislation .................................................................... 30 4.4.1 Javits-Wagner-O’Day Act (JWOD) ..................................... 30 4.4.2 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1975 and 1990 (IDEA) .............................................................................. 31 4.4.2.1 The Role of School in Providing Services ............ 33 4.4.3 Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 and Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) of 2014 ........... 34 4.4.4 Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act (TWWIIA) of 1999 ........................................................... 35 4.5 Recent Legal Environment ................................................................. 36 5. THE ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT .............................................................. 38 5.1 Societal Costs of Autism ..................................................................... 38 5.2 Labor Force Participation and Unemployment ................................... 41 5.3 Modality of Employment .................................................................... 43 5.3.1 Sheltered Workshops and Segregated Employment ............ 43 5.3.2 Competitive Employment: Vocational Rehabilitation and Supported Employment .................................................... 45 5.4 Disability Benefits and the State of the Economy .............................. 46 5.5 Small Business Share of Private Sector Jobs ...................................... 47 6. THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT ..................................................................... 49 6.1 A Brief Social History of Autism ....................................................... 49 6.2 Stigma and Perspectives from Individuals with ASD......................... 57 6.3 Employer Perceptions and Attitudes ................................................... 61 7. THE TECHNOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT .................................................. 65 7.1 Trends in Technology and Employment ............................................. 65 7.2 The Digital and Gig Economy ............................................................ 66 7.3 The Impact of Technology on Required Skills ................................... 68 7.4 The Impact of Technology on Hiring and Training ............................ 69 vii 8. BUSINESS CASES .......................................................................................... 71 8.1 The Dandelion Principle ..................................................................... 71 8.2 SAP ..................................................................................................... 72 8.3 DXC Technology Company (Hewlett Packard) ................................. 74 8.4 Covering the Whole Spectrum: Hart Schaffner Marx ........................ 75 8.5 The Rise of Parent Entrepreneurs: Rising Tide .................................. 77 9. THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES ............................................................... 81 9.1 Legal Environment.............................................................................. 84 9.3 Economic Environment ...................................................................... 86 9.4 Social Environment ............................................................................. 88 9.5 Technological Environment ................................................................ 89 9.6 Lessons from the Case Studies ........................................................... 90 10. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................. 91 10.1 Placement and Recruitment .............................................................. 92 10.2 Supervisors and co-workers .............................................................. 94 10.3 On-the-Job Training .......................................................................... 96 10.4 Workplace Accommodations ............................................................ 97 10.5 Long-Term Support .........................................................................
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