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SAIT frtmttr 8/29/00 1:29 PM Page 1 VOLUME4 1700-1799 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery SAIT frtmttr 8/29/00 1:29 PM Page 3 VOLUME4 1700-1799 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery Neil Schlager, Editor Josh Lauer, Associate Editor Produced by Schlager Information Group SAIT Vol 4 - FM 8/30/00 2:49 PM Page iv Science GALE GROUP STAFF Amy Loerch Strumolo, Project Coordinator and Its Christine B. Jeryan, Contributing Editor Times Mary K. Fyke, Editorial Technical Specialist Maria Franklin, Permissions Manager Margaret A. Chamberlain, Permissions Specialist Shalice Shah-Caldwell, Permissions Associate VOLUME 4 Mary Beth Trimper, Production Director 1700-1799 Evi Seoud, Assistant Production Manager Wendy Blurton, Senior Buyer NEIL SCHLAGER, Editor Cynthia D. 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ISBN: 0-7876-3936-2 Printed in Canada 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 SAIT Vol 4 - FM 8/30/00 2:49 PM Page v Contents Preface ...................ix The North Pacific Voyages of the Comte de La Pérouse .................33 Advisory Board...............xi Carsten Niebuhr Describes the Near East ....35 Antoine de Bruni Charts the Contributors................xiii Tasmanian Coast ...............37 Excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum Introduction: 1700-1799 .........xv Mark the First Systematic Study in Archeology .................39 Chronology: 1700-1799 .........xix The Birth of Alpinism ..............42 John Frere Discovers Prehistoric Tools in England ...................44 Exploration and Discovery John Byron’s Record-Setting Circumnavigation on the Dolphin.......47 Chronology of Key Events ..............1 The Origin of Human Flight ...........49 Overview ........................2 The Rosetta Stone Is Discovered Topical Essays by Napoleonic Soldiers ............53 Voyage Into Mystery: The European Discovery of Easter Island .................4 Biographical Sketches ................56 First Scientific Exploration of the Amazon River Biographical Mentions ...............77 Led by Charles-Marie de La Condamine ...6 Bibliography of Primary Source Documents ...84 Encountering Tahiti: Samuel Wallis and the Voyage of the Dolphin............8 George Vancouver Charts the Pacific Coast of Life Sciences and Medicine North America from California to Alaska ..11 Chronology of Key Events ..............85 Pedro Vial Charts the Santa Fe Trail and Opens Overview .......................86 the Southwest to Exploration and Trade ...14 Topical Essays Vitus Bering’s Explorations of the Far Natural Theology .................88 Northern Pacific ................17 The Mechanical Philosophy: Mechanistic and Alexander Mackenzie Becomes the First Materialistic Conceptions of Life ......90 European to Cross the Continent of North The Search for New Systems America at Its Widest Part ..........19 of Classification ................93 The Explorations of Pierre Gaultier de The Great Debate: Preformation versus Varennes et de La Verendrye .........22 Epigenesis ...................95 Captain Cook Discovers the Ends of The Spontaneous-Generation Debate ......99 the Earth ....................24 Abraham Trembley and the Hydra .......102 Samuel Hearne Is the First European to Advances in Botany ...............104 Reach the Arctic Ocean by Land Route ...27 Toward the Science of Entomology .......107 Mungo Park’s African Adventures ........29 Experimental Physiology in the 1700s .....109 James Bruce Explores the Blue Nile to Its Marie François Xavier Bichat and the Tissue Source and Rekindles Europeans’ Doctrine of General Anatomy .......114 Fascination with the Nile ...........31 Neurology in the 1700s .............116 v SCIENCE AND ITS TIMES VOLUME 4 SAIT Vol 4 - FM 8/30/00 2:49 PM Page vi The Science of Human Nature .........119 Chinese and Japanese Mathematical Studies Contents Uncovering the Relationship Between of the 1700s..................241 Anatomy and Disease ............121 Biographical Sketches ...............243 1700-1799 Mesmerism: A Theory of the Soul .......123 Biographical Mentions ...............261 Scurvy and the Foundations of the Science Bibliography of Primary Source Documents ..265 of Nutrition .................125 Percivall Pott and the Chimney Sweeps’ Cancer ................127 The Rise and Practice of Inoculation in Physical Sciences the 1700s ...................130 Chronology of Key Events .............269 Developments in Public Health .........132 Overview ......................270 The Growth of Hospitals in the 1700s .....135 Topical Essays Obstetrics in the 1700s .............137 The Rise of Experiment .............272 Surgery in the 1700s ...............139 The Cultural Context of Newtonianism ....274 Eighteenth-Century Advances in Dentistry ..144 Astronomers Argue for the Existence of God ....................277 Biographical Sketches ...............147 Edmond Halley Successfully Predicts the Biographical Mentions ...............182 Return of the Great Comet of 1682 .....279 Bibliography of Primary Source Documents ..195 William Herschel and the Discovery of the Planet Uranus ................282 Laplace Theorizes That the Solar System Mathematics Originated from a Cloud of Gas.......285 Chronology of Key Events .............199 The Work and Impact of Overview ......................200 Benjamin Banneker .............288 Topical Essays The Emergence of Swedish Chemists during the Eighteenth Century ...........291 France’s Ecole Polytechnique Becomes The Rise and Fall of the Phlogiston Theory The Most Influential Mathematics of Fire.....................293 Institution of Its Time ............202 Geology and Chemistry Emerge as Distinct Eighteenth-Century Advances in Statistics Disciplines ..................296 and Probability Theory ...........205 Johann Gottlob Lehmann Advances the Key Mathematical Symbols Begin to Understanding of Rock Formations .....298 Find General Use ..............207 Abraham Gottlob Werner’s Neptunist Eighteenth-Century Advances in Stratigraphy: An Incorrect Theory Understanding π ...............209 Advances the Geological Sciences ......301 Women in Eighteenth-Century Genesis vs. Geology ...............303 Mathematics .................211 The French Revolution and the Crisis The Growing Use of Complex Numbers in of Science ...................306 Mathematics .................213 Joseph Priestley Isolates Many New Gases The Elaboration of the Calculus ........216 and Begins a European Craze for Mathematics and the Eighteenth-Century Soda Water ..................308 Physical World ................219 Daniel Bernoulli Establishes the Field of Enlightenment-Age Advances in Hydrodynamics................311 Dynamics and Celestial Mechanics .....222 The Cavendish Experiment and the Quest to Advances in the Study of Curves Determine the Gravitational Constant ...313 and Surfaces .................224 Sparks and Lightning: Electrical theories from The Birth of Graph Theory: Leonhard the “Electrician” Dufay to the Scientist Euler and the Königsberg Bridge Problem . 227 Coulomb ...................316 Mathematicians and Enlightenment Society ..229 Eighteenth-Century Development of The Algebraization of Analysis .........232 Temperature Scales..............320 Mathematicians Reconsider Euclid’s Parallel Joseph Black’s Pioneering Discoveries Postulate ...................234 about Heat ..................322 Symmetry and Solutions of Polynomial The Flow of Heat ................325 Equations ...................236 Ernst Chladni’s Researches in Acoustics ....327 Mathematical Textbooks and Teaching Eighteenth-Century Meteorological Theory during the 1700s ...............238 and Experiment ...............329 vi SCIENCE AND ITS TIMES VOLUME 4 SAIT Vol 4 - 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