DOCSLIB.ORG

Investigating the Links to Improved Student Learning Final Report of Research Findings

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Investigating the Links to Improved Student Learning Final Report of Research Findings LEARNING FROM LEADERSHIP PROJECT Investigating the Links to Improved Student Learning FINAL REPORT OF RESEARCH FINDINGS Karen Seashore Louis z Kenneth Leithwood z Kyla L. Wahlstrom z Stephen E. Anderson University of Minnesota University of Toronto Commissioned by Center for Applied Research Ontario Institute for The Wallace Foundation and Educational Improvement Studies in Education Copyright © 2010 Learning from Leadership: Investigating the Links to Improved Student Learning Final Report of Research to the Wallace Foundation University of Minnesota University of Toronto Karen Seashore Louis Kenneth Leithwood Kyla L. Wahlstrom Stephen E. Anderson Michael Michlin Blair Mascall Molly Gordon Tiiu Strauss Emanda Thomas Shawn Moore July 2010 Financial support for this research was provided by a generous grant from the Wallace Foundation. The findings, conclusions and recommendations herein are those of the authors and do not represent the official positions or policies of the funder or of the educational institutions of the researchers. Copyright ©2010 by the University of Minnesota.® All rights reserved. About the Organizations The Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement (CAREI) at the University of Minnesota links empirical research to real-world applications for educational leaders in Minnesota and across the United States. To do so, CAREI conducts comprehensive studies that provide information about challenges confronting schools and practices leading to educational improvement. For information on our technical reports and resources, please visit our Web site: www.cehd.umn.edu/CAREI/ The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto (OISE/UT) is the largest professional school of education in Canada and among the largest in the world. It offers initial teacher education, continuing education, and graduate programs, all sustained by faculty who are involved in research across the spectrum of issues connected with learning. Please visit our Web site for more information: www.oise.utoronto.ca The Wallace Foundation seeks to support and share effective ideas and practices that expand learning and enrichment opportunities for all people. Its three current objectives are: • Strengthen education leadership to improve student achievement • Enhance out-of-school learning opportunities • Expand participation in arts and culture For more information and research on these and other related topics, please visit our Knowledge Center at www.wallacefoundation.org. 2 Acknowledgments Without the careful reviews and long-standing support of our Wallace Foundation project officers, Dr. Mary Mattis and Dr. Edward Pauly, this report would not be the thorough and comprehensive document that has been produced. We value, in particular, all of the feedback that Mary gave us as we moved into our analysis phase, and her skill at creating consensus about what was needed, from both the perspective of the Wallace Foundation and from among the members of our research team. Our study is strong and comprehensive due to the incredible generosity of over a thousand educators and policy-makers who participated. We extend heartfelt thanks to the superintendents, principals, district administrators, teachers, school board and community members, and state leaders in education who welcomed us into their busy work lives, providing time to talk with us, to observe in classrooms, and to complete surveys, all of which gave us the most complete national data set ever assembled to better understand issues in educational leadership. Your anonymous contributions will be forever giving back, as leaders use this information to initiate and guide changes in our schools. This document would still be hidden somewhere in our computers if it were not for Gabrielle de Montmollin, whose editorial assistance and general ability to keep things rolling in a large and complex project have been valuable assets since this project began in 2003. A number of people who are not primary authors of this report made substantial contributions in a number of ways. At the University of Minnesota a very special thanks goes to Judy Meath who coordinated all survey data collection activities, all transcription oversight, and who was frequently a team leader for site visits. Dr. Beverly Dretzke provided excellent and thoughtful work in conducting path analyses of our data. Additional support from Dr. Judy Hornbacher and Diane Cirksena, with their grounded knowledge for on-site data collection, was invaluable. Graduate research assistants at the University of Minnesota have been essential partners as well in the data collection and analysis activities, including Sarah Berman-Young, Chad Schmidt, Monica Jacob, and Sarah Frederickson. Andrea Peterson provided excellent administrative and technical support for a myriad of clerical and computer-related tasks throughout the entire project. At the University of Toronto, Dr. Suzanne Stiegelbauer played a substantial role in site-visit data collection and analysis in Texas and New Mexico. Doris Jantzi, Robin Sacks, and Jing Ping Sun contributed significantly to the analysis of our survey results. We are also grateful to professor Stephen Jacobson (SUNY) for his help with first- round site visits in New York. Finally, successful execution of the site visits would not have possible without the assistance of several research assistants from the University of Toronto, including Leanne Foster, Carol Brayman, Carol Slater, and Joelle Rodway Macri. In the end, we produced a long and scholarly document, which was ably edited by Dr. Richard Western. From start to finish, this project has been about teamwork. We have been researching leadership, and the authors want to acknowledge the incredible effort that all have given in leading this journey. As a team, we have shared our wisdom, skills, and voices, with each person stepping forward when such leadership was most needed. We have grown in knowledge of ourselves and within our discipline. In the end, our deepest thanks goes to The Wallace Foundation for supporting us in this monumental work. 3 4 Contents Starting Points ................................................................................................................................7 Part One: What School Leaders Do to Improve Student Achievement .................................16 Preface ........................................................................................................................................16 1.1 Collective Leadership Effects on Teachers and Students ....................................................19 1.2 Shared Leadership: Effects on Teachers and Students of Principals and Teachers Leading Together .......................................................................................................37 1.3 Patterns of Distributed Leadership by Principals: Sources, Beliefs, Interactions, and Influences……………………………… ...................................................................................54 1.4 Leadership Practices Considered Instructionally Helpful by High Performing Principals and Teachers .............................................................................................................66 1.5 Instructional Leadership: Elementary vs. Secondary Principal and Teacher Interactions and Student Outcomes ...........................................................................................77 1.6 Poverty, Size, Level and Location: The Influence of Context Variables on What Leaders Do and What They Accomplish ..................................................................................94 1.7 A Synthesis of Implications for Policy and Practice about School Leadership ................103 Part Two: Districts and Their Leaders: How They Foster School Improvement and Student Learning ...............................................................................................................105 Preface ......................................................................................................................................105 2.1 How Districts Harness Family and Community Energies for School Improvement ........107 2.2 Principals‘ Efficacy: A Key to District Effects on Schools and Students ..........................127 2.3 How Districts Build Principals‘ Sense of Efficacy for School Improvement ....................148 2.4 Ensuring Productive Leadership Succession .....................................................................165 2.5 Data Use in Districts and Schools: Findings and Limitations ...........................................179 2.6 District Approaches to Improving Teaching and Learning ...............................................197 2.7 A Synthesis of Implications for Policy and Practice about District Leadership ...............215 Part Three: State Leadership and Relationships with Districts ...........................................218 Preface ......................................................................................................................................218 3.1 State Political Cultures and Policy Leadership .................................................................220 3.2 The Changing Leadership Role of State Education Agencies ...........................................231 3.3 District and School Responses to State Leadership ..........................................................246 3.4 State Leadership for School Improvement: A Synthesis of Implications for Policy and Practice ..................................................................................................................279
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Reimagining Instructional Leadership and Organizational Conditions for Improvement: Applied Research Transforming Early Education
    ESSENTIAL SUPPORTS FOR IMPROVING EARLY EDUCATION Reimagining Instructional Leadership and Organizational Conditions for Improvement: Applied Research Transforming Early Education DEBRA PACCHIANO, PH.D., REBECCA KLEIN, M.S., AND MARSHA SHIGEYO HAWLEY, M.ED. ESSENTIAL SUPPORTS FOR IMPROVING EARLY EDUCATION Acknowledgments We would like to acknowledge the many people who contributed to this work through their partnership, participation, support, and feedback. We gratefully acknowledge the US Department of Education for our Investing in Innovation award and the Stranahan Foundation and The Crown Family for their support and generous private funding match for the Professional Development Intervention (PDI). Throughout our work, we received ongoing support from the City of Chicago Department of Family & Support Services (DFSS) and the Office of Early Childhood Education at the Chicago Public Schools (CPS). Leaders in both agencies saw the vision of this work and participated on the PDI technical work group providing critical feedback. We also express our deep gratitude to all the executive directors and owners, center directors, direct supervisors, teachers and children who participated in the PDI. You are our improvement heroes! Thank you for your tremendous courage and steadfastness in learning how to provide teachers and staff with the sustained supports essential to their practice excellence and improvement. All along the way, we benefited from the support of many colleagues at the Ounce of Prevention Fund. In particular, we want to thank Claire Dunham, Portia Kennel, Cynthia Stringfellow, and Karen Freel who facilitated deep reflection and inquiry as we implemented and refined the intervention. Our work would not have been possible without the expert grant management support of Christopher Chantson and operations support of Mekeya Brown and Caroline McCoy.
    [Show full text]
  • Business, Leadership and Education: a Case for More Business Engagement in Higher Education Christopher J
    American Journal of Business Education – First Quarter 2019 Volume 12, Number 1 Business, Leadership And Education: A Case For More Business Engagement In Higher Education Christopher J. Hahn, Winona State University, USA Jeanine E. Gangeness, Winona State University, USA ABSTRACT Institutions of higher education prepare and develop students for the workforce, and in the coming decade, the challenge of workforce preparation will increase as the current workforce is retiring during a time of economic growth. Traditional higher education practice tasks faculty with developing appropriate curricula for students that will adequately prepare them for employment and leadership within an organization, but often this development lacks direct industry input into course content and design resulting in a gap between industry needs and graduate skills. This study addresses both current and perceived future educational and leadership needs of a workforce in an 11 county region in the north central United States. It explores potential strategies for mitigating the skills gap as it relates to organizational leadership skills, the evolving roles of faculty, and curriculum design and application, and develops a community alliance model for business, leadership, and education. Keywords: Higher Education; WorkForce Development; Skills Gap; Leadership; Practicum INTRODUCTION he purpose of this study was to explore the past, trending and current education and training needs of the workforce in an eleven-county region in the north-central United States. Exploring current T workForce needs enables the researcher to evaluate and synthesize opportunities and engage partners within higher education and the business community to Formulate education options to meet the requirements and needs in workplace environments.
    [Show full text]
  • Developing and Supporting Early Childhood Teacher Leaders: a Leadership Project Connecting University, Community and Public School Resources∗
    Connexions module: m36694 1 Developing and Supporting Early Childhood Teacher Leaders: A Leadership Project Connecting University, Community and Public School Resources∗ C. Robert Maxeld Julie Ricks-Doneen Barbara A. Klocko Lisa Sturges This work is produced by The Connexions Project and licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License y Abstract The empowerment of early childhood educators as teacher leaders can translate into eective instruc- tional practices that promote children's development. This paper aims to broaden the discussion about the relationship between early childhood educators and their traditional K-12 counterparts. We seek to present a wider exploration of what it takes to develop and maintain systemic changes in thinking the philosophies, the perceptions, the policies and the commitments that are necessary in creating sustained educational change. 1 The International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, Volume 6, Number 1, January - March, 2011, ISSN 2155-9635 note: This manuscript has been peer-reviewed, accepted, and endorsed by the National Council of Professors of Educational Administration (NCPEA) as a signicant contribution to the scholarship ∗Version 1.2: Jan 18, 2011 11:40 am US/Central yhttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://cnx.org/content/m36694/1.2/ Connexions module: m36694 2 and practice of education administration. In addition to publication in the Connexions Content Commons, this module is published in the International Journal of Educational Leadership Prepa- ration,1 Volume 6, Number 1 (January - March, 2011), ISSN 2155-9635. Formatted and edited in Connexions by Theodore Creighton and Brad Bizzell, Virginia Tech and Janet Tareilo, Stephen F. Austin State University.
    [Show full text]
  • Progressive Education: Why It's Hard to Beat, but Also Hard to Find
    Bank Street College of Education Educate Progressive Education in Context College History and Archives 2015 Progressive Education: Why it's Hard to Beat, But Also Hard to Find Alfie ohnK Follow this and additional works at: https://educate.bankstreet.edu/progressive Part of the Curriculum and Instruction Commons, Curriculum and Social Inquiry Commons, Educational Methods Commons, and the Social and Philosophical Foundations of Education Commons Recommended Citation Kohn, A. (2015). Progressive Education: Why it's Hard to Beat, But Also Hard to Find. Bank Street College of Education. Retrieved from https://educate.bankstreet.edu/progressive/2 This Book is brought to you for free and open access by the College History and Archives at Educate. It has been accepted for inclusion in Progressive Education in Context by an authorized administrator of Educate. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Progressive Education Why It’s Hard to Beat, But Also Hard to Find By Alfie Kohn If progressive education doesn’t lend itself to a single fixed definition, that seems fitting in light of its reputation for resisting conformity and standardization. Any two educators who describe themselves as sympathetic to this tradition may well see it differently, or at least disagree about which features are the most important. Talk to enough progressive educators, in fact, and you’ll begin to notice certain paradoxes: Some people focus on the unique needs of individual students, while oth- ers invoke the importance of a community of learners; some describe learning as a process, more journey than destination, while others believe that tasks should result in authentic products that can be shared.[1] What It Is Despite such variations, there are enough elements on which most of us can agree so that a common core of progressive education emerges, however hazily.
    [Show full text]
  • Contemporary Educational Leadership and Its Role in Converting Traditional Schools Into Professional Learning Communities
    Instructions for authors, subscriptions and further details: http://ijelm.hipatiapress.com Contemporary Educational Leadership and its Role in Converting Traditional Schools into Professional Learning Communities. Mofareh Alkrdem1 1) King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia. Date of publication: July 16th, 2020 Edition period: July 2019 - July 2020 To cite this article: Alkrdem, M. (2020). Contemporary Educational Leadership and its Role in Converting Traditional Schools into Professional Learning Communities. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management. 8 (2), 144- 171. doi: 10.17583/ijelm.2020.4298 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.17583/ijelm.2020.4298 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE The terms and conditions of use are related to the Open Journal System and to Creative Commons Attribution License (CCAL). IJELM – International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management Vol 8 No. 2 July 2020 pp.144-171 Contemporary Educational Leadership and its Role in Converting Traditional Schools into Professional Learning Communities. Mofareh Alkrdem _ King Khalid University Saudi Arabia Abstract The dynamics of school as a single source of knowledge have changed, which eliminate the organizational obstacles that hinder its learning process and endeavor towards the construction of a leadership competence. The ability of an organization to construct and support the professional learning communities depends on its ability to improve and support an individual. This study therefore aims to investigate the role of contemporary educational leadership in converting traditional schools into professional learning communities. The current study has adopted one of the developmental approaches that simultaneously represent contemporary trends in improving the school. An increase is found among the school staff related to the improvement and development of the project concerning its planning, organizing, implementation, and evaluation.
    [Show full text]
  • Educational Leadership
    EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP A PROGRAM DESIGNED FOR WORKING PROFESSIONALS • Courses offered in the evening with 8-week • Transcripts reviewed for previously sessions during the fall, spring, and summer. completed, transferrable graduate courses. • School-based practicums with opportunities • Record of significant job placements. to work with experienced educational • Responsive and supportive advising. leaders. • Options to add additional certificates to • Flexible program completion plans. existing licenses. • Contemporary course content. EDGEWOOD COLLEGE QUALITY • Courses are taught by academically and • Students have an opportunity to meet one- professionally qualified faculty who combine on-one with instructors and advisors to discuss sound theoretical knowledge with practical individual goals, interests and special needs. grounded instruction. • Our small class size promotes a sense of • Instructors recognize the knowledge and community and facilitates individualized perspective that students contribute to the instruction. learning process by encouraging engagement • You’ll work with experienced educational in the classroom. leaders who offer responsive and supportive • Edgewood College has been recognized advising and are dedicated to helping you as a “Best in the Midwest” College by the meet your individual and professional goals. Princeton Review and was named to Forbes Magazine’s Best Colleges List. LEADERSHIP FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE, EDUCATIONAL EQUITY, AND CULTURALLY & LINGUISTICALLY RESPONSIVENESS The MSN Educational leaders need to be responsive to the changing demographics of the schools and communitites. The Educational Leadership program at Edgewood College is designed for current educators who want to become transformational leaders and make an impact in their communities. Students will explore educational inequities, utilize social justice frameworks, and develop equity analysis plans as part of their coursework.
    [Show full text]
  • Innovative Pathways to School Leadership (PDF)
    SM a o v t i o n n n s I i n n o E i t d u c a Innovative Pathways to School Leadership u.s. department of education office of innovation and improvement SMSM a o v t i o n n n s I i n n o E i t d u c a Innovative Pathways to School Leadership u.s. department of education office of innovation and improvement This report was produced under U.S. Department of Education Contract No. ED-01-CO-0012, Task Order D010, with WestEd. Sharon Horn served as the contracting officer’s representative. U.S. Department of Education Rod Paige Secretary Office of Innovation and Improvement Nina S. Rees Assistant Deputy Secretary Michael J. Petrilli Associate Assistant Deputy Secretary Patricia Gore Director, Teacher Quality Programs December 2004 This report is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part is granted. While permission to reprint this publication is not necessary, the citation should be: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Innovation and Improve- ment, Innovations in Education: Innovative Pathways to School Leadership, Washington, D.C., 2004. To order copies of this report, write to: ED Pubs, Education Publications Center, U.S. Department of Education, P.O. Box 1398, Jessup, MD 20794-1398; or fax your request to: (301) 470-1244; or e-mail your request to: [email protected]; or order online at: http://www.edpubs.org/; or call in your request toll-free: 1-877-433-7827 (1-877-4-ED-PUBS).
    [Show full text]
  • Research on Characteristics of Effective Early Childhood
    RESEARCH ON CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE EARLY CHILDHOOD LEADERS: EMERGENCE OF RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of California State Polytechnic University, Pomona In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education In Educational Leadership By Mastaneh Hazegh 2019 DEDICATION Early childhood educators play an important role in children’s future success. They do more than arts and crafts projects all day. They lay a foundation for children’s learning and make lifelong impressions on countless young lives. Despite the important nature of what early childhood educators do, they are underappreciated. Work within the early childhood education sector continues to be undervalued and underestimated. I’d like to dedicate this study to all early childhood educators, especially those who I have had the privilege to work with side by side for the past 18 years. Those who love to care for children, bring passion to their classroom, love to watch children’s wonder grow, have patience, dedication, and are sensitive to children’s needs. I wish for the day that they gain the professional identity that they deserve. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I embarked on this journey when most people my age start planning for retirement. It was a lifelong dream that I had postponed for many reasons in the past. I thank god for making this difficult and rewarding experience possible. I also would not have made it through this journey without the support of my family, friends, colleagues, and the dedicated faculty of Cal Poly Pomona. I would like to thank Dr. Navarro, the chair of my committee, Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • Preparing School Leaders for Young Learners in the United States
    Preparing school leaders for young learners 37 Preparing School Leaders for Young Learners in the United States Maria Boeke Mongillo Central Connecticut State University Abstract In the United States there has been a recent movement to expand access to preschool for children aged 3 to 4 through “universal pre-k” in states that fund programs for all age-eligible students. This has caused an increasing number of preschool programs to be housed in public schools and led by principals who often have little or no experience or training in early childhood. At the same time, the Global Education Reform Movement (GERM) is taking hold and pressuring schools to utilize educational methods that are opposed to best practices in early childhood education. In response to current research about teaching and learning and challenges facing schools, the Professional Standards for Educational Leadership 2015 (PSEL 2015) were created to influence how leaders are prepared, hired, evaluated, and supported in their work. This article brings together these three current forces in public education in the US, and describes how they complement and conflict with each other. The underlying premise of this work is (a) to meet the PSEL 2015, leaders will need a greater understanding of early childhood education; (b) by understanding early childhood education, leaders will have an expanded framework from which to make decisions about how to address GERM; and (c) leaders need to find appropriate ways to respond to GERM in order to meet the PSEL 2015. Thus, developing a force of school leaders who understand and support best practices in ECE may ultimately improve learning outcomes for all students.
    [Show full text]
  • Building a Common Project by Promoting Pedagogical Coordination and Educational Leadership for School Improvement: a Structural Equation Model
    social sciences $€ £ ¥ Article Building a Common Project by Promoting Pedagogical Coordination and Educational Leadership for School Improvement: A Structural Equation Model Inmaculada García-Martínez 1 , Pedro J. Arrifano Tadeu 2 , Miguel Pérez-Ferra 1 and José Luis Ubago-Jiménez 3,* 1 Department of Pedagogy, University of Jaén, 23071 Jaén, Spain; [email protected] (I.G.-M.); [email protected] (M.P.-F.) 2 Department of Education, Polytechnic Institute of Guarda, 6300-559 Guarda, Portugal; [email protected] 3 Department of Didactics of Musical, Plastic and Corporal Expression, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-958-246-685 Received: 29 March 2020; Accepted: 13 April 2020; Published: 14 April 2020 Abstract: Leadership and teaching practices are the most important factors that affect student learning. Many studies have pointed out the combination of both of them in a common project as a guarantee to achieve school improvement. The present study sets out to define and contrast an explanatory model of pedagogical coordination as a function of management leadership, collaborative working, setting common goals, participation in decision making, involvement of teaching staff and professional development of teachers, in a sample of pedagogical leaders from secondary schools. A final sample of 547 participants from Granada and Jaen (Spain) was obtained. An instrument adapted from the DLI questionnaire (Hulpia 2009) was administered. Path analysis was conducted, which displayed good model fit for all considered indices (χ2 = 10.937; df = 2.187; p < 0.001; CFI = 0.998 TLI = 0.993; GFI = 0.994; RMSEA = 0.047). The main result was the identification of positive relationships between all dimensions of the questionnaire.
    [Show full text]
  • Educational Leadership
    MASTER OF EDUCATION IN Educational Leadership Get More Aha Moments Degrees Conferred in the U.S. American College of Education is founded by educators, for educators. We offer accredited online master’s and Master of Education * Based on 2012-13 Conferred Degrees IPEDS data doctorate degrees, as well as certificate programs for http://nces.ed.gov/IPEDS/datacenter educators and paths to new teacher licensure. As the fourth largest conferrer of Master of Education degrees M.Ed. in Educational Leadership in the nation,* we have more than 20 programs to COST TOTAL choose from based on your interests and career CREDITS PER CREDIT TUITION aspirations. 34 $235 $7,990 As a college founded by educators, for educators, we know the best person to lead a school and to inspire M.Ed. TuitionM.Ed. Comparison Tuition Comparison $25,092 change on a broader scale is a former teacher— $20,424 someone who knows what it’s like to be in front of the $19,570 $18,900 classroom and wants to see every student have that $17,325 ‘Aha’ moment. $11,560 With your master’s degree in Educational Leadership, Under you learn how to set the tone for your school and district $8,000 and become a role model for both teachers and students in your community as you work to provide a safe and supportive learning environment and to connect with Western Walden University of Grand Capella Concordia Governor’s University Phoenix Canyon University University community leaders. By becoming an educational leader, University University Based on information provided on each institution’s website as of November 2015.
    [Show full text]
  • Effective Leadership Practices Leading to Distributed Leadership
    33 Effective leadership practices leading to distributed leadership Rachel Denee and Kate Thornton Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Abstract Leadership within the early childhood education (ECE) sector in New Zealand is both positionally assigned and a required practice of all teachers. Within this context, distributed leadership – where all team members have the opportunity to lead – is increasingly seen as an effective leadership model. This article reports on a study whose aim was to discover practices of effective positional leaders in facilitating distributed leadership. A nationwide survey was carried out in Aotearoa New Zealand to capture a picture of current perceptions of ECE teachers and positional leaders about distributed leadership for professional learning. Subsequently, leadership practices for distributed leadership in three previously-identified high quality ECE services were investigated through individual and group interviews. The analysis of literature, survey and interview findings from this study led to a framework of effective leadership practice, consisting of: mentoring and coaching; fostering relational trust; and creating vision and designing supportive structures. Keywords: Distributed leadership; early childhood education; professional learning communities; coaching and mentoring; relational trust; professional learning Leadership within the New Zealand ECE context Leadership within the Aotearoa New Zealand early childhood education (ECE) context has both positional and distributed elements.
    [Show full text]