Blackberry Growing Iftatelea George F

Blackberry Growing iftatelea George F. Waldo and R. Ralph Clark

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FEDERAL COOPERATIVE EXTENSION" SERVICE OREGON STATE COLLEGE i CORVALLIS Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, F. E. Price, director. Oregon State College and the United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Printed and distributed in furtherance of Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Extension Bulletin 768 August 1957 CONTENTS

Importance of the Industry 4 Economic Considerations 4

Place in the Farm Plan 4 Preparation for Planting 5 Propagation 6 Planting Systems 6 Planting 7 Choice of Varieties 8 Varieties Grown in Oregon 8 Care of the Plantation 13 Managing the Growing Canes 15 Methods of Training 16 Training Systems 18 Effects of Growth Regulators 20 Harvesting 21 Insects and Diseases 21

2 Blackberry Growing laareplet

By George F. Waldo, Horticulturist Fruit and Nut Crops Section, Horticultural Crops Research Branch, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture and R. Ralph Clark, Extension Horticulturist Oregon State College BLACKBERRY growing industry in Oregon is centered THEin the Willamette Valley counties of western Oregon. The area's normal climatic conditions, a mild autumn, a cool, dry summer, and sufficient spring moisture to develop the fruit, favors the production of these berries. Also, the mild but moist autumn weather helps cane growth and propagation by layering, and the dry summer permits harvesting with minimum loss from moldy or decaying berries. When the first white settlers arrived in Oregon they found an abundance of the highly flavored trailing wild blackberry, Rubus macro petalus. Later the Evergreen variety was introduced to Oregon from Europe and spread Quickly by natural means. So did the Himalaya, introduced after the Evergreen. The vigorous growth of these introduced blackberries of European origin and the abundance of the native blackberry show that conditions in western Oregon are favorable for blackberry growing. Interest was stimulated by the introduction of the Logan early in the present century. The popularity of this berry reached its height about 1925, but since then has gradually declined, and other varieties are taking its place. The term blackberry as used in this bulletin includes all types of trailing and upright berries, including the Loganberry, Youngberry, and Boysenberry. The trailing types are called dew- berries in the Eastern States, but in Oregon the native trailing type of the West Coast and those from Europe are called blackberries. Those called blackberries, native to the Eastern States, are mostly upright in their habit of growth. They generally are not planted in Oregon although a few varieties are grown satisfactorily.

3 Importance of the Industry Blackberry growing in Oregon is About 5,000 acres of blackberries done almost entirely in the Wil-are grown at present in Oregon, lamette Valley, where harvest laborand about half this acreage is in is available and most of the proces-Marion County. A thousand acres sing plants are located. The berriesare in Clackamas County, and a can be grown successfully in theconsiderable acreageinMultno- coastal region of the state, but be-mah County. Some acreage is in cause harvest labor is scarce andPolk,Yamhill, and Washington, distance to markets is greater, theand small plantings are in Doug- industry has not developed therelas, Jackson, and Josephine Coun- as it has in the valley. ties in southern Oregon.

Economic Considerations Costs of establishing a trailingdefinite market. If a new variety berry planting include those foris being considered, market outlet labor, for preparation of the land, isofspecialimportance.The cultivation of the planting, pur-frozen pack todayisthechief chasing of plants, wire, and posts.market outlet, and a large number The purchase of special equipmentof frozen pack processors now are or implements also may be neces-located in the northern part of the sary. Because of the high invest-Willamette Valley, where most of ment, prospective producers shouldthe blackberries are grown. consider carefully all factors which Some processors also can the ber- effect the probable life of the plant-ries or make them into jam, jellies, ing and the yields that can be ob-and flavors for the fountain trade tained.In addition, they shouldor ice cream. With the increase take in account available marketsin population in Oregon, the local and market requirements beforefresh market, either in retail stores choosing their varieties. or on roadside stands, has possibil- Markets ities for expansion. Varieties suit- Large plantings should not beable for these purposes are now set until the grower is sure of aavailable.

Place in the Farm Plan A grower planning to set outor forage crops along with live- blackberries must take into con-stockorpoultry.Such farmers sideration his over-all farm organi-have manure and crop wastes which zation. Many producers have com-can be used to advantage in black- binedblackberrygrowingwithberry plantings. Some also have ir- general farming. Some grow grainrigation equipment that can be used

4 for the berries. Such combinationsor spots where winter freezes and cancutproductioncosts,sincelate spring frosts occur frequently more efficient use of all the farmshould beavoided. Heavy soils facilities is possible. which hold water for long periods Growers who produce only black-are not the best for blackberries, berries must give extra considera-but some varieties can stand such tion to their production costs, asconditions better than others. Soils well as to choosing locations wherethatare naturallyfertile,easily high yields will be possible for aworked, and of good moisture hold- period of years. Plantings shoulding capacity are the most suitable. be set out with a life expectancy Some varieties are affected by of 15 to 20 years. Factors whichsoil-borne diseases, so when such seem most vital to successful op-diseases are known to exist in an eration are presented in this bul-area only varieties which are resist- letin to guide those planning toant or tolerant to them should be put out new plantings. grown. The light soils of the red hill areas generally are not as suit- Location able for blackberry growing as the Blackberries can be grown insoils of the valley floor. However, many locations, but for the mostsome soils in the hill areas are fer- profitable production, a high yield- ing siteis most desirable. Hightile and have given good yields soilfertility and ample moistureover a long period. Growers have during the growing season helpsucceeded occasionally in growing boostyields.Locations whereblackberries on poor soil by mak- strong prevailing winds rob theing special efforts to increase the plants and soil quickly of moisture,fertility.

Preparation for Planting Most blackberry plantings aremanureisnot always available, made on soils that are naturallyothermaterials,such as crop fertile but have been cropped forwastes, can be used. so long they have become depleted Plowing cover crops infor a of organic matter. Such soils haveyear or two prior to planting also less ability to maintain fertility andmay be profitable in the long run. moisture and are more difficult toThese cover crops may be legumes, work than soils high in organicsuch as vetch or Austrian field peas, matter. Growers planning to plantor others supplying large quanti- berries on such soil should maketies of organic matter, such as rye an effort to correct the situationor Sudan grass. It is advisable to before planting. Barnyard manureadd fertilizers to cover crops to in- is the best source of organic mat-crease their growth. ter for this type of soil, but because Whenever possible, use land that

5 has been in good sod for a fewblackberries so the sod will have years. The grass could have beentime to decompose completely. If for seed or pasture. The best sod-erosion is not serious, fall plow- forming grasses are Alta, Chew-ing isbest because early spring ings, and red creeping fescues, andpreparation can be made. At pres- orchard grass. ent there are many farm imple- The soil in which blackberriesments suitable for preparing the are to be planted should be pre-soil properly for planting. Do not pared carefully, much the same aswork soil when too wet or dry, as a seedbed for grain or vegetablethis makes it much more difficult crops.If land has been insod,later to break the soil into fine par- plow a whole year before plantingticles.

Propagation Most blackberries grown in Ore-summer, when itis about 2 feet gon are of the trailing type, whichlong. Just below the cut several naturally propagate themselves byside branches will form and grow the tips of the canes taking root.into long canes with suitable tips The cane tips usually are ready tofor fall rooting. root in the latter part of September Another method is to cover canes or early October. Under normalwith soil at intervals as they lie on weather conditions, these tips willthe ground. Plants produced this root naturally if the soil is fairlyway are not as vigorous as those moist and loose. grown from the tips, but by using To make sure plantswill becare in planting itis possible to available, however, itis wise forget a greater number of plants. the grower to make a small open- Also, blackberries can be propa- ing in the soil at the end of thegated by root cuttings. Roots about cane about an inch or two deep, to inch in diameter are taken insert the tip of the cane downwardup in early winter and cut into at an angle of about 45 degrees, andpieces2 to4 inches long, then cover it with an inch or two of soil.placed either in the soil outside or Growers interested in increasingin a greenhouse or coldframe. Some the number of tip plants can doblackberries, particularly the east- this by pinching off a few inchesern upright ones, can be propagated of the terminal of the cane in earlyreadily by this method.

Planting Systems Several factors must be consid-theequipmenttobeused,the ered in determining the best plant-growth habit of the variety, and ing system. The amount of laborthe expected yields are all import- available to care for the planting,ant.

6 Variousplantingsystemsareplants usually are set at equal dis- used, and the grower should choosetances in each direction, from 6 by the best for his particular situa-6 to 9 by 9 feet. In other systems tion. Distance between rows is de-the rows may be from 6 to 12 feet termined by the kind of equipmentapart, distance determined by the to be used. Rows should be farequipment to be used. In the rows, enough apart so the tractor or otherin close planting systems, plants equipment will not break or injuremay be set 3 to 7 feet apart. the canes. Distance between plants The average for most plantings in the row is determined by theof blackberries is 8 to 10 feet apart. training system to be used and theVigorous growing varieties, such growth habit of the variety. as Evergreen, however, often are Vigorous growing varieties, suchplanted 10 to 16 feet apart in the as Evergreen, usually are plantedrow. 10 to 12 feet apart, or even more, The following tabulation gives in the row. Varieties which makethe number of plants required per shortercanes often areplantedacre at the distance in common use : closer together, sometimes as close as 4 to 6 feet. Closer planting us- Distance Number ually means greater yield per acre, between of plants but also means more labor in train- plants per acre ing the canes. A grower should be Feet sure his increased yield in a close 3 by 8 1,815 3 by 10 1,452 planting over-balances hisextra 4 by 8 1,361 labor costs. Close planting may not 5 by 8 1,089 be practical for vigorous growing 5 by 10 871 6 by 6 1,210 varietiessuchasEvergreen or 6 by 8 907 Himalaya. Greater planting distan- 6 by 10 726 ces make it easier to use larger cul- 8 by 8 681 8 by 10 544 tivating machines, cutting down on 9 by 9 538 costly hand labor. Also, it makes 9 by 14 346 for ease in training canes to wires. 10 by 10 436 10 by 12 363 When the stake system is used, 10 by 16 272

Planting Blackberries should be plantedsoil shaken from the roots. New early in the spring, as soon as it isshoots should not be broken when possible to get on the land. Tipspacking and plants should not dry can be dug early, packed, and heldout. Packing material, such as moist in cool or cold storage for consid-moss, has been used in the past, erable periods. When plants mustbut recently plastic bags, liners, or be held for some time, or shipped,covers without packing material they should be dug early and thehave been used successfully. When

7 plants are held for some time they A shovel or spade ordinarily is should be put in cold storage ofUsed in setting blackberry plants. 32°F. If the plants do not have soil on Growers who usetheir ownthe roots, it is customary to plunge "plants or get them from neighborsthe shovel downward into the soil should wait until the shoots be-about 7 or 8 inches, move it for- gin to respond, then they shouldward, and then place the roots just dig with soil remaining on thebehind the shovel, with the tip at roots, and plant immediately. Thethe ground line. The shovel is then soil should be kept moist at allwithdrawn and the soil allowed to times, and plants should not dryfall back into the cavity and press- out. ed down tightly. Choice of Varieties Success in growing blackberriesthey expect to sell to local markets depends much on the choice of va-they should find out which varie- rieties. Only a few were availableties can be handled easiest and in the past and only one or twowhich are most acceptable to con- of commercial importance. At pres-sumers. ent, however, there are several va- Present varieties of blackberries rieties from which to choose. Someare adaptable to many soil types, have wide acceptance by process-but sometimes itis necessary to ors and public, while others havechoose a certain variety because of only specificuses. Growers whothe soil available. For instance, the depend on processorsfor theironly variety that will grow on market should make sure the fruitheavy, poorly drained soil is Ever- they grow will be acceptable. Ifgreen. Varieties Grown in Oregon Boysen (Nectar), California or-The Boysen is highly desirable for igin, is the most widely adaptedlocal markets. It is used also in variety in Oregon at present. It isfreezing and canning.- The flavor fairly hardy and can be grown evenis excellent, subacid to acid. in certain sections of eastern Ore- Thornless sports of Boysen have gon, although injury can be ex-appeared occasionally as chimeras ; pected in colder winters. The plantsthatis, plants of mixed genetic are vigorous and productive. Themakeup. These have been unre- fruitis dark red and begins toliable, unproductive, smaller in size ripen later than that of Logan orthanBoysen,resemblingsome Young, but the season does not lastother variety, particularly Young. much longer. The berries are amongSometimes, ho w eve r,thornless the largest of the small fruits andsports of Boysen have been desir- are somewhat firmer than Logan.able in every way.

8 Brainerd is a U. S. Departmentthe Oregon Agricultural Experi- ofAgricultureintroduction,re-ment Station. Chehalem resulted sulting from a cross of the Him-from a cross of the native trailing alaya and an eastern upright black-blackberry Santiam and the Him- berry. The cane growth is vigor-alaya. The plantsare vigorous, ous and hardy, and the fruit pro-with long canes, and highly production is good. The foliage is sub-ductive. The fruiting laterals are ject to mildew. The berries ripenlong, with many berries. The ber- after the Boysen and the Logan,riesare rather small but bright but before the Evergreen. The ber-black in color and of excellent ries are large and fairly firm withflavor. The seeds are very small. good flavor, characteristic of theThe Chehalem is excellent for the eastern blackberries, and they proc-frozen pack and for pie making. ess well. Growers, however, haveIts season is a few days later than objected to the extreme vigor andthat of the Boysen. thorniness of this variety. Cory Thornless (Bowen), Cali- Cascade, Oregon origin, is an in-fornia origin, is a thornless sport troduction resulting from the co-of the Mammoth blackberry, which operative breeding project of theis not grown to any extent in Ore- U. S. Department of Agriculturegon. The berries are quite large, and the Oregon Agricultural Ex-long, black, and acid without char- periment Station. Cascade originat-acteristic flavor. ed from a cross of a native trailing Eldorado, Ohio origin, is an erect blackberry variety, Zielinski, withblackberry well adapted to Oregon. the Logan. The plants are vigor-Itisproductive,itsberries are ous and highly productive. Thoughbright black, of medium size, and generally hardy in western Oregon,medium firm. Itis recommended the Cascade is not hardy enoughfor home useor possiblylocal for eastern Oregon. The berries,markets, where an eastern upright dark red and slightly smaller thantype is desired. Logan, are somewhat soft and not Evergreen, European origin, was suitable for fresh market purposes.introduced into Oregon early in the The characteristic wild blackberrycountry's history and has become flavor is excellent. Except for itsnaturalized in the wild in western softness, the Cascade is well suitedOregon. Thickets of this variety for canning and freezing and is es-have become a nuisance in many pecially adapted to the home gar-pastures, in woodlands, and along den. It ripens at the same time asroadsides. The Evergreen is not the Logan. hardy in eastern Oregon. Much of Chehalem, Oregon origin, is anthe production has been and still introduction resulting from a coop-is from wild, uncultivated plants, erative breeding project of the U.but since the plant has been at- S. Department of Agriculture andtacked by the red berry mite much

9 of the wild fruit has not ripened.flavor is fair, apparently not good Cultivated plantings, however, areenough for commercial use. being sprayed to control this pest. Logan, California origin, plant- The fruit is firm and has fair flavor.ings are vigorous and productive Considerable quantities are cannedwhen well cared for. The berries and a small amount is shipped freshare medium sized to large, dark red, to distant markets. Heavy yieldsmedium firm to soft, and with a can be obtained, especially whengood subacid to acid flavor. Logan plants are irrigated. The Evergreenhas been grown extensively in Ore- ripens in August and September.gon, but in recent years the Boy- The thorny form is being replacedsen largely has replaced it. Logan by Thornless Evergreen in culti-still is grown for juice and wine- vated plantings. making. The softness of the berry ThornlessEvergreen,Oregonand its high acidity have been its origin, is a sport of the Evergreen,chief drawbacks in the past. The discovered near Stayton in aboutLogan does have a desirable flavor, 1926. Since that time it has replacedhowever. It begins to ripen June the thorny in cultivated plantings.15 to 25 and continues during most Because of the lack of thorns it canof July. be handled easily and with less ex- Thornless Logan, California ori- pense than the thorny form. Thorn-gin, is a thornless form of the Lo- less Evergreen now has a largergan andinallrespects,except acreage than any other blackberrythornlessness, identical with Lo- variety in Oregon. gan. Most plantings of Logan in Himalaya, (Theodore Reimers),Oregon now are Thornless. Yields European origin, is a vigorous Eu-apparently are equal to those of ropean variety, which, after its in-the thorny form. troduction,becamenaturalized. Lucretia, West Virginia origin, Thickets have become even more ofis the oldest, as well as the prin- a nuisance than those of Evergreen.cipal dewberry variety of Eastern Although Himalaya is highly pro-States. Its growth and production ductive, there are few commercialare satisfactory in Oregon, but its plantings. The fruit is soft, of goodberry qualities are not considered acid flavor, and is used mostly forcomparable with those of the Boy- canning. The Himalaya season issen. Few are grown in Oregon. Lu- between Boysen and that of Ever-cretia is hardy, however, and can green and slightly later than Brain-be grown in parts of eastern Ore- erd. gon, where others suffer winter Kay(Kayberry),Washingtondamage. It ripens shortly before origin, plants are vigorous, highlythe Logan. productive, and similar to Mam- Mammoth, California origin, is mothplants.Berriesarelarge,avigorous,productivevariety long, bright black in color. Thewhich grows berries longer and

10 Logan has medium sized to large, dark red, medium firm to soft berries, used considerably for juice and wine making.

C h eh a I em hasrather smallbut bright black, well flavored berries, ex- cellentfor frozen pack and for pie making.

Cascadehasdarkred berries,slightlysmaller than Logan,is well suited for canning and freezing, and especially adaptedtohome gar- dens.

11 nearly as large as Boysen (Nectar).breeding work of the U. S. Depart- The berries are acid and do notment of Agriculture and the Ore- have a desirable flavor. Few aregon Agricultural Experiment Sta- grown in Oregon. The Mammothtion. Its origin is the same as that season is about the same as theof the Cascade and in most respects Logan. Cory is a thornless sport ofthe plants resemble Cascade. Un- Mammoth. der some conditions, however, Pa- Marion, Oregon origin, is a re-cific seems less vigorous and pro- cent introduction resulting fromductive than Cascade. The fruit is the cooperative breeding project ofsimilar,butisslightlylarger, the Ti. S. Department of Agricul-firmer, and possibly more acid. It ture and the Oregon Agriculturalalso has a characteristic flavor, sug, Experiment Station. Marion orig-gestive of that of the native trail- inated from a cross of Chehaleming blackberry. The season is the and Olallie. Plants are vigorous,same as that of Cascade and Logan. producing few long canes of large Santiam (Ideal Wild), Oregon diameter. Marion is very produc-origin, is in many respects similar tive and has long, fruiting laterals.to Cascade. Its parentage is un- Its berries are medium to large,known, but its growth character- bright black, and excellent in flavor.istics are similar to those of known Marion was introduced for trial forcrosses between Logan and the na- processing in the frozen pack, fortive trailing blackberry. Its canes, canning, and for local markets. somewhat smaller and more vine- Nectar, California origin, seemslike than those of most trailing to be identical with Boysen. berries, are similar to those of the Olallie, Oregon origin, is anothernative blackberry. The berryis recent introduction from the co-smaller than Cascade or Pacific operative breeding work of the U.berry and rather soft. The flavor S. Department of Agriculture andis excellent and characteristic of the Oregon Agricultural Experi-the native blackberry, but its yield ment Station. It is the result of ais not equal to that of Cascade or cross between the Black LoganPacific, and the plant is highly sus- and the Young. Plants are vigor-ceptible to cane and leaf spot di- ous, but not hardy under Oregonseases. Santiam ripens slightly ear- conditions. Berries are bright black,lier than the Logan. medium sized, firm, excellent for Young,Louisianaorigin,was local markets, but their flavor ishighly popular for a few years not equal to those of other varietiesafter its introduction to Oregon in grown in Oregon. The Olallie is1926, but since the introduction of well adapted to California condi-Boysen it has been losing favor. tions and has succeeded there. Generally, the Young is quite vig- Pacific, Oregon origin, is an in-orous, but under some conditions troduction from the cooperativeyields have not been comparable

12 withitsvigor. The berries arethe characteristics of thorniness. large, dark red, and have an excel- The perpetuation of these forms lent flavor, milder and less acidmust be by rooting tips of the than that of Boysen. Much of thecanes. Shoots from the roots always production has been canned andbearthorns.Whencultivating frozen. The Young season is thethornless varieties roots should not same as the Logan. be cut, since shoots are liable to Thornless Young, California ori-grow from the cut or damaged gin, is a thornless sport of Young.roots and they will be thorny. ItisconsideredidenticalwithThornless canes of a thorny variety Young in every other respect ex-are rare, but they have been ob- cept that yields have been variable,served more often in the Young usuallylessthanthoseofthethan in other varieties. thorny form. Yields of the Thornless Young and Cory (Thornless Mammoth) Note on thornlessness have been more variable than those Thethornlessvarietiesmen-of thethorny forms. Thornless tioned in this publication have ori-Evergreen and Thornless Logan, ginated as chimeras, or plants ofhowever, appear equal in yields to mixed genetic makeup. In trailingthose of the thorny forms. Hence, berries, the outer tissue of the canethe common report that thornless- is thornless, while the center tis-ness is associated with low yields sue of both canes and roots haveis not always true.

Care of thePlantation Weed control water has been used successfully Cultivation in blackberry plant-many times for cleaning up a plantings is primarily for the purpose ofing during winter. Where weed controlling weeds, which competegrowth is luxuriant, diesel oil us- with the berries for moisture anduallyisaddedtothe mixture. nutrients. Any cultivation done inThe spray is directed at the base of blackberry plantings is entirely forthe plants so it does not contact the weed control, and ordinarily onlyupper portions. Spraying late in shallow cultivatingisdesirable.the winter has caused injury to the Deep cultivation cuts many roots,succeeding crop of berries. Proper needed for best growth. In thorn-applications have reduced greatly less types deep cultivation causesthe need for mechanical and hand shoots to come up from cut rootscultivation in early spring. and these shoots always are thorny Anotherpracticefollowed by and a nuisance. many growers is the application of Many growers now are usingmonuron (Karmex W, CMU) or chemicals for weed control. A mix-diuron (Karmex DW) at low rates ture of IPC, dinitro general, andin the spring and fall. This mater-

13 ial is effective on both grassy andcan be leveled for the rill system. broadleaf annual weeds and remainsInjury to ripening berries, parti- effective in the soil for long per-cularly of soft varieties, has been iods,preventingemergenceofnoted when sprinkler systems were many weeds. used during harvest. There seems, Itis hoped herbicides will behowever, to be little injury to the found to control perennial weedsvarieties with firm berries, such as selectively in caneberry plantings.the Thornless Evergreen, if irri- Since continual progress is beinggation is applied just after a pick- made inthisfield,growers areing has been made. Where perman- urgedtocontacttheircountyent cover crops are grown it is es- agents for the latest recommenda-sential that moisture be kept plenti- tions and suggestions. ful at all times. Irrigation after harvest seems of little advantage Use of cover crops except in unusually dry seasons. Growers have raised cover crops of various kinds to maintain or- Fertilization ganic matter in the soil. Principal Probably the best way to main- cover crops have been oats, rye,tainsoilfertilityin blackberry vetch,crimsonclover,Austrianplantings is by use of barnyard winter peas, or winter barley seededmanure. Application of 10 to 30 in the fall. Fertilizers to increasetons per acre every year or every cover crops have been disked in or2 or 3 years has been successful. plowed under in early spring. EarlyWhere organic materials, such as spring working in of the coverstraw or other crop wastes are used, crop is especially important whereit may be necessary to add commer- irrigation is not available. It pre-cial fertilizers, particularly nitro- vents the cover crop from compet-gen, to help in their decomposition. ing with the blackberries for mois-Information on the effective use of ture and soil nutrients. Cover cropcommercial fertilizersislimited. refuse on the surface of the soilIt does appear, however, that in ordinarilyis not objectionable. most plantings an application of nitrogen in early spring usually is Irrigation advantageous. Application of ferti- In growing blackberries it is im-lizers containing 50 to 60 pounds portant to have a good supply ofof actual nitrogen per acre is rec- moisture in the soil from early sum-ommended, but it is possible that mer until harvest. When rainfallnitrogenapplications willcause is low during spring, irrigation hasmore winter injury when sudden beenofconsiderableadvantage.early freezes occur. The applica- Sprinkler systems are most com-tion of phosphorus fertilizers may monly used in blackberry irrigation,help when the soil is known to be although in a few locations landdeficient.

14 Managing the Growing Canes Training the new canes diseases, but apparently this is not New canes of trailing blackber-so. Many growers now are using a ries appear early in the spring androtovatororsimilarcultivating grow upright for about 2 or 3 feetimplements, which break up the old and then bend over and run alongcaneseasily.Where permanent the surface of the soil. To keep thecover crops are used it is necessary canes from being injured by pickersto take the canes out of the field. and cultivation implements, growers move them so they are under-Time of training neath the trellis. These canes us- Although spring training is cus- ually are held in place with smalltomary, some who have tried fall sticks made from lath, other woodtraining have had success, provid- material, or stiff wire bent into aing there was no severe weather U shape.In moving thecanesduring winter. Another reason fav- growers should avoid making sharporing fall training is because canes angles that break the tissue andthat lie on the ground during mild, eventually cause the cane to breakrainy winters become succulent, and off when being trained to the trel-so are easily killed by light frost lis. This moving of the new canesor are attacked by fungi. When the must be done at intervals of 2 or 3winter following fall training is weeks during the early part of themild, canes trained up have given growing season. Some growers trainmuch larger yields than those left all the new canes in one directiondown. Control of diseases by spray- to make it easier to handle them ining in the fallis more effective the trellising operation. However,when the canes are on the wires with this method there is dangerthan when they are lying on the of making sharp angles and caus-ground. Some varieties are more ing cane breakage. winter hardy than others and can be trained in the fall with little or Removal of fruiting canes no danger from winter injury. After harvest most growers cut Falltraining,as soon as the old fruiting canes as low as pos-fruiting canes can be removed fol- sible without injury to new canes.lowing harvest, allows the canes on If plantings are cultivated, the oldthe wires to harden in the open air canes usually are left in the spaceand sunlight better than on the between the rows, chopped up, andground. Training in the fall us- worked into the soil. It is not harm-uallyis more easy than inthe ful to leave the old canes in thespring, since canes are not quite so rows, or even to delay cutting themlong and tangled. Most growers, until after spring training. Somehowever, do spring training, since growers believe leaving canes inthey cannot depend upon the winter the planting increases spread ofto be sufficiently mild.

15 Methods of Training Several systems are used in train- ingtrailingblackberries.The method used depends on the variety, the size, purpose of the planting, and other factors. The main systems are to stakes, to a 1- or 2- wire trellis, and to a horizontal trellis. These are described in this section. In training most varietiesof trailing berries it should be under-and 1to 2 feet, or even more, be- stood that the central portion oflow the ground. They should be large enough to support the weight the cane is the part that bears theof the fruiting canes in wind, rain, most fruit. The terminal ends ofand snow. Stakes of wood should the cane usually can be cut off without greatly reducing the yields.be at least 2 inches in diameter. A Size of the berries often is greatlycrossarm 1 to 2 feet in length near increased when as much as half ofthe top of the stake often is used. the cane is cut off. The number ofCanes should be brought up either directlyfromtheground or berries always is reduced, however,spiraled around the stake and held when any portion of the cane is cutin place with 2 or 3 ties of strong off. twine. Twine may not be neces- Alltrailingblackberries need some kind of support for the fruit-sary if the canes are looped over ing canes. These supports usuallya crossarm and the ends twined into the canes below. aretrellises,but sometimes are stakes. Training to wire trellises Wire trellises usually are the Training to stakes most satisfactory since they last Stakes are used for various rea-longer and are less expensive than sons, usually to allow cultivation instakes. The end posts should be two directions. Sometimes stakesfirmly anchored and 6 inches or are desired when the planting is tomore in diameter. Cedar is most be of short duration, and stakessatisfactory, although other woods often are preferred in home gar-treated with wood preservative are dens. When the planting is to re-used occasionally. main for many years stakes of Between the end posts, other cedar or redwood are preferred.posts should be set about 12 to 20 Other woods should be treated withfeet apart, but can be at greater dis- a wood preservative.Sometimestances if 2 or 3 smaller stakes are metal stakes are used. placed in between the larger posts Stakes should be 5 to 6 feet aboveat distances of 10 to 12 feet apart.

16 Wires should be attached to thetightly on posts 16 to 20 feet apart. stakes in such a way that they canThe wire is usually about 5 or 51 be tightened easily each year be-feet above the ground. Canes are fore the canes are put up. The num-twisted along the wire in one or ber of wires depends on the growthbothdirections from theplant. habit of the variety. The most com-Ends of the canes may or may not mon trellis has 2 wires. A singlebe cut off. Canes of Boysen, Logan, strong wire is satisfactory underand Young plants, when set from 8 some conditions, and some growersto 12 feet apart in a row, need to be prefer2 to4 horizontal wires.left 9 to 12 feet in length if trained Where the fan system of trainingin one direction. is used 3 to 5 wires are desirable. One of the objections tothis Growers usually train canes tomethodisthat many canes are wires from February to April, sincewrapped aroundasinglewire. they do not always have otherUnless anextraheavy,tightly pressing work at this time, andstretched wireisused, thereis extralabormaybeavailable.danger of its breaking. Breaking Growers, however, should try toalso may occur if canes are not have all canes on the wires beforeproperly tied to the wire. How- leaf buds begin to expand, usuallyever, the high single-wire trellis late in March. They should be care-gives more room for hoeing and ful in separating the canes of eachtraining operations and all the ber- plant to prevent breakage. Canesries are in one place for the pickers. should be placed on the wire so sharp angles are avoided, and soTraining to 2-wire vertical trellis the canes do not shift in the wind. To prevent shifting, some growers The 2-wire vertical trellis is the most common in Oregon. Posts are interlock the canes, and others tieset 16 to 24 feet apart along the them to the wires with bindingrow. Large posts can be set farther twine. apart and smaller posts or stakes Training to single-wire trellis set every 10 to 12 feet between. The Many commercial growers preferend posts are well anchored or the single-wire trellis system ofbraced. Two wires are stretched training. A heavy wire is strungbetween posts, the upper wire 41 to 51 feet above ground and the lower wire about 2 feet below the upper one. Various methods of attaching the wire to the posts are used. The wire sometimes is fastened with staples or nails, but these sometimes pull out under a heavy load of fruit. To prevent this the upper

17 wire can be stretched along the topneed restretching each year before of the posts, or wires can be passedthe canes are trained. The method through holes bored in the posts, orof attaching the wire to the end they can rest in notches cut in theposts should be one that will allow side of the posts. Wires usuallythis tightening.

TrainingSystems There are various ways of train-to the top wire. One or two twists ing canes to the 2-wire trellis. Noare made around the wire and then definite names have beengiventhe canes are brought down to the these methods. Those given herelower wire and turned back toward seem most logical to the authors. the plant with one or two twists. Weave or wreath system The weave or wreath system has been used extensively in Oregon ,until recent years. A few canes, usually 1to 3, are taken together and passed from upper to lower wires and back againtoform circles or wreaths. All the space

The excess length of canes usually is cut off when it reaches the upright portion of the canes. The other half of the canes is looped on the other side of the plant in a similar manner, thus forming a double loop. Canes can be trained rather rapidly to this system, and between the wires isutilized inplantings have a uniform and at- this system. Sharp bends or curvestractive appearance. causingdamagetocanesare avoided. More time is consumed in Half loop or interlocking system training with this method than with The half loop or interlocking some of the others described. system is similar to the loop system exceptthatthecanesarenot Loop system turned back toward the plant. In- The loop system is probably thestead they are brought down to the most common at present. The caneslower wire and interlocked with from a single plant are divided intothe canes of the next plant. The two parts and each taken separatelyportion of the canes left at the

18 minals of the new canes just after they reach the top wire. Strong lateral branches then will be produced below the point of cutting, similar to those of the black raspberries. These lateral branches can be trained along the upper and lower wires at the time of training. Some branches coming out at right angles to the row may have to be point of interlocking iscutoff. cut off, as these canes cannot be Canes about 9 or 10 feet long arebent without breaking. left in this system when plants areFan system set about 8 feet apart. The fan system has been used Rope or 4-arm system where blackberryplants can be The rope or 4-arm system isplantedclosetogether andthe made by dividing the canes into 4canes allowed to grow long, so as parts and extending them along bothwires.Usuallythelonger canes are taken to the top wires. Canes can be cut off and tied at the point of intersection with those of the next plant or interlocked with them. This method usually re- quires more time in training than the two-loop systems. to get large yields. Plants are set in the row 3 or 4 feet apart. A trellis of 3 to 5 wires usually is necessary. Canes of plants set this close usually become entangled and are difficult to separate unless summer training is used. Therefore, the canes are trained up to the wires in the summer and cut off at the top wire. Usually only 2 or 3 canes are brought up at a time A variation of this method isand tied to each wire. When canes practical in handling the Brainerdare cut at the top wire in summer blackberry and other vigorous var-a number of branchcanesare ieties having a similar habit offorced out. This system of training growth. This system consists ofgreatly increases the amount of pinching or cutting off the ter-good fruiting canes and very high

19 yields can be expected. Much more labor, however,is required than with other systems, and unless the increased yield offsets the great laborcosts,thissystemisnot practical. Two-wire horizontal trellis The vigorous varieties, such as Evergreen, Himalaya, and Mam- moth, often are trained on 2 horizontal wires supported on crosspieces nailed to the posts. Thesethe lower pair placed about 2 feet crosspieces are 1 to 2 feet in length.below the upper pair. The canes Other crosspieces of wire or woodusually are placed on the upper are laid on the wires and the caneswires and the new growth is trained are placed on them. Placing thealong the lower wires. After har- crosspieces both above and belowvest or the following spring, these the canes will hold them in placenew canes either can be taken to securely. In this system the wiresthe upper wires or left to fruit on are about 4 or 5 feet above ground.the lower wires.Ifleft on the lower wires the new canes of the Four-wire horizontal trellis following year are trained to the The 4-wire horizontal trellis con-upper wires where they remain sists of 2 pairs of horizontal wires,until after they have fruited.

Effects of Growth Regulators Inrecentyearsresearchhaswith a small amount of solubilizer shown that certain chemical com-or spreading agent. This stock so- pounds applied at the proper timelution or commercial preparation is andconcentrationtofloweringused to make a spray solution con- plants increase size and yield ofsisting of 50 parts per million of blackberries. Many growers noweach of the two chemicals. The apply these materials as a standardmaterial is applied first to the en- practice because the cost is low andtire plant about 14 days after full increased yields are possible. bloom. A second applicationis Materials such as beta-naphth-made 10 days later. Sufficient spray oxyaceticacidandpara-chloro-to wet the foliage and flowers is phenoxy-acetic acid have been usedrequired. successfully and now are available Additional information and cur- from commercialsources.Equalrent changes in method or pro- parts of beta-naphthoxyacetic acidcedureshouldbesoughtfrom and para-chlorophenoxyacetic acidcounty extension agents before us- areformulated inethyl alcoholing these materials.

20 Harvesting Most varietiesofblackberriesmany pickers the grower or some begin to ripen during the latterother responsible person should be part of June, with the season con-in charge of the picking crew. All tinuing during most of July. Someberries picked should be of de- varieties ripen inlate July andsirable maturity. Over ripe,im- August, and the Evergreen ripensmature, decayed, and otherwise un- during August and early Septem-desirable berries should not be put ber. into the berry boxes. Varieties like Equipment for pickers usuallyBoysen usually are picked every 3 consists of a container, tied to theor 4 days. Longer intervals between waist, and holding 2 boxes ;or apicking are possible in the cooler carrier made with legs and set onweather that usually prevails when the ground. Berries are picked andtheEvergreenblackberriesare placed directly into the boxes orripening. the carrier. Packing sheds should be located It is important to protect berriesconveniently so carriers need not from the direct rays of the sunbe carried far and they should be after they have been picked, so car-arranged soalloperations there riers should be taken to the packingcan be done in the shade. In the shed as soon as they are filled. Thepacking shed berries are weighed amount of fruit picked by one per-and a record kept of the amount son varies greatly. Picking is easierpicked by each picker. The berry- and faster when berries are largeboxes are tranferred from the car- and stand out from the canes andriers to the crates. Ample space leaves. Varieties such as the Boy-should be provided for the stacking sen require about 4 or 5 pickersof filled crates in the shade until per acre throughout most of thethey are loaded for market. Some season. responsible person should be in Inlargeplantingsrequiringcharge of packing shed operations.

Insects and Diseases Insect pests and diseases are notInformation andcontrolrecom- as troublesome to trailing berries inmendations can be obtained from Oregon as they are to strawberriesthe Oregon Agricultural Experi- and raspberries. Certain insects andment Station or Agricultural Ex- diseases are present, however, andtensionAgentlocatedineach the grower should take all the nec-county. essary measures for their control.

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