DOCSLIB.ORG

GENDER STEREOTYPES and SEXUAL TRANSGRESSIONS in EARLY MODERN SPAIN and PORTUGAL in Common with the Rest of Early Modern Europe

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
GENDER STEREOTYPES and SEXUAL TRANSGRESSIONS in EARLY MODERN SPAIN and PORTUGAL in Common with the Rest of Early Modern Europe CHAPTER ONE GENDER STEREOTYPES AND SEXUAL TRANSGRESSIONS IN EARLY MODERN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL In common with the rest of early modern Europe, Spanish and Portuguese societies embraced clearly defined and demarcated gender identities by reproducing and embracing misogynistic stereotypes of male and female behaviour and appearance. Biblical and Aristotelian notions of women/ female bodies as imperfect versions of men/male bodies were widely accepted, even within medical circles. The noted Spanish physician Juan Huarte de San Juan (c.1529–1592), for example, argued in his widely-read Examen de ingenios para las ciencias (1575) that the essential physical characteristics of female bodies – a cold and moist temperature – enabled them to conceive and made them apt to bear children but also sty- mied their intellectual development and thus rendered them inferior to men.1 Overtly misogynistic attitudes can easily be found in the considerable literature relating to the proper education or conduct of women, most notably in works such as The Education of a Christian Woman, published in 1523 by humanist scholar Juan Luis Vives (1493–1540) and the very pop- ular The Perfect Wife by Fray Luis de León (1527–1591), published in 1583 and republished in no less than eight subsequent editions between 1583 and 1621. Women were normally represented as possessing weaker bodies and characters than men. Fray Luis de León, in particular, used his work to promote a rigid definition of the roles of men and women in society: God did not endow women either with the capacity necessary for important business dealings, or with the vigour indispensable for war and agriculture. Let them take the measure of what they truly are, and be content with the lot which has befallen them, occupy themselves with the housekeeping, and be active about their houses, since that is what they were meant to do. (…) As men were meant to mix in public, so women were made for retirement; 1 M. Bolufer, “Medicine and the Querelle des Femmes in early Modern Spain”, Health and Medicine in Habsburg Spain: Agents, Practices, Representations, ed. T. Huguet-Termes, J. Arrizabalaga and H.J. Cook (London, 2009), 86–106. 18 chapter one and as it pertains to men to go out, and to engage in discussions, so it behoves women to seek seclusion, and to withdraw from observation.2 In spite of such widespread gender stereotypes, or perhaps because of them, many individuals did find themselves transgressing gender roles. In the eyes of society, such individuals were negatively referred to as “effeminate men” (hombres afeminados in Spanish / homens afeminados in Portuguese) and “masculine women” (mujeres varoniles / mulheres varoniles). Whilst chroniclers in early modern Spain praised the “manly” spirit and virtues of Queen Isabel of Castile (1474–1504), such effusive admiration was not extended to other “manly” women and was in fact solely intended to highly praise her political and spiritual accomplish- ments despite her “womanly body”.3 Insofar as the church authorities in early modern Spain and Portugal were concerned, the physical appearance of genitals and the capacity of male or female genitalia to properly perform the reproductive function that was assigned to them played a crucial part in the definition of gender identity. Working with the records of ecclesiastical courts (episcopal rather than inquisitorial), Edward Behrend-Martínez has convincingly demonstrated how, at least in legal proceedings, “the body, like place and condition, arbitrarily determined who one was and how one was treated”. Thus a man was defined by his ability to sustain an erection, penetrate a woman with his penis and ejaculate semen. In 1587 Pope Sixtus V, respond- ing to a letter from the Papal nuncio in Spain soliciting advice on the sub- ject, expressly prohibited the marriage of eunuchs by issuing the papal brief Cum Frequenter. Marital litigation in the episcopal court of the dio- ceses of Calahorra and La Calzada-Logroño in northern Spain during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries reveals that men who did not pos- sess testicles – either due to a birth defect or as a consequence of surgery (for the removal of hernias) – were denied the right to marry: the conse- cration of manhood and male gender identity. Similarly, the same litiga- tion from northern Spain demonstrates that the husbands of “impotent women” – women who could not be penetrated vaginally or who were infertile – could appeal to Canon Law to annul their marriages.4 Such an 2 Fr. Luis de León, The Perfect Wife, (Denton Texas, 1943), 73–4. This translation is based on the earlier one by E. Wallace (Chicago, 1903). For Juan Luis Vives see The Education of a Christian Woman: a Sixteenth-century Manual, ed. and tr. Charles Fantazzi (Chicago, 2000). 3 D.A. Boruchoff, “Historiography with license: Isabel, the Catholic Monarch and the Kingdom of God”, Isabel La Católica, Queen of Castile (New York, 2003), 225–294. 4 For an analysis of Cum Frequenter, see A. McGrath, A Controversy Concerning Male Impotence (Rome, 1988); Edward Behrend-Martínez, “Manhood and the neutered body in .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Libro Verde: Blood Fictions from Early Modern Spain
    INFORMATION TO USERS The negative microfilm of this dissertation was prepared and inspected by the school granting the degree. We are using this film without further inspection or change. If there are any questions about the content, please write directly to the school. The quality of this reproduction is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original material The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify notations which may appear on this reproduction. 1. Manuscripts may not always be complete. When it is not possible to obtain missing pages, a note appears to indicate this. 2. When copyrighted materials are removed from the manuscript, a note ap­ pears to indicate this. 3. Oversize materials (maps, drawings, and charts) are photographed by sec­ tioning the original, beginning at the upper left hand comer and continu­ ing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Dissertation Information Service A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 9731534 Copyright 1997 by Beusterien, John L. All rights reserved. UMI Microform 9731534 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Titic 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Reproduced with permission
    [Show full text]
  • Foresight Hindsight
    Hindsight, Foresight ThinkingI Aboutnsight, Security in the Indo-Pacific EDITED BY ALEXANDER L. VUVING DANIEL K. INOUYE ASIA-PACIFIC CENTER FOR SECURITY STUDIES HINDSIGHT, INSIGHT, FORESIGHT HINDSIGHT, INSIGHT, FORESIGHT Thinking About Security in the Indo-Pacific Edited by Alexander L. Vuving Daniel K. Inouye Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies Hindsight, Insight, Foresight: Thinking About Security in the Indo-Pacific Published in September 2020 by the Daniel K. Inouye Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies, 2058 Maluhia Rd, Honolulu, HI 96815 (www.apcss.org) For reprint permissions, contact the editors via [email protected] Printed in the United States of America Cover Design by Nelson Gaspar and Debra Castro Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Name: Alexander L. Vuving, editor Title: Hindsight, Insight, Foresight: Thinking About Security in the Indo-Pacific / Vuving, Alexander L., editor Subjects: International Relations; Security, International---Indo-Pacific Region; Geopolitics---Indo-Pacific Region; Indo-Pacific Region JZ1242 .H563 2020 ISBN: 978-0-9773246-6-8 The Daniel K. Inouye Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies is a U.S. Depart- ment of Defense executive education institution that addresses regional and global security issues, inviting military and civilian representatives of the United States and Indo-Pacific nations to its comprehensive program of resident courses and workshops, both in Hawaii and throughout the Indo-Pacific region. Through these events the Center provides a focal point where military, policy-makers, and civil society can gather to educate each other on regional issues, connect with a network of committed individuals, and empower themselves to enact cooperative solutions to the region’s security challenges.
    [Show full text]
  • Britain and the Dutch Revolt 1560–1700 Hugh Dunthorne Frontmatter More Information
    Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-83747-7 - Britain and the Dutch Revolt 1560–1700 Hugh Dunthorne Frontmatter More information Britain and the Dutch Revolt 1560–1700 England’s response to the Revolt of the Netherlands (1568–1648) has been studied hitherto mainly in terms of government policy, yet the Dutch struggle with Habsburg Spain affected a much wider commu- nity than just the English political elite. It attracted attention across Britain and drew not just statesmen and diplomats but also soldiers, merchants, religious refugees, journalists, travellers and students into the confl ict. Hugh Dunthorne draws on pamphlet literature to reveal how British contemporaries viewed the progress of their near neigh- bours’ rebellion, and assesses the lasting impact which the Revolt and the rise of the Dutch Republic had on Britain’s domestic history. The book explores affi nities between the Dutch Revolt and the British civil wars of the seventeenth century – the fi rst major challenges to royal authority in modern times – showing how much Britain’s chang- ing commercial, religious and political culture owed to the country’s involvement with events across the North Sea. HUGH DUNTHORNE specializes in the history of the early modern period, the Dutch revolt and the Dutch republic and empire, the his- tory of war, and the Enlightenment. He was formerly Senior Lecturer in History at Swansea University, and his previous publications include The Enlightenment (1991) and The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Britain and the Low Countries
    [Show full text]
  • Thomas Donovan Professor Ruiz HIST129A-1 18 May 2020 Second
    1 Thomas Donovan Professor Ruiz HIST129A-1 18 May 2020 Second Paper Prompt One Despite being largely ignored in our age the awe inspiring value of art becomes apparent in a multitude of instances. Be it for the expression of the human condition, one’s individual experience, or the perspective of a culture, great art has served as enlightened entertainment for humankind. However, outside of the realm of intellectual pastimes, art finds a rather unique value in its relation to the study of history. For, art of a past age gives the current age a greater understanding of the past’s conception of themselves and their world. The most common example of such is the work of the supposive Homer who in his poems expresses the Greek values and mirrors elements of the power struggles of the day. The same can be noted of the Spanish play The Trickster of Seville, a work which provides insight into the culture and politics of old 17th century Iberia. As this is art’s relation to a historian, a primary source that allows a brief look into the culture and age which produced it. The seventeenth century saw Spain under the Habsburg monarchy who ruled the most powerful empire in Europe yet the cracks of Spanish society had already come to the forefront of Spanish intellectual discourse.1 The Trickster of Seville, a work produced around the 1600s by the Spanish playwright Tirso de Molina, lived during a time of Spanish history that is characterized by art which describes Spain as a nation filled with those who had an attitude 1 Lynch, John 2 which turned away from productive work in the hopes of finding quick success instead.2 Such can be understood when contemplating the vast wealth acquired by the conquests of the new world.
    [Show full text]
  • The Sustainable Debts of Philip II: a Reconstruction of Spain's Fiscal
    The Sustainable Debts of Philip II: A Reconstruction of Spain’s Fiscal Position, 1560-1598* Mauricio Drelichman Hans-Joachim Voth The University of British Columbia ICREA/Universitat Pompeu Fabra and and CIFAR CEPR This Draft: January 2010 Abstract: The defaults of Philip II have attained mythical status as the origin of sovereign debt crises. We reassess the fiscal position of Habsburg Castile, deriving comprehensive estimates of revenue, debt, and expenditure from new archival data. The king’s debts were sustainable. Primary surpluses were large and rising. Debt/revenue ratios were broadly unchanged across Philip’s reign. Castilian finances in the sixteenth century compare favorably with those of other early modern fiscal states at the height of their imperial ambitions, including Britain. The defaults of Philip II therefore reflected short-term liquidity crises, and were not a sign of unsustainable debts. * For helpful comments, we thank Daron Acemoglu, George Akerlof, Carlos Alvarez Nogal, Fernando Broner, Albert Carreras, Marc Flandreau, Caroline Fohlin, Regina Grafe, Avner Greif, Viktoria Hnatkovska, Angela Redish, Alberto Martín, Paolo Mauro, David Mitch, Kris Mitchener, Joel Mokyr, Lyndon Moore, Roger Myerson, Kevin O’Rourke, Sevket Pamuk, Richard Portes, Leandro Prados de la Escosura, Nathan Sussman, Alan M. Taylor, Francois Velde, Jaume Ventura, and Eugene White. Seminar audiences at American University, Harvard, Sciences Po, Hebrew University, UBC, UPF, UC Irvine, LSE, HEI Geneva, NYU-Stern, the ECB, and Rutgers, as well as the EHA meetings in Austin, the CREI / CEPR Conference on “Crises – Past, Policy, and Theory”, CIFAR, NBER, CEPR – ESSIM, the BETA Workshop, and the Utrecht Workshop on Financial History offered advice and constructive criticism.
    [Show full text]
  • Battleground Perceptions in the Portuguese Early Modern Atlantic
    WIH0010.1177/0968344517725540War in HistoryDantas da Cruz 725540research-article2018 Original Article War in History 1 –26 From Flanders to Pernambuco: © The Author(s) 2018 Reprints and permissions: Battleground Perceptions in sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav https://doi.org/10.1177/0968344517725540DOI: 10.1177/0968344517725540 the Portuguese Early Modern journals.sagepub.com/home/wih Atlantic World Miguel Dantas da Cruz Instituto de Ciências Sociais – Lisbon University, Portugal Abstract This article addresses the way the Portuguese experience in the seventeenth-century battlefields of Flanders, during the Iberian Union (1580–1640), reshaped Portuguese military thought and culture. It argues that their traditional martial perceptions – almost exclusively based in imperial experiences, especially against the Muslims in North Africa and in India – were transformed by the direct exposure to Spanish military endeavours in Europe. It also argues that the experience in Flanders resurfaced in the South Atlantic, in all its religious and political dimensions, transforming the prestige of Brazil as a battlefield. Finally, the article revisits the way the Flanders experience poisoned Spanish–Portuguese relations. Keywords Portuguese Atlantic, Iberian Union, War of Flanders, martial imaginary, battleground perceptions Introduction King Sebastian, in his attempt to go to North Africa, to attack the Moors himself, beyond being moved by the zeal of exalting the Catholic Faith, and spreading the Christian religion, had the example of all of his ancestors, who were always the Generals of their own Arms, and the first ones to attack. King John I went in person to take Ceuta with his four sons in a massive fleet. Afonso V went himself three times…to carry on with the war on the Berber Coast, where he achieved many victories… Manuel I was also determined to go there, carrying on with this Corresponding author: Miguel Dantas da Cruz, Instituto de Ciências Sociais – Lisbon University, Av.
    [Show full text]
  • Life Writing As Political Critique in the Spanish Habsburg Empire (1545-1557)
    Life Writing as Political Critique in the Spanish Habsburg Empire (1545-1557) by Margaret Malia Spofford Xavier This thesis/dissertation document has been electronically approved by the following individuals: Garces,Maria Antonia (Chairperson) Cheyfitz,Eric T. (Minor Member) Castillo,Debra Ann (Minor Member) Cohen,Walter Isaac (Minor Member) LIFE WRITING AS POLITICAL CRITIQUE IN THE SPANISH HABSBURG EMPIRE (1545-1557) A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Margaret Malia Spofford Xavier August 2010 © 2010 Margaret Malia Spofford Xavier LIFE WRITING AS POLITICAL CRITIQUE IN THE SPANISH HABSBURG EMPIRE (1545-1557) Margaret Malia Spofford Xavier, Ph.D. Cornell University 2010 This dissertation examines works of life writing by “outlaws” —individuals who defied the sovereign’s law while remaining engaged with it— in the Spanish Habsburg Empire under Charles V, from 1545 to 1557. Life writing, as State-sponsored, official history (historia pro persona), focused on the lives of illustrious men and sovereigns, and was used during the early modern period as a tool of the Spanish Crown to reinforce its sovereignty. Such lives also held a synecdochal relationship to Spain’s emerging sense of national identity. As Emperor, Charles V accorded life writing unprecedented importance. Even as he sought after monarchia univeralis, he faced extreme challenges to his sovereignty during the period I study, including the crisis with the corsairs and the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean, the rebellion of the conquistadors in the Americas, and the schism of the Church and Empire as a result of the Reformation in Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • The Thirty Years' War: Examining the Origins and Effects of Corpus Christianum's Defining Conflict Justin Mcmurdie George Fox University, [email protected]
    Digital Commons @ George Fox University Seminary Masters Theses Seminary 5-1-2014 The Thirty Years' War: Examining the Origins and Effects of Corpus Christianum's Defining Conflict Justin McMurdie George Fox University, [email protected] This research is a product of the Master of Arts in Theological Studies (MATS) program at George Fox University. Find out more about the program. Recommended Citation McMurdie, Justin, "The Thirty Years' War: Examining the Origins and Effects of Corpus Christianum's Defining Conflict" (2014). Seminary Masters Theses. Paper 16. http://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/seminary_masters/16 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Seminary at Digital Commons @ George Fox University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Seminary Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ George Fox University. A MASTER’S THESIS SUBMITTED TO GEORGE FOX EVANGELICAL SEMINARY FOR CHTH – 571-572: THESIS RESEARCH AND WRITING DR. DAN BRUNNER (PRIMARY ADVISOR) SPRING 2014 BY JUSTIN MCMURDIE THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR: EXAMINING THE ORIGINS AND EFFECTS OF CORPUS CHRISTIANUM’S DEFINING CONFLICT APRIL 4, 2014 Copyright © 2014 by Justin M. McMurdie All rights reserved CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 PART 1: THE RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL BACKGROUND OF THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR 6 Corpus Christianum: The Religious, Social, and Political Framework of the West from Constantine to the Reformation 6 The Protestant Reformation, Catholic Counter-Reformation, and Intractable Problems for the “Holy Roman Empire of the
    [Show full text]
  • A Few Clerics at Court
    Rafferty 1 A Few Clerics at Court Catholic Clergymen in the lay politics and administration of Spain during the reigns of “Los Austrias Mayores”, Charles V/I and Philip II: 1516-1598 Keith Rafferty History Undergraduate Honors Thesis Georgetown University Advisor: Professor Tommaso Astarita, Georgetown University May 9. 2011 Rafferty 2 I authorize the public release of my thesis for anybody who should want to look at it. Rafferty 3 Table of Contents Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... 2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 4 Thesis Statement.................................................................................................................................. 8 Organization and Explanation .................................................................................................................. 9 Explanation of Terms .......................................................................................................................... 9 CODOIN ..................................................................................................................................... 9 Spain/The Spanish Empire ......................................................................................................... 11 The Spanish Aristocracy ...........................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Sustainable Debts of Philip II: a Reconstruction of Spain’S Fiscal Position, 1560-1598*
    The Sustainable Debts of Philip II: A Reconstruction of Spain’s Fiscal Position, 1560-1598* Mauricio Drelichman Hans-Joachim Voth The University of British Columbia ICREA/Universitat Pompeu Fabra and and CIFAR CEPR Abstract: The defaults of Philip II have attained mythical status as the origin of sovereign debt crises. The king failed to honor his debts four times during his reign. In this paper, we reassess the fiscal position of Habsburg Spain. New archival evidence allows us to derive comprehensive estimates of debt and revenue. These show that primary surpluses were sufficient to make the king’s debt sustainable for most of his reign. Spain’s debt burden was manageable up to the 1580s, and its fiscal position only deteriorated for good after the defeat of the “Invincible Armada.” We also estimate fiscal policy reaction functions, and show that Spain under the Habsburgs was at least as “responsible” as the US in the 20th century or as Britain in the 18th century. Our results suggest that the outcome of uncertain events such as wars may have more influence on a history of default than strict adherence to fiscal rules. JEL Classification Codes: H62, H63, F34, N24, N44 * For helpful comments, we thank Brian A’Hearn, Daron Acemoglu, Fernando Broner, Albert Carreras, Xavier Debrun, Marc Flandreau, Caroline Fohlin, Regina Grafe, Viktoria Hnatkovska, Alberto Martin, Paolo Mauro, David Mitch, Kris Mitchener, Joel Mokyr, Lyndon Moore, Roger Myerson, Kevin O’Rourke, Sevket Pamuk, Richard Portes, Angela Redish, Nathan Sussman, Alan M. Taylor, Francois Velde, Jaume Ventura, Marc Weidenmier, and Eugene White. Seminar audiences at American University, Harvard, Sciences Po, Hebrew University, UBC, UPF, UC Irvine, HEI Geneva, NYU-Stern, and Rutgers, as well as the EHA meetings in Austin, the CREI / CEPR Conference on “Crises – Past, Policy, and Theory”, CIFAR, NBER, CEPR –ESSIM, the BETA Workshop, and the Utrecht Workshop on Financial History offered advice and constructive criticism.
    [Show full text]
  • The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, –
    Cambridge University Press 0521543924 - The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567-1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries’ Wars - Second Edition Geoffrey Parker Frontmatter More information The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, – The publication of The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road in marked the birth of the ‘new military history’, which emphasised military organization – mobilization, pay, supply, morale and, above all, logistics – rather than military ‘events’ such as sieges and battles. Geoffrey Parker studies one of the great logistical feats of early modern Europe: how Habsburg Spain managed to maintain and mobilise the largest army in Europe in an -year effort to suppress the Dutch Revolt, miles away. Using a unique combination of surviving records, he presents strikingly the logistical problems of fighting wars in early modern Europe, and demonstrates why Spain failed to suppress the Dutch Revolt. The book has been constantly cited since its first publication in English (with translations into Spanish and Dutch). This revised second edition includes some new sources and updates some references but otherwise remains faithful to the original version. is Andreas Dorpalen Professor of History, The Ohio State University, and a Fellow of the British Academy. He is one of the world’s most prolific and distinguished historians of early modern Europe. © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521543924 - The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567-1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries’ Wars - Second Edition Geoffrey Parker Frontmatter More information CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN EARLY MODERN HISTORY Edited by Professor Sir John Elliott, University of Oxford Professor Olwen Hufton, University of Oxford Professor H.
    [Show full text]
  • The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain Under Philip Ii
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Repositorio Institucional de la Biblioteca del Banco de España THE THEORY OF SOVEREIGN DEBT AND SPAIN UNDER PHILIP II James Conklin Banco de España - Servicio de Estudios Documento de Trabajo nº 9623 THE THEORY OF SOVEREIGN DEBT AND SPAIN UNDER PHILIP IT (*) James Conklin (*) This paper evolved [rom dissertation research and was completed while the author was a visit­ ing fellow at the Banco de Espafia. The Ministry of Culture of Spain and the Mellon Founda­ Lion through the Institute of Latin American Studies of the University of Texas contributed funding. The staff of the Archivo General de $imancas provided valuable assistance. Thanks 10 seminar audiences at the Minneapolis Federal Reserve Bank, the Hoover Institution and the Banco de Espana. Thanks to Javier Diaz-Gimenez, Seett Freeman, Ed Green, Avner Greif. Preston MeA fee, Thomas Sargent. and Barry Weingasl for helpful comments and discussions. Special thanks to Robert E. Hall. my dissertation advisor. The standard disclaimer applies. Banco de Espana - Servicio de Estudios Documento de Trabajo n' 9623 In publishing this series the Banco de Espana seeks to disseminate studies of interest that will help acquaint readers better with the Spanish economy. The analyses, opinions and findings of these papers represent the views of their authors; they are not necessarily those of the Banco de Espana. ISSN,0213-271O ISBN,84-7793-500-9 Dep6sito legal: M. 29035-t 996 lmprenta del Banco de Espafia Abstract This paper examines lending by a Genoese-led cartel to Philip II of Spain (1556-1598) from the perspective of theory on sovereign debt.
    [Show full text]