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Utiles Et Necessarias: Early Modern Science and the Society of Jesus

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Utiles Et Necessarias: Early Modern Science and the Society of Jesus Utiles et Necessarias: Early Modern Science and the Society of Jesus Sister Mary Sarah Galbraith, O.P. A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Unit of History and Philosophy of Science, Faculty of Science University of Sydney March 2021 Utiles et Necessarias 2 Utiles et Necessarias 3 Utiles et Necessarias: Early Modern Science and the Society of Jesus Sister Mary Sarah Galbraith, O.P. This thesis treats of the contributions made by the Society of Jesus to Early Modern science, amidst the complexities of the post Reformation, post Copernican era. Its focus is the life and work of the Jesuit Christopher Clavius (1538-1612), the architect and founder of a mathematics academy at the Collegio Romano. Using extant correspondence, pamphlet, prefatory dedications and commentaries, I show that Clavius created a strategy to recruit and train Jesuit priests in mathematics to be exported throughout Europe and to remote missionary outposts. As a specially trained corps of priest mathematicians, the Jesuits used the truths of mathematics and the mathematical sciences to draw potential converts to the truths of faith and religious conversion. The approach was initially successful. As the scientific and religious culture shifted in the sixteenth century, however, reliance upon traditional sources of authority, knowledge and belief came under scrutiny. As priests and mathematicians who were invested in both sacred and secular realms, members of the Society struggled to adhere to the tenets of traditional natural philosophy and to promote the new sciences, for the purposes of religious conversion. The approach that substituted the truths of mathematics for the truths of dogmatic faith was intended to engender confidence. Instead it eroded their credibility, resulting in suspicion and rejection of the missionaries and their Christian faith. Utiles et Necessarias 4 Chronology 1517 …………. Luther’s Ninety-five Theses sent to the Archbishop of Mainz. 1538 (c.) ……... Christopher Clavius is born 1540 …………. Society of Jesus is founded 1543 …………. Copernicus publishes De revolutionibus 1545 …………. Council of Trent opens 1549 …………. Francis Xavier establishes first Jesuit missionary base in Japan 1551 …………. Collegio Romano is founded 1556 …………. Death of Ignatius 1557 (c.) ……... Mathematics library at the Collegio Romano founded 1560 …………. Clavius is appointed mathematics professor at the Collegio Romano 1563 …………. Council of Trent closes Society of Jesus granted full approval 1564 …………. Clavius’ mathematics program has spread to several prominent cities 1574 …………. Society numbers more than four thousand members 1574 …………. Euclid’s Elements is published for the first time 1582 …………. Gregorian Calendar Inter gravissimas 1589 …………. Galileo earns a teaching post at University of Pisa 1599 …………. Jesuit Ratio Studiorum is promulgated 1600 …………. East India Company established 1604 …………. Kepler’s De Stella Nova in Pede Serpentarii published 1610 …………. Galileo publishes Sidereus Nuncius 1611 …………. Riccioli publishes Almagestum Novum 1612 …………. Death of Clavius 1614 …………. Aquaviva publishes the Ordinance for the Solidity and Uniformity of Doctrine 1615 …………. Claudio Aquaviva dies 1616 …………. First Galilean Trial 1619 …………. Bianchi’s Sphaera is the first to recommend the Tychonic systme 1623 …………. Matteo Ricci’s books placed on the Chinese Index of forbidden books 1632 …………. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems 1633 …………. Condemnation of Galileo 1642 …………. Galileo dies 1644 …………. End of the Ming Dynasty 1644…………. Jesuit John Adam Schall von Bell awarded for mathematical expertise by Manchu emperor 1658 …………. In 1658, Bishops Francois Pallu and Pierre Lambert de la Motte came from the papal Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith to the missions Utiles et Necessarias 5 Contents Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter One: Jesuits in Context: ................................................................................................................... 24 The Council of Trent and the Society’s beginnings ............................................................................ 28 Knowledge, authority and belief before and after the Reformation ................................................ 30 Theology and science at the school of Chartres .................................................................................. 34 Faith and reason after the Reformation ................................................................................................. 37 Knowledge, authority and belief in time of plague ............................................................................. 40 A shift within Christianity: the problem with miracles ...................................................................... 47 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter Two: From the Ashes of the Reformation: .................................................................................. 52 Ignatius of Loyola’s sacred strategy: surprise, certainty and the early Society ............................ 54 Unity, orthodoxy and the Ratio Studiorum ........................................................................................... 58 Polite society ............................................................................................................................................... 60 Bold iconography ....................................................................................................................................... 63 New iconographic order............................................................................................................................ 67 To serve as a soldier of God .................................................................................................................... 71 A rigorous missionary enterprise ............................................................................................................ 72 Circular letters and missionary correspondence .................................................................................. 76 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 80 Utiles et Necessarias 6 Chapter Three: The Gregorian Reform of the Calendar Reform: Not the work of Theologians or Philosophers, but Mathematicians................................................................................................................. 82 Clavius of Bamberg ................................................................................................................................... 84 Clavius and the Gregorian reform of the calendar .............................................................................. 86 Popish innovations ..................................................................................................................................... 88 Clavius and mathematics: A balance of innovation and orthodoxy ................................................ 97 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 102 Chapter Four: Men of the New Science: Clavius’ Academy at the Collegio Romano ....................... 105 Mathematics at the Collegio Romano ................................................................................................. 106 Public science ........................................................................................................................................... 119 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 122 Chapter Five: Christopher Clavius’ strategy for the promotion of mathematics ................................ 123 Clavius’ vision ......................................................................................................................................... 125 Mathematics as a source of certain knowledge ................................................................................. 126 Mathematics as useful and necessary.................................................................................................. 129 Mathematics as brilliant, contemplative, pleasing, edifying .......................................................... 131 Mathematics as Important and Influential ......................................................................................... 134 Polite Conversations ............................................................................................................................... 137 Mathematics as Vocation and Mission ............................................................................................... 141 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 144 Utiles et Necessarias 7 Chapter Six: An International Network of Priest - Mathematicians ..................................................... 146 Appeal of the new sciences ..................................................................................................................
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