Preparing school leaders for young learners 37

Preparing School Leaders for Young Learners in the United States

Maria Boeke Mongillo Central Connecticut State University

Abstract In the United States there has been a recent movement to expand access to preschool for children aged 3 to 4 through “universal pre-k” in states that fund programs for all age-eligible students. This has caused an increasing number of preschool programs to be housed in public schools and led by principals who often have little or no experience or training in early childhood. At the same time, the Global Education Reform Movement (GERM) is taking hold and pressuring schools to utilize educational methods that are opposed to best practices in early childhood education. In response to current research about teaching and learning and challenges facing schools, the Professional Standards for Educational Leadership 2015 (PSEL 2015) were created to influence how leaders are prepared, hired, evaluated, and supported in their work. This article brings together these three current forces in public education in the US, and describes how they complement and conflict with each other. The underlying premise of this work is (a) to meet the PSEL 2015, leaders will need a greater understanding of early childhood education; (b) by understanding early childhood education, leaders will have an expanded framework from which to make decisions about how to address GERM; and (c) leaders need to find appropriate ways to respond to GERM in order to meet the PSEL 2015. Thus, developing a force of school leaders who understand and support best practices in ECE may ultimately improve learning outcomes for all students.

Keywords preschool education, leadership, global education reform movement, early childhood education

Introduction In the United States, preschool programs for transportation. Though the National Association children aged 3 and 4 vary significantly. for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Children may attend programs housed in public offers accreditation of preschool programs and schools, in private or community centers, or in learning standards for infants, toddlers, and private homes. Some children may not go to preschoolers, and the individual states have preschool at all, entering kindergarten at age 5 their own learning standards and regulations for or first grade at age 6 with no formal schooling early childhood programs, in practice preschool experience. The decision to enroll children in a programs vary widely in terms of instruction, preschool program is made by parents and ______Maria Boeke Mongillo, Department of Educational guardians, and often depends on complex Leadership, Policy, and Instructional Technology. Central factors such as accessibility, cost, program Connecticut State University, 1615 Stanley Street structure (e.g., full or half day), location, and New Britain, CT 06050 Email: [email protected] ______Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Mongillo, Maria B. (2017). Preparing school leaders for young learners in the United States. Global Education Review, 4 (3). 37-55. 38 Global Education Review 4(3) continues to demonstrate its importance on later distinctive developmental period, and preparation and certification of staff, and developmentally appropriate practices for resources. designing curriculum, instruction, and There has been a recent movement in the US to assessment (Goncu et al., 2014). Principals who expand preschool programs as research learning are charged with leading preschool programs outcomes for students. As of the 2016-17 fiscal indicate they need more training in areas of ECE year, 44 states provided some level of state curriculum and the developmental milestones of funding for preschool programs and there has young children, appropriate behavioral been a 47 percent increase in state pre-k funding expectations and disciplinary practices for over the last five years (Diffley, Parker, & preschoolers, and in how to provide Atchison, 2017). Many states are considering instructional supervision to their ECE staff “universal pre-k,” a model where states support (Bish, Shore, & Shue, 2011; Shore, Shue, & financing of preschool for all age-eligible Lambert, 2010). Additionally, principals express children regardless of a child’s ability level or concerns about the particular licensing and family income (Colker, 2008), though to date regulations that pertain to younger students, as only three states have fully espoused this model well as how to properly interact with the many (Mead, 2015). As this increase in early learning outside agencies that support families and programs occurs, more preschool programs are children (Bish, Shore, & Shue, 2011; Shore, being housed in public schools and led by public Shue, & Lambert, 2010). Though states do school leaders (Loewenberg, 2016; Shore, Shue, require professional learning experiences for & Lambert, 2010; Szekely, 2013). school leaders, they rarely focus on helping Public school principals, however, are principals to develop the knowledge and skills unlikely to have had any training or experiences needed to strengthen their ability to lead ECE with early childhood programs (Bish, Shore, & programs (Lieberman, 2017). Shue, 2011; Goncu, Main, Perone, & Tozer, 2014; While the US is considering expansion of Lieberman, 2016; Mead, 2011; Shore, Shue, & preschool access, the global education reform Lambert, 2010). Though state principal movement (GERM) is taking greater hold and licensure standards require a higher level of shifting work in schools to learning focused on education and both teaching and clinical basics, prescription, standardized testing, and experience, the vast majority of school test-based accountability (Sahlberg, 2012). leadership preparation programs, state licensure Sahlberg (2011) described six principles of exams, and certification prerequisites do not GERM: standardization in and of education, mandate familiarity with early childhood topics increased focus on literacy and numeracy, (Clarke Brown, Squires, Connors-Tadros, & teaching for predetermined results, transfer of Horowitz, 2014; Lieberman, 2017). innovation from corporations to education, test- Novice principals suggest knowledge and based accountability policies, and increased skills related to human relations, personnel, governmental control of schooling. These educational leadership, and curriculum as most principles conflict with creating well-rounded important for their work in schools (Petzko, citizens and sustaining school improvement 2008), and these areas may need special (Robertson, 2015). consideration for ECE programs (Mead, 2011). Additionally, these practices are opposed Adding a preschool program is more complex to the traditionally holistic, exploratory, and than simply adding one more grade level, as it developmental nature of ECE. Thus the concern requires principals to have an understanding of becomes the impact that GERM will have on teachers with different certifications, a pre-k programs if school leaders do not

Preparing school leaders for young learners 39 understand the unique learning needs of early preparation programs and professional learning childhood students. Public educational policy for practicing school administrators in the US. has a significant influence on the practices of The PSEL 2015 were created to respond to principals (Provost, Boscardin, & Wells, 2010), current research regarding improving student and leaders will have to address GERM-related learning and challenges facing education such as policies in their schools. Without familiarity with globalization and decreasing school budgets. By ECE principles and practices, principals may providing research-based guidelines, the PSEL rely on their knowledge of, and experiences with, 2015 hope to influence how leaders are upper grades as they implement GERM-based prepared, hired, evaluated, and supported in policies (Goncu et al., 2014). Given the current their work. social and political climate in the US, leaders The PSEL 2015 are organized around ten may feel compelled to push students to engage interconnected domains that reflect research- with activities and topics that are not and practice-based qualities and values that developmentally appropriate for their learning impact student learning. The standards are as needs, may pressure teachers to structure their follows: classrooms, instruction, and assessment in ways 1. Mission, Vision, and Core Values that contradict best practices for ECE (Mead, 2. Ethics and Professional Norms 2011), or focus on practices to improve 3. Equity and Cultural Responsiveness standardized test scores (Goncu et al., 2014). 4. Curriculum, Instruction and Assessment This gap in school leader knowledge also 5. Community of Care and Support for needs to be addressed if leaders are to meet the Students Professional Standards for Educational Leaders 6. Professional Capacity of School Personnel (National Policy Board for Educational 7. Professional Community for Teachers and Administration, 2015), a set of national Staff guidelines for how leaders go about their work of 8. Meaningful Engagement of Families and supporting student learning. Leaders who are Community not well-versed in the needs of young learners 9. Operations and Management can neither fully meet the standards nor reach 10. School Improvement the goal of educating and providing equitable opportunities for all students. Connecting ideas The PSEL 2015 state they are not a list of about best practices for ECE with the prescribed actions leaders should take in order Professional Standards for Educational Leaders to improve student achievement, but rather they may provide some strategies for educational are expectations for leaders to adapt and fit into leaders, leadership preparation programs, and their specific school and district contexts. policy makers to respond to the GERM in ways Likewise, they recognize that the that benefit and support all learners. implementation of the standards may have

particular issues or challenges in different Professional Standards for situations, and thus need to be thoughtfully Educational Leaders applied. Principals who have preschool The National Policy Board for Educational programs in their buildings may need to Administration (NPBEA) developed the consider how ECE should influence their Professional Standards for Educational Leaders understanding of and ability to apply the 2015 (PSEL 2015). The NPBEA is a group standards in their daily work. comprised of nine educational organizations responsible for the accreditation of leadership

40 Global Education Review 4(3) PSEL 2015 Overarching Theme 2. Development and learning proceed at Though the PSEL 2015 are comprised of ten varying rates. different standard domains, they are guided by 3. Development and learning result from an an overarching theme: leaders must focus on interaction of maturation and experience. supporting the whole child1 and the needs of 4. Early experiences have profound effects on each individual student. This idea aligns well development and learning. with ECE as preschool teachers generally 5. Development proceeds toward greater recognize they are helping students to grow complexity, self-regulation, and symbolic or cognitively, physically, socially, and emotionally, representational capacities. and this is reflected in most preschool 6. Children develop best when they have secure frameworks or standards for learning relationships. documents. However, it is unlikely school 7. Development and learning occur in and are principals have had exposure to these early influenced by multiple social and cultural childhood frameworks and standards, or to the contexts. theories of child development and learning that 8. Children learn in a variety of ways. have shaped the assumptions that form their 9. Play is an important vehicle for developing foundations (Bish, Shore, & Shue, 2011; Goncu, self-regulation and promoting language, Main, Perone, & Tozer, 2014; Lieberman, 2016; cognition, and social competence. Mead, 2011; Shore, Shue, & Lambert, 2010). 10. Development and learning advance when This gap in leader knowledge is of concern children are challenged. because school leaders play an important role in 11. Children’s experiences shape their shaping the culture of the school, instructional motivation and approaches to learning. practices, and student outcomes (Szekely, 2013), and leaders have been integral to the success of In addition to the twelve principles, ECE programs (Ritchie, Phillips, & Garrett, NAEYC (2009) provided guidelines to help 2016). educators apply DAP in their classrooms in five

key areas of practice: creating a caring Developmentally Appropriate community of learners, teaching to enhance Practice development and learning, planning curriculum In the US there is a set of guiding principles of to achieve important goals, assessing children’s early learning put forth by NAEYC (2009) called development and learning, and establishing Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP). reciprocal relationships with families. These principles are applicable to all aspects of These DAP principles and guidelines are ECE across its varied settings. DAP connects largely in contradiction to GERM. While DAP theories of child development, ideas about recognizes that learning occurs when children children’s social and cultural contexts, and are provided challenging work and held to high knowledge of individual children into a set of 12 standards, it also notes children develop at principles for educators to consider when differing rates based in part on their individual working with children from birth through age maturity levels, and experiences. Thus, to follow eight. The 12 principles of DAP (NAEYC, n.d.) the DAP principles and guidelines, teachers have include: to provide individualized learning experiences All areas of development and learning are for students based upon their needs, readiness, important. and abilities. GERM principles, on the other hand, begin with the understanding that clear 1. Learning and development follow and high standards are important for student sequences.

Preparing school leaders for young learners 41 learning, but encourage standardization and however, require the freedom to create or select homogenization of teaching and learning the best instructional practices and learning (Robertson, 2015). activities, especially given the wide range of DAP also espouses educating the whole student abilities they are likely to face in their child, understanding that young children need classes (Goldstein, 2008). opportunities to grow cognitively, physically, DAP guidelines also specify the need to socially, and emotionally. It is the job of the use assessment as a tool for planning, educator to provide learning experiences in the instruction, and evaluation. The guidelines classroom that support all areas of development. support sound assessment that takes into GERM, however, focuses on basic skills, consideration individual needs, such as the particularly literacy and numeracy (Sahlberg, cultural contexts of the student or whether a 2011). Further, the emphasis on basic skills child is an English language learner. opposes the DAP premise that young children Additionally, the guidelines encourage the use of acquire knowledge and skills through play, i.e., multiple modes of assessment including that children learn best when they experience performance-based tasks, teacher observations, hands-on, engaging activities that tap into their family checklists or interviews, and analysis of natural curiosity in a social learning student work, while GERM pushes schools to environment (Morrow, 2009). The teaching of rely on standardized testing and to measure basic skills is often characterized by rote teacher accountability using test scores memorization, drills, and completion of (Sahlberg, 2011). While this method of worksheets, practices that are inappropriate for calculating teacher effectiveness can be preschool children, and which may not be most troublesome at all grade levels, it is particularly effective for encouraging student engagement at so in ECE. With the focus on the development of any level. the whole child, many skills and abilities are not Furthermore, DAP recognizes learning as captured in standardized scores, thus making it a function of both maturation and experience, very difficult to measure teacher success in noting each child reaches developmental terms of numerical testing results. milestones at his or her own pace depending on internal and external stimuli. While there are Standards Not Standardization expected ages by which children typically master Because of the contradictions noted above, some certain cognitive, physical, behavioral, and social ECE groups have adopted a stance that opposes skills, they are marked by a range rather than a GERM and its focus on standardization while hard and fast age (Sousa, 2011). To meet these remaining committed to high-quality standards varied individual student needs, early educators, for young learners and ECE professionals. The using a DAP approach, work to recognize the tension between the “colliding worlds” (McCabe range of developmental levels in their & Sipple, 2011, p. 8) of DAP and GERM, the classrooms and adjust instruction accordingly. apparently opposing forces of what constitutes GERM expects teachers to use safe, low risk good individual learning experiences for young strategies to achieve pre-determined results. It children found in ECE settings and the pressure diminishes teacher innovation and creativity, for standardization and accountability found in and undermines teachers’ autonomy, which other school settings, often leaves preschool and contradicts the belief that teachers are trained kindergarten teachers struggling to respond professionals who know what is best for the (Goldstein, 2008; McCabe & Sipple, 2011). ECE students they encounter in their classrooms teachers may feel the fundamental principles every day (Sahlberg, 2011). ECE teachers, that underlie their practices are being called into

42 Global Education Review 4(3) question (McCabe & Sipple, 2011). advocated that ECE professionals should have a According to Katz (2015), however, deep knowledge of content and a thorough framing the ECE debate around these two issues understanding of how young children learn. This limits the conversation. The idea of having would allow practitioners to make informed and common goals is not the concern, but it is the responsible choices about their teaching types of goals set for children that matter. Katz practices and how they meet the specific needs (2015, p. 2) advocated for “intellectual goals” of their students. which encourage reasoning, questioning, Furthermore, critics of DAP suggest it analyzing, and predicting, over “academic goals” actually espouses some of the fundamental ideas which support learning individual pieces of that underlie GERM. Like GERM, DAP has information that often relate to numeracy and become a globalized model for ECE (Penn, literacy in the early grades. Likewise, the NAEYC 2002). By dividing children’s experience into the (2002) and Defending the Early Years (DEY, categories of physical, cognitive, and social- 2015) both describe how standards in ECE can emotional development, DAP standardizes be a meaningful way to ensure high-quality (Penn, 2002) and “homogenises” children learning experiences for all children. ECE (Woodhead, 2006, p. 17). The idea that children standards need to be developmentally pass through specific stages of development appropriate and assessed in ways that discounts the significant impact of society and accommodate the many variations in children’s culture, and the influence a child’s race, backgrounds, languages, and experiences; ethnicity, gender, socio-economic status, and developed in conjunction with ECE other factors have on the growth trajectory of a professionals; and implemented in the child (Woodhead, 2006). It has also led to classroom by well-prepared and supported increased control of ECE programs and less teachers (DEY, 2015; NAEYC, 2002). Meier teacher autonomy, encouraging a mindset that (2002) pronounced this idea in the broader all children follow similar patterns of educational systems as focusing on standards development and that they can and should be not standardization. expected to have similar academic outcomes if Goldstein (2008), conversely, argued that the right educational treatment is applied (Penn, the socio-political factors that influence a child 2002). Though these similarities exist, DAP at must be incorporated into the classroom in its foundation supports learning through play order for practices to be developmentally and social interactions with peers and adults, appropriate. She viewed GERM and the opposes rote memorization and standardized standardization movement as part of those testing, and encourages a holistic view of larger political and social forces that affect children, all of which contrast GERM. children. Thus she suggested the types of teaching practices and philosophies espoused by The Intersection of ECE, PSEL GERM should be incorporated into the ECE 2015, and GERM classroom in order meet a fundamental goal of Best practices for ECE as expressed in the DAP DAP which is to help children learn to navigate principles and guidelines oppose many of the their larger world. Goldstein (2008) warned, ideas and assumptions embedded in GERM. In however, that this rationale could be used to order for school leaders to fully realize the justify ECE classrooms using the worksheets and nature and quality of work outlined by the PSEL seatwork found in upper grades rather than the 2015, they must understand instructional active, experiential activities that foster the practices that meet the needs of all learners, growth of the whole child. To avoid this, she including those for preschool students. Thus,

Preparing school leaders for young learners 43 providing leaders with a knowledge of DAP and rather than as an optional learning experience. other best practices in ECE related to children’s To be successful, the young students and their cognitive, physical, and social-emotional teachers must be valued as equal members of the development, play-based learning, and the school community and full participants in all assessment of young children may also help aspects of school life both within and outside the leaders discover how to implement instructional classroom. Goncu et al. (2014) suggested that practices to respond to GERM by adapting ECE principals are more likely to fully integrate ECE philosophies and practices for use in upper level into the life of the school when they have a deep classrooms. The importance of leaders understanding of its significance, and that understanding ECE to fully meet each standard principals who are unable to incorporate ECE and the way in which fully meeting each may harm program effectiveness. standard prevents GERM from taking over Creating a comprehensive mission, vision, varies in each of the ten PSEL 2015. and core values that include early childhood programs may be one strategy for leaders to Standard 1: Mission, Vision, and Core mediate the influence of GERM. For a leader to Values fully meet Standard 1 if they have an ECE “Effective educational leaders develop, program in their school, the mission, vision, and advocate, and enact a shared mission, vision, core values must reflect DAP and the holistic and core values of high-quality education and philosophies underlying instructional practices academic success and well-being of each in ECE. If the leader uses the mission to promote student” (NPBEA, 2015, p. 9). academic success and well-being of students, works to strategically implement actions to Included in this standard are the ideas achieve the vision, and models and pursues the that the school’s mission, vision, and core values mission, vision, and core values in all aspects of drive the all efforts of the school and every leadership, the leader will be creating an aspect of the leader’s work. These defining environment and encouraging instructional statements are not merely words on paper, but practices supported by DAP. In this way, the rationale behind, and impetus for, all school including ECE in the mission and vision can actions and decisions. A key role of any leader is support all learners. the development of the school climate and culture (Peterson & Deal, 1998), and the Standard 2: Ethics and Professional mission, vision, and core values are a visible Norms description of the leader’s ideas of what the “Effective educational leaders act ethically and culture should be. according to professional norms to promote The PSEL 2015 also suggest the mission each student’s academic success and well-being” and vision need to be living statements, adjusted (NPBEA, 2015, p. 10). to meet the needs of students and the school as they change. One such change in a school and its One part of this standard addresses the student population may be the addition of a pre- need for leaders to act in ways that are k program. According to Mead (2012), the transparent and fair, and that promote inclusion of preschool and kindergarten in the collaboration, trust, learning, and continuous school’s mission and vision statements are an improvement. This standard also regards important part of creating an instructional schools as mechanisms for promoting social climate and culture that support early learning. justice and equity, and assigns leaders Principals need to view early learning as an responsibility for each student’s success as integral part of the larger continuum of learning, learners and as well-rounded individuals.

44 Global Education Review 4(3) In order for leaders to behave ethically in appropriate, holding them to behavioral their guidance of preschool programs, leaders standards not aligned to their maturational must have knowledge of young children’s level, or assessing them in ways that are unable developmental stages and needs. By advocating to accurately capture their knowledge and skills. for and developing high-quality preschool A leader who understands young children and programs leaders can potentially support strives to act ethically will support instruction in positive learning progress and lower the need for and hire teachers for early childhood classrooms expensive interventions later in a student’s keeping in mind each young student’s learning academic career (Szekely, 2013). The decisions a needs. principal makes about early learning programs under his or her control can have significant Standard 3: Equity and Cultural impact later in a student’s life. Responsiveness Additionally, principals confess they often “Effective educational leaders strive for equity of hire teachers for ECE classrooms based more educational opportunity and culturally upon personality traits than content knowledge responsive practices to promote each student’s (Cook, 2016). This can be especially troubling in academic success and well-being” (NPBEA, a subject like math, where content-specific 2015, p. 11). knowledge and skills follow a linear trajectory To meet this standard, leaders must get to (Mongillo, 2017). To be successful, ECE know their students’ strengths, diversity, and teachers need to understand how the topics they culture and accept them as assets rather than teach relate to and lay the foundation for more deficits to learning. Additionally, leaders need to complicated ideas later. Also, without a deep challenge stereotypes about and maintain high knowledge of content, ECE teachers may not be standards for all students regardless of race, able to identify and correct student class, culture, gender, sexual orientation, misconceptions in effective ways. Furthermore, disability, or special status. principals admit they often hire teachers with While having educators approach student broader certification grade spans2 because it diversity as a strength and asset is important for allows them more flexibility in moving them to all students, it is especially so for young learners. other classrooms as needed from year to year Young children observe the differences among (Cook, 2016). If leaders have a comprehension of people and form attitudes about different groups the significance of early learning and the (York, 2003). Preschool age children are complexity involved in teaching young children, developing a sense of their own and others’ they may be more likely to make informed and identities, trying to define how they view ethical choices about distribution of resources themselves and others (Hendrick & Wiseman, and hiring teachers. 2011). This suggests even young children need To meet Standard 2, a leader must act access to a culturally responsive and ethically in all areas of leadership, including multicultural education to help them develop the relationship-building, decision-making, and knowledge and skills they will need to function resource distribution. The six principles of in a diverse, global society as adults. GERM oppose best practices in ECE, which Additionally, the US has shifting racial and suggests that ethical leaders will need to be ethnic demographics, with an increasing aware of that influence if they are going to meet percentage of non-white people and English the needs of each student. GERM may have Language Learners (Cohn, 2016; US Department educators pushing children to engage in of Education, 2016), and population trends activities that are not developmentally indicate these transformations in the make-up of

Preparing school leaders for young learners 45 student bodies will be increasingly present in the students and teachers in the presence of content younger grades before moving their way up (City, Elmore, Fiarman, & Teitel, 2009). This is through the schools. the day-to-day work happening in schools, and Having a diversity-oriented mindset may where student learning is most influenced. help leaders meet Standard 3 and address the In describing what should be happening in conflicting messages GERM may send. GERM ECE classrooms, DAP explicitly expresses the demands a standardization of curriculum, importance of play as a vehicle for fostering instruction, and assessment while at the same learning in young children. Though adults may time expecting predetermined results. Given the view pretend play as relaxing and fun, it is diversity of students, these ideas may work actually an intellectually demanding and against each other. Students of diverse cognitively complex task (Segal, 2004), backgrounds may approach learning from requiring children to combine memory and different perspectives and thus may require experiences together to make meaning (Roskos other ways to access the curriculum, & Christie, 2001). Similar cognitive strategies demonstrate their learning, and achieve the are necessary for literacy and other learning same educational outcomes. Principals who tasks. Young learners need to be able to interact understand this can advocate for and support physically with the world around them in order the use of varied, culturally responsive to construct knowledge, yet many principals lack techniques in classrooms at all levels. an understanding of how to balance play-based learning with other academic activities Standard 4: Curriculum, Instruction and (Lieberman & Cook, 2016). Assessment The question of how much play should be “Effective educational leaders develop and included in ECE arises in part from the impact of support intellectually rigorous and coherent GERM. Principals describe the pressures they systems of curriculum, instruction, and feel to reduce time for play in the early grades assessment to promote each student’s academic and instead focus on academic activities success and well-being” (NPBEA, 2015, p. 12). (Lieberman & Cook, 2016), explaining how academic expectations have risen in the early With this standard, leaders are expected to grades. Some may also have difficulty seeing use their knowledge of child development and that for young children play is learning. Since learning and best methods of instruction to principals create the culture of learning in their support curriculum, instruction, and assessment schools, allot time and resources for practices that are aligned and focused across instructional activities, and evaluate and grade levels. Furthermore, it specifies supervise teachers, it is important for them to curriculum and instruction should be rigorous, understand how play in the early grades is a authentic, and differentiated to meet student valuable and necessary instructional activity. needs. Assessment practices should be valid and Appropriate mentoring and supervision is an developmentally appropriate, with data used important contribution to ECE teacher quality fittingly to monitor and advance student (Fulgini, Howes, Lara-Cinisomo, & Karoly, learning. 2009). Without understanding ECE, principals Of all the standards, this may be the one of may be encouraging practices that make ECE most importance for educators to consider when classrooms function like upper grade levels and determining the value of principals having possibly contradict the support of early learning specific knowledge of best practices for ECE. (Lieberman & Cook, 2016; Szekely, 2013). Standard 4 addresses the interactions that Leaders also need to understand early happen in the instructional core, defined as

46 Global Education Review 4(3) childhood development. Mead (2012) suggested test-based accountability that can drive leaders that successful leaders of ECE programs to expect teachers to use paper and pencil advocate for an inclusive curriculum that assessments that cannot capture the learning of includes the arts, science, physical education, young children. Principals instead need to and history, aligning the curriculum and validate alternative ways of measuring student sequence learning across grade levels. Doing this progress such as performance-based tasks, makes sure learning progresses from simple to teacher observations, family checklists or more complex, and from concrete to more interviews, and analysis of student work. abstract concepts. Yet, in order to do this work, Leaders who do this can support teachers in the leader must understand the developmental upper levels in using alternative methods of levels of young children in an informed and assessment as well, resulting in better learning appropriate manner. experiences for all students. One GERM feature is a preoccupation with literacy and numeracy, a focus on basic Standard 5: Community of Care and skills, but young children need learning Support for Students experiences focused on the whole child. “Effective educational leaders cultivate an Robertson (2015) argued the focus on basic inclusive, caring, and supportive school knowledge reduces student creativity and community that promotes the academic success ingenuity, the types of skills students will need and well-being of each student” ( NPBEA, 2015, to function as adults in a changing society. For p. 13). principals to avoid the pressure to focus all Through this standard, leaders are learning on formally tested skills like language expected promote a culture that ensures arts and math, they need to view students from a students are being supported not only through holistic perspective. Understanding and their interactions with teachers about content, embracing the principles of ECE, may help but also with additional services and leaders to formulate a mindset that approaches extracurricular activities that help to meet their the work of schools from a broader, more needs. The leader needs to work to develop inclusive point of view. relationships among all members of the school Another aspect of Standard 4 is the community that support positive social and leader’s role in assessment of student learning. emotional learning, and also to create a school Mead (2011) noted successful ECE principals are environment that is safe and supports healthy able to work with teachers to collect and analyze physical growth. data, and then use the data to plan and While healthy relationships within the implement instruction. To do this with early school are important for all students, they are childhood teachers, leaders have to recognize particularly so for young children. Young that young children demonstrate their learning children learn best when they have secure in different ways than older students (Howard & relationships with the adults in the classroom. Bornfreund, 2014). While direct assessments of Young children’s development in all areas is literacy and numeracy skills are useful, to get a profoundly influenced by the quality and full picture of student growth and learning stability of their relationships. Having nurturing requires assessments across different domains relationships with adults at an early age fosters over time. Assessments are most accurate and healthy social and emotional behaviors later in useful when they are embedded into the daily life. In schools, young children who feel they work of young students. have a positive and caring relationship with their GERM, however, has a preoccupation with teachers tend to be more excited about school

Preparing school leaders for young learners 47 and have higher levels of achievement (National early childhood teachers, opportunities for Scientific Council on the Developing Child, professional development should include 2004). participation in learning with the rest of the Leaders need to recognize the significance school and in training specifically targeted to of stable and secure relationships and create an address topics in ECE. (Loewenberg, 2016). environment that is supportive of the work early They also need to engage in professional childhood educators do. Early childhood learning that addresses instructional planning, teachers who are not able to utilize the curriculum development, and student data instructional practices they know are best for analysis both with their own and other grade young learners, an issue that may arise when levels (Mead, 2011). implementing GERM principles, may leave their Ongoing, focused professional placement or give up teaching as a career development for teachers appears to be (Whitebook et al., 2009). Given the importance especially important for improving teacher of stable, caring relationships for preschool quality in ECE (Fulgini et al., 2009). A particular children, staff turnover is especially detrimental challenge for preschool teachers in a public in ECE. Leaders need to have an understanding school setting is that they may be the only pre-k of this emotional need to support teacher teacher in the building. They may have access to practices, but also to staff ECE classrooms and reading material about best practices and limit class size so there are enough adults to research in ECE, but little opportunity to view, foster deep relationships with each child. reflect on, and discuss actual classroom instruction utilizing strategies that are known to Standard 6: Professional Capacity of encourage student success (Ritchie, Phillips, & School Personnel Garrett, 2016). They may have the chance to “Effective educational leaders develop the engage in vertically aligned professional learning professional capacity and practice of school experiences with other teachers across the ECE personnel to promote each student’s academic kindergarten through grade 3 continuum, but success and well-being” (NPBEA, 2015, p. 14). unable to have frequent horizontal conversations with other pre-k teachers. Within this standard, leaders are to focus For leaders to meet Standard 6, they must on supporting teachers and staff from the have an understanding of child growth and recruiting and hiring process through to their development and of high-quality learning retirement by offering professional learning experiences at each age in order to determine opportunities that help all to continually develop how professional resources will be allocated. and improve their practice. Additionally, this This will help them decide if school or district- standard encourages the development of teacher wide professional development initiatives are leaders through distributing leadership tasks developmentally appropriate for preschool and improving the individual capacity of all learners. Likewise, they can better determine members of the school community. what unique professional learning opportunities Teachers are the most important school- their preschool teachers should have, perhaps based influence on student learning looking beyond the school or district to connect (Hattie, 2012). Thus, it is the job of the principal single teachers to other ECE professionals. to provide appropriate professional development Additionally, leaders should support opportunities to help struggling teachers learn to teacher leadership. Being able to do this, in part, implement strategies to improve student requires leaders to recognize the gaps in their success, and to help proficient teachers continue own knowledge. Regarding ECE at the most to hone, refine, and update their practices. For

48 Global Education Review 4(3) fundamental level, this means leaders have to data, providing instructional feedback, and understand that young learners have unique developing practice. It also supports teacher- learning needs, and that if they are unable to driven professional learning initiatives that are fully discuss and support teachers in meeting tightly aligned to actual classroom practice. those needs, they should offer leadership roles to For school leaders to support pre-k the ECE professionals who can. Principals also learning environments, they need to envision need to make a purposeful decision to encourage teaching as a collaborative rather than an leadership among ECE professionals. Often early isolated practice, and provide opportunities for childhood teachers become leaders by default, teachers to engage in planning across grade with little training or support, in part because levels (Mead, 2011). Leaders need to allow they are isolated from other teachers (Maxfield, teachers time for shared planning and Ricks-Doneen, Klocko, & Sturges, 2011). In collaborative analysis of student data as single systems where school leaders support ECE, and multiple grade level teams. Additionally, create a continuum of learning from preschool building shared capacity of teachers may help through the upper grades, and provide high- schools make better decisions about how and quality professional development, early when to implement GERM principles. If the childhood teacher leaders are most successful. principal can validate the work of ECE Leaders who provide the opportunity for professionals by including them in the their ECE teachers to observe and discuss best professional learning community of the school, practices on a regular basis can reassure then preschool teachers can model instructional teachers as they continue to use DAP to drive and assessment practices that are more student- their work. This requires principals to work centered. While all practices may not be against GERM’s reliance on corporations as the appropriate for upper grades, many can be best sources of educational innovation as an scaled up for use with older students. underlying belief is that businesses and other institutions outside of schools can better Standard 8: Meaningful Engagement of determine what should be happening inside Families and Community schools. GERM’s focus on bringing in ideas “Effective educational leaders engage families from outside undermines teachers and deters and the community in meaningful, reciprocal, them from learning from each other. Standard 6 and mutually beneficial ways to promote each expects leaders to empower teachers to engage student’s academic success and well-being” in continuous learning and improvement. (NPBEA, 2015, p. 16).

To meet this standard, leaders will look Standard 7: Professional Community for beyond the building walls and create positive Teachers and Staff relationships and have reciprocal conversations “Effective educational leaders foster a with families and the community about the professional community of teacher and other strengths, challenges, needs, and professional staff to promote each student’s accomplishments of the school. The leader will academic success and well-being” (NPBEA, utilize community resources and make 2015, p. 15). connections with community partners that can Standard 7 focuses on creating the help support student learning. conditions and culture within the school to build Developing quality relationships with collective capacity. This standard urges leaders parents, families, and communities is important to put in place systems and structures that allow for schools as it has an impact on student teachers to collaborate on examining student achievement and multiple other positive

Preparing school leaders for young learners 49 learning outcomes (Morrison, 2009). These learning and development, and possibly shared connections to family and community are even professional development experiences for all more crucial to the success of pre-k programs, as ECE professionals. DAP is grounded in educators understanding the Developing strong relationships with contexts in which children learn and develop. families and the community may also help Young children begin learning well before they leaders to reduce the impact of GERM’s increase enter any formal schooling (Mead, 2011), and it of school control. Sahlberg (2011) suggested the is up to schools to develop the reciprocal focus on data and outside control of schools can relationships necessary to engage in force teachers to implement centrally mandated communication, information sharing, and instructional practices or policies that may not mutual decision-making to help young learners be in the best interest of the children in their achieve cognitive, physical, social, and emotional classrooms. If leaders are having open learning goals. communication with stakeholders about the For leaders to meet Standard 8, it is strengths, challenges, needs, and important for them to understand the specific accomplishments of the school, leaders and types of relationships they need to develop to stakeholders may be able to develop more support young learners. Principals who are thorough and mutual understandings of what responsible for leading pre-k programs in their students need to be successful. If all buildings need to work toward building trust stakeholders share similar ideas about how to with families and encouraging a sense of shared support student learning, teachers may feel responsibility for student learning (Loewenberg, more freedom to be educational professionals 2016). They should help teachers bring parents and to use practices that really impact student into the school and communicate with parents learning, rather than the latest fad techniques or outside as well, perhaps considering the use of packaged curricula advertised by corporations. home visits. Additionally, multiple outside This may be especially important in ECE where agencies are often involved in supporting pre-k GERM and the push for the use of standardized students. Principals state they feel adept at testing to measure student performance creates working with school nurses, counselors, and pressure downward into ECE (Lieberman & other support staff, but express concerns about Cook, 2016). Parents and community members how to manage the different outside groups who may think they want to see ECE classrooms may need to be consulted or included in meeting functioning like those in older grades, but student needs (Bish, Shore, & Shue, 2011). principals who have built trusting relationships Even if their schools do not house and understand ECE can explain why young preschool classrooms, principals need to develop learners need a different kind of learning relationships with the community preschools environment to be successful. and early care providers who are sending children to their schools once they reach Standard 9: Operations and Management kindergarten or first grade (Bornfreund, 2016; “Effective educational leaders manage school Loewenberg, 2016; Mead, 2011). Forming these operations and resources to promote each relationships can help ease the transition from student’s academic success and well-being” preschool into kindergarten or first grade for (NPBEA, 2015, p. 17). children. Community partnerships can also lead Standard 9 involves a leader’s ability to to increased communication, a sense of manage the physical, financial, instructional, communal responsibility for educating young and human resources to support student children, common expectations for student learning and school improvement. It includes

50 Global Education Review 4(3) understanding and complying with legal and In managing and monitoring the contractual obligations and policies at the local, operations of the school and its systems, school state, and federal levels, and making decisions to leaders need to be aware of GERM’s roots in a help sustain enrollment. market-driven approach to education and the An important part of a principal’s influence it may have on their decisions. management role is effectively assigning Sahlberg (2011) suggested applying an economy- teachers to classroom placements where they based mindset encourages schools to focus on can best utilize their teaching strengths. Fuller competition, efficiency, and productivity over and Ladd (2012) found school leaders had a student learning. Practices like moving weaker tendency to move stronger teachers to the upper teachers to lower, untested grades can be an grade levels, especially to grades where students indication of this kind of thinking. Additionally, participated in standardized testing. Likewise, if leaders are unaware of the laws, regulations, principals admit to moving weak teachers to the and policies that apply to ECE programs and younger grades (Cook, 2016). Yet there are make decisions based on market-oriented indications that students who do not master principles, they may encourage or implement certain skills in the early grades will continue to practices that put their programs in violation of lag behind. For example, the vast majority of the laws and potentially put young students at students who are struggling readers in third risk. grade are likely to still be struggling readers in ninth grade (Francis, Shaywitz, Stuebing, Standard 10: School Improvement Shaywitz, & Fletcher, 1996). School leaders need “Effective educational leaders act as agents of to understand the critical role preschool plays in continuous improvement to promote each laying the foundation for future learning so they student’s academic success and well-being” can make informed decisions about how to staff (NPBEA, 2015, p. 18). their classrooms in ways that will best support To meet this standard, leaders must student learning. evaluate educational trends for applicability in Additionally, to meet Standard 9 their school settings and balance the political, principals need to know and comply with laws, uncertain, and often competing influences on policies, and regulations. While some legal education. It also instructs leaders to consider standards and regulations apply across schools school improvement from a systems approach, regardless of the grade levels they serve, there understanding how all aspects of the school may be specific program standards in place work together to influence student learning. within which early childhood programs must To meet Standard 10, principals need to operate (Darragh, 2010). For example, many bring together all of the expectations of the other states have policies for student-teacher ratios, PSEL 2015 into a clear, consistent, and hand-washing practices, and safety that differ continuous process to support improved student from those for older students. Yet these policies learning outcomes. To be an “agent of vary by state and by program location continuous improvement” (NPBEA, 2015, p. 18), (Horowitz, 2016). In some states preschools leaders must: implement their vision, mission, housed in public schools are exempt, but in and core values; develop the capacity of their others they are not. A principal needs to know staff; promote teacher leadership; work with all which laws, policies, and regulations apply to stakeholders to form mutual commitments and their programs so they can make appropriate responsibility for student learning; and focus decisions about staffing, scheduling, budgeting school efforts on effectively meeting the needs of for materials, and assigning classrooms. students (NPBEA, 2015). For leaders to be

Preparing school leaders for young learners 51 successful in reaching these goals for young opportunity to participate in an ECE internship children, they need to have the knowledge of or other clinical experience to hone their how each of these areas looks in ECE. knowledge and skills. Alternatively, states can Furthermore, principals need to strongly require elementary teaching experience for consider the impact of GERM on students. As leaders who receive a certification that includes mentioned throughout, GERM principles ECE grades (Lieberman, 2017). contradict DAP and other best practices in ECE. Moreover, states and school districts can Though there may be pressure to implement offer leaders professional learning opportunities GERM’s ideas, Standard 10 at its most that focus on ECE (Bornfreund & Lieberman, fundamental level states leaders must have a 2016; Lieberman, 2017). This type of experience commitment to instructional practices and ought to be mandatory for leaders who do not systems that foster improvement. In other have a background in ECE. Additionally, states words, it implies that if GERM is not working for and school districts could find ways to connect students, leaders should refine it or reject it in principals with early childhood center directors. order to meet their students’ needs. This can encourage conversation and growth for all ECE professionals, and strengthen the Conclusion alignment across community and school-based Effective school leadership and high-quality programs. Also states should take advantage of early childhood education programs have a federal funding opportunities to support this strong link to positive outcomes for students work. The United States recently authorized an throughout their educational careers (Szekely, educational law with a focus on ECE that allows 2013). While DAP principles and guidelines are federal money to be used for early education specifically designed to meet the needs of young initiatives (Bornfreund, & Lieberman, 2016). learners from birth to age 8, many of the Furthermore, Lieberman (2017) proposed underlying ideas behind them can help the development of a system to track elementary educators understand how to structure principal turnover. The data collected by states educational opportunities in contrast to GERM. or school districts can help pinpoint the areas of As principals continue the challenging and concern for school leaders and be used to complex work associated with meeting the PSEL develop supports that will keep principals in 2015 standards and responding to the pressures place. The turnover of leadership often of GERM, they will benefit from a solid interrupts meaningful school reforms. At this understanding of ECE. particular point in time when the number of If principals are going to meet the goal of ECE programs is increasing and the pressures of improving outcomes for all students, states and GERM-based policies are pushing down into the school districts need to support those who lead lower grades, the need for schools to retain ECE programs. One option for states is to leaders who can consistently implement best require principals to graduate from their practices in ECE becomes ever more crucial. preparation programs with an understanding of Failing to make sure school leaders have a child development, curriculum for preschool deep understanding of DAP, child development, students, DAP, and family and community and best practices in ECE pedagogy and engagement strategies (Bornfreund & assessment could have a number of implications. Lieberman, 2016; Lieberman, 2017). Ryan et al. To begin with, young children may be asked to (2011) propose the development of a set of engage with learning activities and assessments specific pre-k to grade 3 competencies for school that are not age-appropriate. GERM’s focus on leaders. Principals would also benefit from the basic skills and standardized testing pulls away

52 Global Education Review 4(3) from play-based learning and authentic https://static.newamerica.org/attachments/13105- assessments. Likewise, children may be held to principals-corner/5.4Early-Ed-Principal- behavioral expectations and exposed to 4.761d732ad93840d4af845cf8be2d13dc.pdf classroom management strategies that do not Bornfreund, L. & Lieberman, A. (2016). Bringing it all align with their developmental needs. Parents together: Elementary principals are key to strong prek-3rd grade classrooms. Retrieved from New and the community can exacerbate these America website: pressures if the leader is unable to clearly https://static.newamerica.org/attachments/13105- communicate a rationale for why there are principals-corner/5.4Early-Ed-Principal- differences between ECE classrooms and those 6.4864847e883a435da0f5d59c831650c1.pdf Childstats.gov. (n.d.). POP3 Race and Hispanic origin of older students. Additionally, leaders may composition: Percentage of U.S. children ages 0–17 move stronger teachers to grades where by race and Hispanic origin, 1980–2015 and standardized testing occurs. All of these issues projected 2016–2050. Retrieved from can lead to high levels of ECE teacher turnover, http://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/tables/ pop3.asp?popup=true and when combined these concerns may result City, E. A., Elmore, R. F., Fiarman, S. E., & Teitel, L. (2009). in a decrease in ECE program effectiveness and Instructional rounds in education: A network limit outcomes for young learners. approach to improving teaching and learning. As put forth in the PSEL 2015 document, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Clarke Brown, K., Squires, J., Connors-Tadros, L, & “Educational leaders need ongoing support to Horowitz, M. (2014). Preparing principals to succeed in a job that is dramatically changing” support early childhood teachers (CEELO FastFact). (NPBEA, 2015, p.6). As principals’ work changes New Brunswick, NJ: Center on Enhancing Early to include responsibility for preschool programs, Learning Outcomes. Retrieved from http://ceelo.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/07/ceelo they require better preparation as they enter the _fast_fact_principal_prep.pdf field and professional learning opportunities as Cohn, D. (2016, June 23). It’s official: Minority babies are they continue to practice. Developing a force of the majority among the nation’s infants, but only school leaders who understand and support best just. Pew Research Center Fact Tank. Retrieved from http://pewrsr.ch/28UIGZG practices in ECE may ultimately improve Colker, L. J. (2008). Pre-k: (What exactly is it?). Teaching learning outcomes for all students. Young Children, 2(1), 22-24. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/files/tyc/file/PreK- Notes WhatExactlyIsIt.pdf Cook, S. (2016). Tradeoffs: Elementary principals on hiring 1. The term, “whole child,” in the United States, and staffing in the early grades. Retrieved from New is a popular term that refers to the physical, America website: https://static.newamerica. intellectual, emotional, and social needs of org/attachments/13105-principals-corner/5.4Early-Ed- Principal-3.fcae675c291e4c6fbdaee1d50450b594.pdf children that may be met in school. Defending the Early Years. (2015). Six reasons to reject the 2. In the US it is common for states to issue CCSS for grades k-3. Retrieved from https://www.deyproject.org/uploads/1/5/5/7/15571 teaching certificates for a range of grades, e.g., k- 834/six_reasons_common-core-stand-alone- 2, 3-6, etc. A k-6 certification, for example, document-final-final-1.pdf would encompass all the elementary school Diffley, L., Parker, E., Atchison, B. (2017). State pre-k grades funding 2016-17 fiscal year: Trends and opportunities. Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States. Retrieved from References https://www.ecs.org/state-pre-k-funding-2016-17- Bish, M., Shore, R., & Shue, P. (2011). Preparing elementary fiscal-year-trends-and-opportunities/ principals for preschool. Principal, 90(5), 20-24. Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Stuebing, K. K., Shaywitz, B. Bornfreund, L. (2016). Connecting pre-k and the early A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1996). Developmental lag grades: Principals on transitions. Retrieved from versus deficit models of reading disability: A New America website:

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Woodhead, M. (2006). Changing perspectives on early About the Author childhood: Theory, research and policy. Paper Maria Boeke Mongillo, EdD, is an Assistant Professor of commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Educational Leadership at Central Connecticut State Report 2007, Strong foundations: Early childhood University. She coordinates the MS program in Teacher care and education. Retrieved from Leadership, and teaches across the MS, Sixth Year, and http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001474/14 Doctoral programs in the Department of Educational 7499e.pdf Leadership, Policy, and Instructional Technology. Currently, York, S. (2003). Roots & wings: Affirming culture in early her research focus is on the preparation of school leaders for childhood programs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: meeting the unique needs of early childhood students and on Pearson. the implementation and effectiveness of teacher evaluation models. Her past research and publications have focused on developing teacher self-efficacy, particularly for math and science, and on cultivating disciplinary literacy in preschool through high school settings.