Autism

Video Modeling A Visually Based Intervention for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder

Jennifer B. Ganz

Theresa L. Earles-Vollrath

Katherine E. Cook

Visually based interventions such as moderate or severe autism, often co- Grandin described her thought proces- video modeling have been demon- occurs with developmental delays, ses as “completely visual” (Grandin & strated to be effective with students emotional and behavioral disorders, Scariano, 1986, p. 131), noting that with autism spectrum disorder. This and attention deficits (Kogan et al., she remembered information by visu - approach has wide utility, is appropri - 2009). alizing a page in a book with the ate for use with students of a range of According to current legislation (i.e., information and that she had difficulty ages and abilities, promotes indepen- No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, remembering auditory information dent functioning, and can be used to Individuals With Disabilities Education unless she was able to pair it with a .

C address numerous learner objectives, Act), instructional strategies used in visual image. Likewise, Liane Holliday E C classrooms must be scientifically Willey (1999) recalled relying on visu -

1 including behavioral, self-help, commu - 1 0

2 nication, and social objectives. What research-based (Simpson, Myles, & al landmarks to find her way to col - t h g i are the components of video modeling? Ganz, 2008). Visually based instruction lege classes and finding herself drawn r y p such as video modeling, a research- to visually based subjects, such as o What’s the best way to implement C

. supported intervention, may be more architecture.

9 video modeling with students? Do the 1 -

8 techniques differ for students of differ - appropriate and effective than other Visually based approaches may help . p p ent ages and abilities? approaches for students with ASD for a address pervasive difficulties in stu - , 6

. number of reasons (Bellini & Akullian, dents with ASD. These strategies o

N Recently, the number of people diag - , 2007; Delano, 2007b). respond to stimulus overselectivity by 3 4

. nosed with autism spectrum disorder assisting students in focusing and l o V (ASD) has increased drastically, most Students With ASD as maintaining attention to relevant stim - , n e Visual Learners r recently as common as 1 in 91 (Kogan uli (Shipley-Benamou, Lutzker, & d l i h et al., 2009), although impacts range Students with ASD learn best through Taubman, 2002), and can enhance C l a from severe to mild impairment (Rice visual means (Hodgdon, 1995; Mesi- children’s abilities to independently n o i t et al., 2007). ASD is common across bov & Shea, 2008; Mesibov, Shea, & complete unfamiliar or complex direc - p e c x races, ethnicities, and social groups Schopler, 2004; Quill, 1997; Simpson tions by condensing the content to E

G and is four times more common in et al., 2008). In addition, adults with only essential information (Williams, N I H

C boys than in girls (Rice et al., 2007). ASD have attested to their reliance on Goldstein, & Minshew, 2006). The per - A E Further, ASD, particularly in those with visually based information. Temple manent nature of visually based strate - T

8COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN gies allows students to review cues, (Dettmer, Simpson, Myles, & Ganz, ing problem behaviors in children ages decreasing reliance on teacher prompts 2000; MacDuff, Krantz, & McClanna- 7 to 14 (Sasso, Melloy, & Kavale, and increasing independence (Hodg- han, 1993; Massey & Wheeler, 2000), 1990). don, 1995). Additionally, visually (b) reduce problem behavior in a 3- based interventions support students’ year-old (Dooley, Wilczenski, & Torem, What Is Video Modeling? ability to shift attention (Quill 1995, 2001), and (c) facilitate play in 4- to 6- Video modeling is a strategy involving 1997, 1998), make abstract concepts year-olds (Morrison, Sainato, Ben the use of videos to provide modeling more concrete (Peeters, 1997), and Chaaban, & Endo, 2002). of targeted skills (Bellini & Akullian, may be less socially stigmatizing than Visually based scripts are another 2007). Both videos that include the verbal reminders by adults or compan - strategy used with students with ASD participants ( video self-modeling , VSM) ions when in the presence of peers. (Ganz & Flores, 2010; Ganz, Kaylor, and videos of others have been found There is support in the literature for Bourgeois, & Hadden, 2008). Scripts effective in teaching new skills (Sherer using visually based strategies with provide the exact words for participat - et al., 2001). Video modeling including “other” models may be easier to pro - Students with ASD learn best through visual means. duce because these videos generally require less editing than VSM; typically developing students may more readily students with ASD of all ages (Simpson ing in social interactions and other cooperate, understand directions, et al., 2008). When taught using visu - well-defined situations (Ganz, Cook & already demonstrate mastery of target ally based strategies, many students Earles-Vollrath, 2006). Visually based skills, and require fewer prompts. with ASD maintain and generalize scripts have been effective (Simpson et Point-of-view modeling , or placing the newly learned skills (Krantz & McClan- al., 2008) in (a) increasing social skills video camera at an angle that illus - nahan, 1993, 1998). In particular, visu - in children ages 5 to 10 (Gonzalez- trates the target skill from the point of ally based schedules , containing photo - Lopez & Kamps, 1997; Pierce & view of the target student (e.g., camera graphs or line drawings of upcoming Schreibman, 1995, 1997), (b) improv - is placed at the shoulder of the model activities or selected play schemes, ing communication skills in students to show the skill from eye level) also have been used to (a) increase work ages 9 to 12 years old (Krantz & has been demonstrated to be effective completion for students ages 5 to 14 McClannahan, 1993), and (c) decreas - (Bellini & Akullian, 2007).

TEACHING E XCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Έ JULY /A UG 2011 9 Video modeling as a strategy has elementary-age students (e.g., Niko- baseline data regarding the student’s preliminary support to improve a vari - poulos & Keenan, 2003; Sherer et al., social strengths and deficits (Heflin & ety of skills in students with ASD 2001). Alaimo, 2007). This might include eco - (Ganz et al., 2006; Ganz, Cook, & The flexibility of video modeling is logical assessments comparing a stu - Earles-Vollrath, 2007). Video modeling an advantage: In addition to addressing dent’s abilities to those of his peers using videos of “others” has been a variety of skills for a continuum of within a target environment or activity; demonstrated to age ranges, it can be implemented behavior sampling; observations in the alone or in conjunction with other natural environment; questionnaires • Increase appropriate social inter- instructional strategies. In fact, much and interviews completed by school actions (Apple, Billingsley, & of the research involving video model - staff, parents, and peers; and student Schwartz, 2005; Gena, Couloura, & ing has been in combination with other self-reports (Heflin & Alaimo, 2007). Kymissis, 2005; Maione & Mirenda, strategies. For example, Baharav & Using the assessment results, develop a 2006; Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2003). Darling (2008) used video modeling list of skills and prioritize them in • Improve conversation skills (Char- with an auditory trainer, Scattone order of importance. Target skills lop & Milstein, 1989; Charlop- (2008) combined it with social stories, should be objectively defined and Christy, Le, & Freeman, 2000; Sherer and Keen and colleagues (2007) paired based on observational data. et al., 2001). video modeling with positive reinforce - • Improve daily living skills (Haring, ment strategies. Although video model - Step 2: Produce the Videos Kennedy, Adam, & Pitts-Conway, ing may be implemented alone or with - Prior to developing the videos, deter - 1987; Keen, Brannigan, & Cuskelly, out additional strategies, research sup - mine the type of media to use (i.e., 2007). ports its use when combined with videotape vs. digital) and then gather strategies such as social skills instruc - • Improve play skills (Charlop-Christy the necessary equipment (e.g., video tion (Bellini & Akullian, 2007) . et al., 2000; Dauphin, Kinney, & camera, video player, monitor, video Because video modeling can be Stromer, 2004; MacDonald, Clark, editing software; Sigafoos, O’Reilly, & used with students with ASD to Garrigan, & Vangala, 2005; Maione de la Cruz, 2007). Plan on creating strengthen a variety of skills (see & Mirenda, 2006; Nikopoulos & three to five videos for each skill, pro - Figure 1), it is a strategy that educators Keenan, 2003, 2007). viding a variety of settings, models should have in their toolboxes. It helps (i.e., the student, peers, or adults; • Reduce problem behaviors (Luscre to understand the components and Buggey et al., 1999; Sherer et al., & Center, 1996).

VSM, although studied less fre - quently, has been demonstrated to be There are three basic steps for implementing video modeling effective when used to improve com - munication skills (Buggey, Toombs, with students with ASD: identifying the skills to be targeted, Gardener, & Cervetti, 1999; Sherer et producing the videos, and implementing the intervention. al., 2001), increase social initiations, decrease problem behaviors (Buggey, 2005), and improve academic and task- 2001), and scripts or task analyses to oriented behaviors (Delano, 2007a; steps of video modeling, and how to ensure skill generalization (D’Ateno, Hagiwara & Myles, 1999). Point-of- implement the intervention before Mangiapanello, & Taylor, 2003). view modeling has some support as using this approach with students. For the strategy to be most effective, well, having been shown to improve There are three basic steps for imple - there should be three to five scripts or daily living skills (Shipley-Benamou et menting video modeling with students task analyses for each skill being al., 2002) and play skills (Hine & with ASD: identifying the skills to be taught (Ganz et al., 2006). Scripts can Wolery, 2006). targeted, producing the videos, and be used for skills that require verbal - In most cases, newly learned skills implementing the intervention. izations (e.g., greeting others, initiating taught via video modeling are main - conversations, asking to enter a game), tained over time (MacDonald et al., Components of Video whereas task analyses can be used for 2005; Maione & Mirenda, 2006) and Modeling multistep tasks (e.g., loading the dish - generalize to new settings or with new washer, using the microwave to cook adults (Gena et al., 2005), particularly Step 1: Identify the Target popcorn, performing household chores; when using multiple videos showing Skill(s) Sigafoos et al., 2007). When writing the same skill across activities, set - The first step contains several sub - scripts, consider seeking input from the tings, and people. Video modeling has steps: assessment, listing and prioritiz - student’s typically developing peers, been used effectively with young chil - ing skills, defining the skill, and col - who may be better judges of typical dren with ASD, including preschoolers lecting baseline data. Prior to imple - activities, nonverbal communication, (e.g., Maione & Mirenda, 2006) and menting video modeling, document and speech patterns than adults. Task

10 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Figure 1. Possible Skills to Improve Via Video Modeling

• Social initiation – “How do you get to school?” – “Can I sit with you?” – “What did you eat for breakfast?” – “Look at this/that.” – “What do you like to do after school?” – Asking a peer to have lunch – “What’s your favorite TV show?” • Greetings – “What’s your favorite video game?” – Giving greetings – “What’s your phone number?” – Responding to/greetings – “Where do you live?” – “What do you like to do on the weekends?” • Appropriate nonverbal communication – Showing interest in what someone • Making requests is saying (eye contact, nodding) – Asking permission – Smiling – “I want [food, preferred item, activity].” – Identifying others’ nonverbal cues – Asking for a turn or to borrow something – Expressing sensory needs • Conversational skills – Asking/offering to do a new activity – Maintaining conversation on-topic – Asking for help – Comments regarding previous – Requesting personal space activities – Responding to others’ comments – Making jokes – Sharing attention or enjoyment with another child or adult – Telling stories – Using manners, appropriate language (please, thank you) – Saying something only once or twice • Play – Initiating game play – Statements appropriate for games – Comments appropriate within the context of specific games – Sports behaviors • Appropriate behavior in the school building – Cafeteria – Waiting in the hall before school starts • Comments • Community outings • What to do/say in case of emergency – Appropriate restaurant behavior – Ordering at a fast-food restaurant • Appropriately demonstrating – Purchasing items disagreement/dislike – Using public transportation • Complimenting others and – Medical/dental visits reciprocating compliments – Appropriate social behavior at special events • Daily living skills (e.g., (e.g., weddings, birthday parties, holidays, family cooking, cleaning, get - events, funerals) ting dressed) – Haircuts • Answering/asking infor - – Travel (plane, car) mational questions – Waiting in line – “What’s your name?” – Table manners – “What school do you go • Responding appropriately to an adult’s requests/ to?” demands – “How old are you?” • Responding to teasing – “What sports do you like to • Excusing self politely for hygiene purposes play?”

TEACHING E XCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Έ JULY /A UG 2011 11 analyses can be developed by watching there are not enough natural opportu - To address a lack of reinforcement , a typically developing peer or adult nities for the student to practice the it may be necessary to identify rein - perform the skill. skill, plan on role-playing or practicing forcing stimuli that can be delivered Be sure to obtain parental permis - the skill in the classroom—or arrange immediately and consistently following sion for any video participants and situations within the school or therapy the demonstration of the target behav - models who are minors. The models setting where the student is required to ior. Poor video content can also affect should be taught each script or step in use the target skill. the impact of the intervention. If video the task analysis, practice it, and then Collect Intervention Data. Collect content seems to be an issue, reshoot perform while being videotaped (Ganz data on the student’s performance. To and/or rewrite and reshoot the video. et al., 2006). Buggey (2005) recom - determine the effectiveness of video When filming the video, it is important mends that the models be similar (e.g., modeling, the same type of data to restrict extraneous stimuli (i.e., age, gender) to the target student. Plan should be collected for both baseline excess noise and visual distractions) on editing each video to be approxi - and intervention phases (Sigafoos et and ensure that the target behavior(s) mately 3 to 5 minutes long (Buggey, al., 2007). are modeled slowly and clearly. If it 2005), although research has demon - Program for Generalization. Stu- appears that the student does not have strated the effectiveness of videos as dents with ASD often have difficulties the prerequisite skills of imitation and short as 30 seconds and as long as 13 generalizing newly acquired skills. observational learning, consider adding minutes (Bellini & Akullian, 2007). Programming for generalization, there - adult-directed instruction to the fore, is an important component of any process. Step 3: Implement the Video social skills instruction (Bellini, Peters, Modeling Intervention Benner, & Hopf, 2007; Gresham, 2001). CASE EXAMPLE: Chad Prepare for Teaching. Sigafoos and Teaching skills via video modeling Chad was a fifth-grader who qualified colleagues (2007) recommend designat - should include teaching multiple stim - for special education and related serv - ing a time of day for viewing the ulus and response exemplars. For ices under the category of autism. He videos. Videos focusing on a particular example, when teaching a student how had average cognitive functioning, skill should be viewed daily and at the to enter a group game, include varying could speak, and participated in gener - same time each day. In addition, the settings (e.g., playground, gym, neigh - al education for most of the school videos should be viewed immediately borhood), peers, and scripts (e.g., “Can day, although his day was fairly struc - prior to the time of day the student is I play?” “Looks like fun, can I have a tured. In sixth grade, Chad would be expected to demonstrate the skill. For turn?” “What position can I play?”) in required to transition from his current example, if the video and script the different videos. Other generaliza - elementary school to a middle school describe how to enter a game, show tion strategies include teaching the stu - setting. Chad demonstrated difficulties the video just before the class has dent to self-monitor or self-record the with major transitions. When he was recess. use of the target skill, and teaching the not prepared for change, he screamed, For best results, the video should be social skill in the natural environment pulled his hair, and cried. These behav - viewed in a consistent setting. To whenever possible (Gresham, 2001). iors were related to new situations in increase the relevance of the instruc - Videos may need be viewed numerous which he did not understand the tion, this setting should be the place in times. It’s helpful to make arrange - expectations, did not know whom to which the child is expected to demon - ments so that the student can access ask for help, or was not familiar with strate the skill. Materials used in the the video for independent viewing as the location. video should be the same materials the needed. students will be expected to use when Step 1: Identify the Target Skill(s) demonstrating the target behavior. Troubleshooting Chad’s team, which included his ele - View the Videos. Videos may be Don’t be inclined to abandon video mentary and middle school special watched as a whole group or inde - modeling too quickly if initial data education teachers and general educa - pendently depending on the needs of indicate limited progress toward the tion homeroom teachers, selected a list the students and the instructional set - target behavior(s). Although it may of skills from those identified by his ting (Buggey, 2005). Plan on having appear that this strategy is an easy, individualized education program (IEP) students view each of the three to five no-fail intervention, as with other and from consultation with the school videos developed for the targeted skill teaching techniques issues may arise counselor. The team focused on skills prior to engaging in the selected skill during implementation. Sigafoos et al. that would assist Chad in successfully or activity (Sigafoos et al., 2007). (2007) described several problems that making the transition to middle school Engage in the Target Skill. Immedi- may occur, as well as solutions for and in dealing with new situations. ately after viewing the video, provide each of these problems. Lack of They prioritized the skills and decided the student with the opportunity to progress can be due to a lack of rein - that “requesting help” when he was practice the skill, in the natural setting forcement, poor video content, or a feeling anxious would be the first tar - if possible. If this is not possible or if lack of prerequisites. get skill. Additional target behaviors

12 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Figure 2. Chad’s Video Modeling Script: Requesting Help he demonstrated any of the relaxation and self-monitoring strategies modeled in the videos. Although not directly addressing generalization, this substep permitted assessing his generalization of the skill once he was in middle to ask I’m going school: Chad’s middle school special hat to do. not sure w education teacher observed him and voice] “I’m [sotto m.” collected frequency data on his ord proble for help.” ith this w ed help w requesting of help, seeing an improve - Alan, I ne ctions. “Ms. arin’s dire ment over the first few weeks of and Mr. K ’t underst ce] “I don school. His mother also sent periodic sotto voi o [ about it.” want us t er ask him how you written updates to his special educa - I bett nderstand , I don’t u tion teacher, reporting how anxious he “Mr. Karin s paper.” seemed each school day, and the spe - ganize thi hanks.” or ould say t lpful. I sh cial education teacher would check at was he voice] “Th with him at the end of the school day [sotto lp.” or your he “Thanks f to ask him how it went. Although he reported some anxiety and avoided crowded hallways, he appeared to han - dle the transition periods well. included understanding environmental created videos to teach Chad other expectations and the orientation of the social skills, such as greetings and initi - CASE EXAMPLE: Sarah middle school building. ating and maintaining conversations, Sarah was a 16-year-old sophomore for later use.) diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome. Step 2: Produce the Videos She had average cognitive functioning The team recorded digital videos in Step 3: Implement the Video and participated in general education some of the middle school classrooms Modeling Intervention classes all day, with as-needed special (i.e., Chad’s future homeroom, special Chad’s IEP team identified several education support. She appeared to education resource room, and math times per day, for the remainder of his want to have friends but did not know classroom) and settings (i.e., cafeteria, fifth-grade year, that he would view the how to establish friendships. Sarah hallway, library). Each of the class - videos. “Video watching” was added to would follow her peers between class room videos included shots of Chad’s his visual schedule at the same time periods, even if they were going in the desk, where he would store his materi - every day. With input from his parents, opposite direction of her next class; als, the pencil sharpener (an activity the team also established a schedule she would stand by a group of students that calmed him), and the teacher’s for video watching and practicing the who were talking but would not partic - desk. Middle school teachers and staff skills over the summer. ipate in the conversation; and she were videotaped sharing rules and Chad first watched the video in its often brought her peers small gifts expectations for the classroom or other entirety, and then specific video clips such as candy and CDs. Sarah had setting. Chad’s team chose to imple - (e.g., home room or math class), dur - recently found that using bodily func - ment video modeling by peer “others” ing individual one-on-one lessons. tions (e.g., burps and passing gas) to provide Chad with examples of how Prior to video watching, Chad’s were an effective means for gaining her to respond to signs of anxiety (e.g., teacher introduced the segment and peers’ attention: When she passed gas stiff, hunched shoulders, wide eyes); the embedded lesson. After each ses - during class and especially during after acting as if they were upset or sion, Chad was asked to summarize lunch, her peers smiled, laughed, and anxious, these peer models modeled what he saw in the videos (what the usually interacted with her for a short self-talk following written scripts models said and did), and then prac - period of time. Students also remem - (Figure 2). The completed video ticed the relaxation and self-monitoring bered the incident and made com - included a menu listing each setting strategies demonstrated in the videos. ments when they saw her later in the and educator/staff member, to enable The intervention continued over sever - day. Sarah expressed frustration to her selective viewing of a specific environ - al weeks as Chad gained familiarity study hall teacher that she tried her ment and interaction. The video could with teacher expectations, whom to hardest to make friends, but no one also be viewed from beginning to the ask for help in each of the middle ever invited her to eat lunch with end to familiarize Chad with the transi - school settings, and the orientation of them, to hang out after school or on tions between the settings, and was the school building. the weekends, and they ignored her recorded in the same order as Chad’s During his fifth-grade year, Chad’s “friend” requests on online social net - schedule. (At the same time, the team team collected ongoing data whenever working sites .

TEACHING E XCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Έ JULY /A UG 2011 13 14 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Step 1: Identify the Target Skill(s) Figure 3. Sarah’s Video Modeling Script: Social Interactions Sarah’s team, which included her gen - eral education study hall teacher and the school district’s autism consultant, selected a list of several social skills from her IEP. They then conducted an ecological assessment: After observing .” Sarah in the cafeteria and in study hall ______“Hi _____ and conducting teacher and family oing?” How’s it g interviews, they compared her social “ xt?” u have ne initiations with those of her peers. The lass do yo “What c , etc…” in biology team felt that if Sarah could learn to at lunch / ou later/ interact with her peers in a more “See y socially acceptable way, she would be able to make friends and this would increase her quality of life. They decided that “initiating social interac - video, she discussed the appropriate CASE EXAMPLE: Sam tions” would be the first target behav - means for initiating conversations with Sam was a 21-year-old student with ior, and they collected baseline obser - her peers. One of her assignments was autism and moderate to severe cogni - vation data during lunch and study to develop a list of the initiation phras - tive impairments who was transition - hall. es that were used in the videos and ing from a public school program to a role-play them with the teacher or her part-time job at a local fast-food restau - Step 2: Produce the Videos peers. Sarah was then asked to suggest rant. Although he had received job Like Chad’s team, Sarah’s team chose other comments or phrases she could training through his special education to implement the strategy using use to initiate conversations. program, this was the first job for “other” models so she could observe The IEP team collected data by which Sam would receive a salary. A students who were proficient with observing Sarah during study hall and job coach spent several hours a day on social interaction. Although the team lunch, as well as in the hallway and the job site with Sam to assist him in provided the peers with topics to talk selected classrooms. Although Sarah’s learning the job requirements. about, the scripts were open-ended to study hall teacher found it difficult to allow for natural conversation instead take real-time data because it was too Step 1: Identify the Target Skill(s) of contrived examples (see Figure 3). conspicuous to observe Sarah interact - Sam’s job coach and employer brain - The team asked several of Sarah’s pre - ing with her peers in the hallways and stormed a list of job-related skills that ferred peers to participate in the social at lunch, she noticed that Sarah began would assist Sam in being successful. skills group. They informed parents of sitting with a group of girls at lunch Sam had difficulties in interacting with the purpose of the group and obtained approximately three weeks after inter - customers and completing required permission for the students to partici - vention began. Sarah also reported that tasks. In particular, some customers had complained that Sam was abrupt, pate. The team produced several digital two of the girls had sent her “friend” videos of Sarah’s peers initiating social cleared items from the table before requests on online social networking interactions in the hallway and differ - they were finished, and appeared rude. web sites. ent classrooms. His coach and employer decided that To assess Sarah’s ability to general - “making light conversation with cus - ize the skill, the team also observed Step 3: Implement the Video tomers” and completing three job Sarah in other school settings not tar - Modeling Intervention requirements (i.e., mopping the floor, geted for initial instruction. They devel - The team identified several times a day wiping tables, cleaning the condiment oped additional videos for settings in and the locations (e.g., study hall, area) were priorities for him to be suc - selected classes) where Sarah would which Sarah did not demonstrate gen - cessful on the job. Conducting an eco - view the videos. These times occurred eralization of the skill. They supple - logical assessment, Sam’s job coach just prior to when Sarah was expected mented these videos with others show - and employer observed his co-workers to demonstrate the selected skill. ing Sarah’s peers initiating social inter - to determine the steps for completing Although Sarah initially viewed each actions during school-related activities each of the three selected jobs. From video by herself, some of her peers such as a school dance, a football these observations they developed a who participated in the videos occa - game, and a pep rally. They later creat - task analysis for each targeted job. sionally joined her to discuss the sce - ed additional videos to facilitate more They then observed and recorded narios and to model the questions they advanced conversational exchanges Sam’s performance of each of the three asked themselves to determine what to (e.g., maintaining conversations, stay - jobs and each of the steps in the task say and when. After Sarah viewed each ing on topic, ending conversations). analysis.

TEACHING E XCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Έ JULY /A UG 2011 15 Figure 4. Sam’s Video Modeling Script: Making Light Conversation did not meet the full psychological cri - teria. He received approximately 66% of his specialized instruction in a spe - cial education classroom with the assistance of a one-on-one paraprofes - sional. Scott’s educational program consisted of structured, data-based pro - ?” ice cream eal/drink/ gramming that emphasized functional as your m “How w academics as well as social and com - done?” “Are you munication skills. In addition to this ?” your table specialized instruction, Scott also ay I clear “M ing.” received 120 minutes of speech therapy ight/morn ood day/n “Have a g and occupational therapy per week.

Step 1: Identify the Target Skill(s) Scott’s IEP team had tried a variety of discuss the light conversation skill or Step 2: Produce the Videos strategies to increase his ability to gen - job steps depicted in the video and The “light conversation” digital videos eralize academic skills and knowledge clues for determining when a job had featured several of Sam’s co-workers he demonstrated at school to the home been completed (e.g., how to deter - interacting with customers. Although setting. They had used numerous fonts, Sam could have completed the tasks mine if the tables were clean, how to materials, and verbal antecedents, and with prompting (VSM), the job coach’s determine if the floors were complete - incorporated opportunities for Scott to time was limited and it was faster to ly mopped). Sam then role-played practice what he learned across a vari - record videos with “other” models to each job in the area in which it would ety of settings within the school and in save time in editing out prompts. naturally occur (e.g., role-playing the the community. However, even with While completing other tasks, the co- steps for cleaning the condiment at the use of these strategies, Scott con - workers modeled appropriate greet - one of the two condiment areas in the tinued to demonstrate difficulty com - ings, comments, and questions (see restaurant). During the role-playing, pleting homework activities that Figure 4). Sam’s co-workers pretended to be cus - required him to generalize skills he had A second set of videos designed to tomers and responded to his “light performed that day at school. To estab - teach Sam the job requirements, devel - conversations.” lish a baseline, sight words mastered at oped over a 3-week period, showed A month following the beginning school were sent home as “home - Sam appropriately completing the tar - of the intervention, Sam’s employer work.” Scott’s mother, Alice, then pre - get activities (VSM). Because Sam had sent his job coach an e-mail com - sented the sight words and collected many of the subskills necessary for menting that he had not had any fur - data on his performance. each task, little editing was required to ther complaints about Sam’s rude create a short (5- to 7-minute) video behavior, and that Sam was complet - Step 2: Produce the Videos for each of the three target jobs. The ing most of the video-modeled tasks Because Scott could complete the tasks video clips contained the verbal independently and correctly. After at school, the team decided to use prompts provided by the job coach Sam had mastered the video-modeled VSM, which would require little edit - during the completion of the task; in skills, his employer and job coach dis - ing. The second author videotaped later viewings of the video, once Sam cussed with him variations in com - Scott accurately reading flash cards at began to experience success, the vol - pleting each of his assigned jobs. school, edited the video to delete incor - ume was lowered to remove the verbal Additional videos were produced for rect responses and prompts, then sent prompts. other new job responsibilities such as the video home for him to watch prior filling the condiment bar and asking to starting his homework each day. Step 3: Implement the Video for help when needed (e.g., emptying Modeling Intervention a heavy trash can, restocking items), Step 3: Implement the Video The best time for Sam to view the job- and for new social skills (e.g., asking a Modeling Intervention related videos and those demonstrat - customer if he/she is finished before Alice collected data on Scott’s level of ing light conversation skills would be taking the plate). performance with the flash cards with - just prior to the restaurant opening out the video for a week. Because Scott each day. Sam, his job coach, and his CASE STUDY: Scott liked watching himself on video, Alice employer viewed the videos together, Scott was a seventh-grade student who let him watch the video every day for a one at a time, across several weeks. qualified for special education under week, “just for fun.” Scott continued After viewing the videos, they would the autism designation, although he reviewing the sight words at school

16 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN during his maintenance programming Although Scott made progress in skills that too frequently undermine but did not review the words at home reading the words on the flash cards, it their success across many contexts. during this time. The following week, was unclear whether he would be able Alice showed him the video every day to do so spontaneously and in different References and talked with him about what they contexts. Scott occasionally became Apple, A., Billingsley, F., & Schwartz, I. saw, and how well he did; if he had frustrated with himself when he was (2005). Effects of video modeling alone previously missed a word, she tried to not able to read the sight words after and with self-management on compli - point out that word and how well he having seen himself do so accurately ment-giving behaviors of children with read it in the video. on the video. Alice thought that having high-functioning ASD. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7 , 33-46. doi: Following the video viewing and different videos she could rotate in 10.1177/10983007050070010401 discussion, Alice presented the flash viewing, focusing on several tasks and Baharav, E., & Darling, R. (2008). Case cards and tracked Scott’s performance. examples, might result in maintaining report: Using an auditory trainer with If Scott hesitated or read the word the novelty of and Scott’s motivation to caregiver video modeling to enhance incorrectly, Alice marked it “incorrect,” watch the videos. communication and socialization behav - iors in autism. Journal of Autism and then used a time delay and error-cor - Developmental Disorders, 38 , 771–775. Final Thoughts rection procedure, directly instructing doi: 10.1007/s10803-007-0429-6 him to sound out each phoneme in the Because children with ASD have a Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory . word, then blend the sounds together greater propensity to learn through Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. to read the word. (These were the visual means than auditory-based Bellini, S., & Akullian, J. (2007). A meta- analysis of video modeling and video same teaching method and verbal teaching techniques, visually based self-modeling interventions for children prompts as used at school.) Alice gave strategies such as video modeling hold and adolescents with autism spectrum Scott social reinforcement for each cor - promise in positively impacting the disorders. Exceptional Children, 73 , rect answer on the video and for each learning of children with ASD. Video 264–287. correct answer he gave using the flash modeling is based on social learning Bellini, S., Peters, J. K., Benner, L., & Hopf, A. (2007). A meta-analysis of cards. When he answered correctly, theory, which asserts that students can school-based social skills interventions Alice praised him (e.g., “you can learn by observing and then imitating for children with autism spectrum read,” “you’re so smart,” “good job”) the actions of others (Bandura, 1977). disorders. Remedial and Special and gave him high fives. When he Video modeling is also particularly Education, 28 , 153–162. doi: 10.1177 made mistakes, she praised him for his appealing as a technique to address /07419325070280030401 Buggey, T. (2005). Video modeling applica - efforts (e.g., “good try; let’s look at the social skills deficiencies of children tions with students with autism spectrum letters”). When they completed the with ASD in a low-cost and unobtru - disorder in a small private school setting. video and reading all of his words, sive fashion. Focus on Autism and Other Develop- Alice praised him for doing his home - Video modeling offers educators mental Disabilities, 20 , 52–63. doi: work. flexibility in implementing, whether 10.1177/10883576050200010501 Buggey, T., Toombs, K., Gardener, P., & Cer- Alice reported high social validity using “other” models, the target stu - vetti, M. (1999). Training responding for the VSM procedure. In particular, dent, or adults, and a variety of set - behaviors in students with autism: Using she reported that it was a positive and tings. Schreibman and Ingersoll (2005) videotaped self-modeling. Journal of Posi- reinforcing experience: Scott seemed to noted that for video modeling to have tive Behavior Interventions, 1 , 205–214. enjoy seeing himself succeed, and both a high level of success, it must always doi: 10.1177/109830079900100403 Charlop, M. H., & Milstein, J. P. (1989). he and Alice were motivated to contin - occur with direct instruction and natu - Teaching autistic children conversational speech using video modeling. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22 , 275–285. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1989.22-275 Video modeling is also particularly appealing as a Charlop-Christy, M. H., Le, L., & Freeman, technique to address social skills deficiencies of children K. A. (2000). A comparison of video modeling with in-vivo modeling for with ASD in a low-cost and unobtrusive fashion. teaching children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30 , 537–552. doi: 10.1023/A ue and did not lose interest in the flash rally occurring opportunities. The com - :1005635326276 D’Ateno, P., Mangiapanello, K., & Taylor, B. cards as quickly as she thought they bination of video modeling, direct (2003). Using video modeling to teach would. Scott also seemed to gain some instruction, and facilitated support complex play sequences to a preschooler confidence by watching himself per - within naturally occurring environ - with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior form well on the video. Further, Scott ments is more apt to lead to success. Interventions, 5 , 5–11. doi: 10.1177 made gains in reading accuracy Video modeling gives practitioners a /10983007030050010801 Dauphin, M., Kinney, E. M., & Stromer, R. through this process, although he con - heuristic tool to help children with (2004). Using video-enhanced activity tinued to miss different words each ASD learn or improve the social, com - schedules and matrix training to teach day. munication, behavior, and work-related sociodramatic play to a child with

TEACHING E XCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Έ JULY /A UG 2011 17 autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Hagiwara, T., & Myles, B. S. (1999). A mul - schedules: Maintenance and generaliza - Interventions, 6 , 238–250. doi: 10.1177 timedia social story intervention: Teach- tion of complex response chains. Journal /10983007040060040501 ing skills to children with autism. Focus of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26 , 89–97. Delano, M.E. (2007a). Improving written on Autism and Other Developmental doi: 10.1901/jaba.1993.26-89 language performance of adolescents Disabilities, 14 , 82–95. doi: 10.1177 Maione, L., & Mirenda, P. (2006). Effects of with Asperger syndrome. Journal of /108835769901400203 video modeling and video feedback on Applied Behavior Analysis, 40 , 345–351. Haring, T. G., Kennedy, C. H., Adam, M. K., peer-directed social language skills of a doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.50-06 & Pitts-Conway, V. (1987). Teaching gen - child with autism. Journal of Positive Delano, M. E. (2007b). Video modeling eralization of purchasing skills across Behavior Interventions, 8 , 106–118. doi: interventions for individuals with community settings to autistic youth 10.1177/10983007060080020201 autism. Remedial and Special Edu- using videotape modeling. Journal of Massey, N. G., & Wheeler, J. J. (2000). cation, 28 , 33–42. doi: 10.1177 Applied Behavior Analysis, 20 , 89–96. Acquisition and generalization of activity /07419325070280010401 doi: 10.1901/jaba.1987.20-89 schedules and their effects on task Dettmer, S., Simpson, R. L., Myles, B. S., Heflin, L. J., & Alaimo, D. F. (2007). engagement in a young child with autism & Ganz, J. B. (2000). The use of visual Students with autism spectrum disorders: in an inclusive pre-school classroom. supports to facilitate transitions of stu - Effective instructional practices . Upper Education and Training in Mental Retar- dents with autism. Focus on Autism Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. dation and Developmental Disabilities, and Other Developmental Disabilities, Hine, J. F., & Wolery, M. (2006). Using 35 , 326–335. 15 , 163–169. doi: 10.1177 point-of-view video modeling to teach Mesibov, G. & Shea, V. (2008). Structured /108835760001500307 play to preschoolers with autism. teaching and environmental supports. Dooley, P., Wilczenski, F. L, & Torem, C. Topics in Early Childhood Special In K. D. Buron & P. Wolfberg (Eds.), (2001). Using an activity schedule to Education, 26 , 83–93. doi: 10.1177 Learners on the autism spectrum: Pre- smooth school transitions. Journal of /02711214060260020301 paring highly qualified educators (pp. Positive Behavior Interventions, 3 , 57–61. Hodgdon, L. Q. (1995). Solving social- 114–137). Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism doi: 10.1177/109830070100300108 behavioral problems through the use Asperger. Ganz, J. B., Cook, K. E., & Earles-Vollrath, of visually supported communication. Mesibov, G., Shea, V., & Schopler, E. (2004). T. L. (2006). How to write and implement In K. A. Quill (Ed.), Teaching children The TEACCH approach to autism spec - with autism: Strategies to enhance social scripts . Austin, TX: PRO-ED. trum disorders. New York, NY: Springer. communication and socialization (pp. Ganz, J. B., Cook, K. E., & Earles-Vollrath, Morrison, R. S., Sainato, D. M., Ben 265–285). New York, NY: Delmar. T. L. (2007). A grab-bag of strategies for Chaaban, D., & Endo, S. (2002). Keen, D., Brannigan, K. L., & Cuskelly, M. children with mild communication Increasing play skills of children with (2007). Toilet training for children with deficits. Intervention in School and autism using activity schedules and cor - autism: The effects of video modeling. Clinic, 42 , 179–187 . doi: 10.1177 respondence training. Journal of Early Journal of Developmental and Physical /10534512070420030801 Intervention, 25 , 58–72. doi: 10.1177 Disabilities, 19 , 291–303. doi: 10.1007 Ganz, J. B., & Flores, M. M. (2010). Social /105381510202500106 /s10882-007-9044-x interactions for children with autism: A Nikopoulos, C. K., & Keenan, M. (2003). Kogan, M. D., Blumberg, S. J., Schieve, L. script-fading procedure for beginning Promoting social initiation in children A., Boyle, C. A., Perrin, J. M., Ghandour, readers. Young Exceptional Children, 13 , with autism using video modeling. R. M., . . . Van Dyck, P. C. (2009). Preva- 58–70. doi: 10.1177/1096250609351795 Behavioral Interventions, 18 , 87–108. lence of parent-reported diagnosis of Ganz, J. B., Kaylor, M., Bourgeois, B., & doi: 10.1002/bin.129 autism spectrum disorder among children Hadden, K. (2008). The impact of social in the US, 2007. Pediatrics, 124 , 1–9. doi: Nikopoulos, C. K., & Keenan, M. (2007). scripts and visual cues on verbal commu - 10.1542/peds.2009-1522 Using video modeling to teach complex nication in three children with autism Krantz, P., & McClannahan, L. (1993). social sequences to children with autism. spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Teaching children with autism to initiate Journal of Autism and Developmental Other Developmental Disabilities, 23 , to peers: Effects of a script-fading pro- Disorders, 37 , 678–693. doi: 10.1007 79–94. doi: 10.1177/1088357607311447 cedure. Journal of Applied Behavior /s10803-006-0195-x Gena, A., Couloura, S., & Kymissis, E. Analysis, 26 , 121–132. doi: 10.1901/jaba Peeters, T. (1997) Autism: From theoretical (2005). Modifying the affective behavior .1993.26-121 understanding to educational inter- of preschoolers with autism using in vivo Krantz, P. J., & McClannahan, L. E. (1998). vention . San Diego, CA: Singular. or video modeling and reinforcement Social interaction skills for children with Pierce, K., & Schreibman, L. (1995). contingencies. Journal of Autism and autism: A script-fading procedure for Increasing complex social behaviors in Developmental Disorders, 35 , 545–556. beginning readers. Journal of Applied children with autism: Effects of peer- doi: 10.1007/s10803-005-0014-9 Behavior Analysis, 31, 191–202. doi: implemented pivotal response training. Gonzalez-Lopez, A., & Kamps, D. (1997). 10.1901/jaba.1998.31-191 Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Social skills training to increase social Luscre, D. M., & Center, D. B. (1996). Pro- 28 , 285–295. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1995 interactions between children with cedures for reducing dental fear in .28-285 autism and their typical peers. Focus children with autism. Journal of Autism Pierce, K., & Schreibman, L. (1997). on Autism and Other Developmental and Developmental Disorders, 26 , Multiple peer use of pivotal response Disabilities, 12 , 12–14. doi: 10.1177 547–556. doi: 10.1007/BF02172275 training to increase social behaviors of /108835769701200101 MacDonald, R., Clark, M., Garrigan, E., & classmates with autism: Results from Grandin, T., & Scariano, M. M. (1986). Vangala, M. (2005). Using video model - trained and untrained peers. Journal of Emergence: Labeled autistic. New York, ing to teach pretend play to children with Applied Behavior Analysis, 30 , 157–160. NY: Warner Books. autism. Behavioral Interventions, 20 , doi: 10.1901/jaba.1997.30-157 Gresham, F. M. (2001). Interpreting out - 225–238. doi: 10.1002/bin.197 Quill, K. (1998). Environmental supports to comes of social skills training for stu - MacDuff, G. S., Krantz, P. J., & McClan- enhance social-communication. Seminars dents with high-incidence disabilities. nahan, L. E. (1993). Teaching children in Speech and Language, 19 , 407–422. Exceptional Children, 67 , 331–344. with autism to use photographic activity doi: 10.1055/s-2008-1064057

18 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Quill, K.A. (1995). Teaching children with Williams, D. L., Goldstein, G., & Minshew, autism: Strategies to enhance communica - N. J. (2006). Neuropsychologic function - tion and socialization . Albany, NY: ing in children with autism: Further Delmar. evidence for disordered complex infor- Quill, K. A. (1997). Instructional considera - mation-processing. Child Neuropsy- tions for young children with autism: chology, 12 , 279–298. doi: 10.1080 The rationale for visually cued instruc - /09297040600681190 tion. Journal of Autism and Develop- mental Disorders, 27 , 697–714. doi: Jennifer B. Ganz (Texas CEC), Associate 10.1023/A:1025806900162 Professor of Special Education, Department Rice, C. E., Baio, J., Van Naarden Braun, K., of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M Doernberg, N., Meaney, F. J., & Kirby, R. University, College Station. Theresa L. S. (2007). A public health collaboration Earles-Vollrath (Missouri CEC), Associate for the surveillance of autism spectrum Professor of Special Education, Educational disorders. Paediatric and Perinatal Leadership and Human Development, Epidemiology, 21 , 179–190. doi: 10.1111 University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg. /j.1365-3016.2007.00801.x Katherine E. Cook (Kansas CEC), Autism Sasso, G. M., Melloy, K. J., & Kavale, K. Specialist, Department of Early Childhood, (1990). Generalization, maintenance, Olathe School District, Kansas. and behavioral co-variation associated with social skills training through struc - Correspondence concerning this article tured learning. Behavioral Disorders, should be addressed to Jennifer Ganz, 16 , 9–22. Department of Educational Psychology, Scattone, D. (2008). Enhancing the conver - Texas A&M University, College Station, sations skills of a boy with Asperger’s TX 77843 (e-mail: [email protected]). Disorder through Social Stories TM and video modeling. Journal of Autism and “Chad,” “Sarah,” and “Sam” are composite 5BSHFU
"HF Developmental Disorders, 38 , 395–400. characters; “Scott” is a pseudonym. The  doi: 10.1007/s10803-007-0392-2 authors wish to thank “Scott” and “Alice” Schreibman, L., & Ingersoll, B. (2005). for their participation. Behavioral interventions to promote learning in individuals with autism. In TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 43, F. R. Vlokmaar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D. No. 6, pp. 8–19. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders: Volume two: Assessment, interventions, Copyright 2011 CEC. and policy (3rd ed., pp. 882–896). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Sherer, M., Pierce, K. L., Paredes, S., Kisacky, K. L., Ingersoll, B., & Schreib- man, L. (2001). Enhancing conversational 4PDJBM
4LJMM
#VJMEFST
JOUFSBDUJWF
TPGUXBSF skills in children with autism via video technology. Which is better, “self” or VTFT
WJEFP
SFFOBDUNFOUT
PG
SFBMMJGF “other” as a model? Behavior Modifi- Ad Index TJUVBUJPOT
UP
BDIJFWF
TPDJBM
BXBSFOFTT
BOE cation, 25 , 140–158. doi: 10.1177 VOEFSTUBOEJOH
JO
DIJMESFO
BOE
ZPVOH
BEVMUT /0145445501251008 Attainment, cover 2, 1 Shipley-Benamou, R., Lutzker, J. R., & t
%JòFSFOU
DPNQMFYJUZ
MFWFMT Taubman, M. (2002). Teaching daily living skills to children with autism t
$VTUPNJ[BCMF
MFTTPO
QMBOT through instructional video modeling. California University of t
'PS
QSFTDIPPMFST
UP
ZPVOH
BEVMUT Journal of Positive Behavior Inter- Pennsylvania, 35 ventions, 4 , 165–175. doi: 10.1177 t
0WFS

WJEFP
MFTTPOT
FBDI /10983007020040030501 Sigafoos, J., O’Reilly, M., & de la Cruz, CEC, 7, 44, 53, 63, cover 3 t
"MTP
JODMVEFT
NPUJWBUJOH
HBNFT B. (2007). How to use video modeling 1SFTDIPPM
1MBZUJNF
WJEFPT
FB and video prompting . Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Conover, 4, 5 Simpson, R. L., Myles, B. S., & Ganz, J. B. 6HHGHPRVRIDOORXULQQRYDWLYHVRFLDO (2008). Efficacious interventions and VNLOOEXLOGLQJSURJUDPVRQRXUZHEVLWH Social Skill Builder, 19 treatments for learners with autism spec - trum disorders. In R. L. Simpson & B. S. Myles (Eds.), Educating children and youth with autism: Strategies for effective Walden University, cover 4 practice (2nd ed., pp. 477 –512). Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Willey, L. H. (1999). Pretending to be nor - mal: Living with Asperger’s syndrome. London, England: Jessica Kingsley.

TEACHING E XCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Έ JULY /A UG 2011 19