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deputies sat in the highest seats of the Na- creased divisions, which ultimately led to tional Convention), in contrast, was closely Robespierre's fall from power and to a dis- allied with the Paris militants, mantling of government by terror. The first showdown between the Giron- dins and the Mountain occurred during the Robespierre and trial of the king in December 1792. Although the Girondins agreed that the kingwas guilty the Committee of Public Safety of treason, many of them argued for clemency, The conflict between the Girondins and the exile, or a popular referendum on his fate. Af- Mountain did not end with the execution of ter a long and difficult debate, the NationaÌ Louis XVI. Milita¡rts in Paris agitated for the Convention supported the Mountain and removal of the deputies who had proposed a voted by a very narrow majority to execute referendum on the king, and in retaliation the king. Louis XW went to tlle guillotine. on the Gi¡ondins engineered the a¡rest of Jean- January 21, 1793, sharing the fate of Charles I Paul Marat, a deputy who had urged violent .We of England in 1649. have just convinced measures in his newspaper The Friend ourselves that a king is only a man," wrote oJ the People. When Marat was acquitted, one newspaper, "and tJlat no man is above the Girondins set up a the law." special commission to
'j,.j Review: Why did the French Revolution turn in e+.]Lo,.sasi"Èvt${ro5'¡,$artei:178e?,,.,.
The Guillotine Before l7B9 only nobles were decapitated if condemned to death; commoners were * Terror and Resistance usually hanged. Equalization of the death penalty was first proposed by J. l. Cuillotin, The execution of the king did not end the new a professor of anatomy and a deputy for regime's problems. The continuing war re- the Third Estate in the National Assembly. quired even more men and moneJ¡, and the He also suggested that a mechanical device introduction of a national draft provoked be constructed for decapitation, leading to massive resistance in some parts of France. the instrument's association with his name. In response to growing pressures, the Na- The Assembly decreed decapitation as the tional Convention named the Committee of death penalÇ in June l79t and another Public Safety to supervise food distribution, physician, A. Louis, actually invented the direct the war effort, and root out counter- guillotíne. The executíoner pulled up the revolutiona¡ies. The leader of the committee, blade by a cord and then released it. Use Maximilien Robespiere,. wanted to go be- of the guillotine began in April tzsz and yond these stopgap measures and create did not end until 1981, when the French government a "republic of virtue," in which the govern- abolished the death penalty. The guillotine ment woulcl teach, or force, citizens to fascinated as much as it repelled. Reproduced in become virtuous republicans through a mas- miniature, painted onto snuffboxes sive program of politica-l reeducation. Thus and china, worn as jewelry and even began the Terror, in which the guillotine serving as a toy, the guillotine be- became the most terrifying instmment came a part of popular culture. of a government that suppressed How could the guillotine be almost every form of dissent símultaneously celebrated as (see The Guillotine, shown the people's avenger by sup- here). These policies only in- porters of the Revolution and vil- ified as the preeminent symbol of the Terror by op- 'guillotine: GIH luh teen ponents? Musée Cornovolet/ tRobespierre: roh behs PYEHR Photo Bulloz. ,:::ai:i:ri:i:Ì:l:.iirl ;ì :::i:1: ::..;::i::.:::'rr:ì'ì,:::-:tr
irìvesügate the situation in Pa¡is, ordering the 1793, which set limits on the prices of thirty- arrest ofvarious local leaders. In response, nine essentia-I commodities and on wages. In Parisian militants organized an armed demon- a speech to the Convention, Robespierre ex- stration and invaded the Nationa-l Convention plained the necessity of government by terror: on June 2, L793, forcing the deputies to de- "The first ma¡
hty- citizens everJ¡where help ed collect s altpeter, By s. In a rock salt used to make gunpowder' the in arms had ) ex- end of 1793, the French nation Íror: stopped the advance of the allied powers, re to and in the summer of T794 it invaded the rle's Austrian Netherlands and crossed the Rhine n-or Ri\¡er. The army was ready to carry the :nt." gospel of revolution and republicanism to tlre Cto rest of Ðurope. ified Lt is, The Republic of Virtue, "1793-1794 tres, The program ofthe Terror went beyond prag- ma- matic measures to fight tJle war and internal rties enemies to include efforts to "republicalize :iaIs ever5rthing"-in other words, to effect a cul- uni- tural revolution. While censoring writings ûar- deemed counterrevolutionary, the govern- encouraged republica¡l art, set up civic , the ment ered festivals, and in some places directly attacked tri- the churches in a campaign known as de- Lters Christianization. In addition to drawing up plans for a new program of elementary edu- , the cted cation, the republic set about politicizing every of daily life, from the naming of babies ¡ the aspect aÌne to the measurement of space and time. mpe I all Republican Culture. R.efusing to tolerate opposition, the republic left no stone un- ìon turned in its endeavor to get its message rced across. Songs-especiaJly the new national "I¿ Representing tiberÇ ain, anthem, Marseillaise"-placards, posters, pamphlets, books, engravings, paintings, Liberty was represented by a female figure because (a This paint- -all sculpture, even everyday crockery, chamber- in French the noun is feminine liberté). son ing from 1793-1794, by Jeanne-Louise Vallain, cap- ouis pots, and playing cards conveyed revoiu- tionary slogans and symbols. Foremost tures the usual attributes of Liberty: she is soberly gov- wearing a Roman-style toga, and holding a among them was the figure of Liberty (an seated, the pike with a Roman liberÇ cap on top. Her Roman early version of the Statue of Libefly now in Llest appearance signals that she is the representation of New York harbor), which appeared on coins ever an abstract quality. The fact that she holds an instru- and letterheads sea-ls, and as statues :ces, bills, and ment of battle suggests that women might be active in festivals (see Representing Liberly, shown 'tent participants. Liberty is holding the Declaration of the de- here). Hundreds of new plays were produced Rights of Man and Citizen as it was revised in 1793. and old classics revised. To encourage the This painting was most likely hung in a central loca- production of patriotic and republicanworks, tion in the Paris Jacobin Club. Musée de Io Revolution men the government sponsored state competi- Fronçoise, Vizille. )TTLEN tions for artists. Works of art were supposed hos- to "awaken the public spirit and make clear twiII how atrocious and ridiculous were the ene- with the spontaneous planting of liberty trees 'oLtse mies of liberty and of the Republic." in villages and towns. The Festival of Feder- zd oJ At the center of this elaborate cultural ation on July 14, 1790, marked the first an- campaign were the revolutionary festivals niversary of the fall of the Bastille. Under the lens modeled on Rousseau's plans for a civic National Convention, the well-known painter (L748-1825), who was ancl religion. The festivals first emerged in 1789 Jacques-Louis David l¡¡,i7.,6':6.:':1.-rrcr:¡¡.:l]! ;:20'.Jtrr',caiÀiLv.9¡,s¡,'fl rvoru11.òrv i 789-1 800
a deputy and associate ofRobespierre, took Politicizing Daily Life. In principle the over festival plarrrring. David aimed to destroy best way to ensure the future of the repub- the mystique of monarchy and to make the lic was through the education of the young. republic sacred. I-Iis Festival of Unity on The deputy Georges-Jacques Danton August 10, f 793, for example, celebrated the (1759 -17 94), Robespierre's main competitor fì¡st anniversary of ihe overthrow of the mon- as theorist of the Revolution, maintained archy. In front of the statue of Liberty built that "after bread, the fìrst need of the people for the occasion, a Lronfire consumed the is education." The National Convention voted crowrrs and scepters of royalty while a cloud to make primary schooling free and com- of three thousand white doves rose into the pulsory for both boys and girls. It took con- sþ. This was all part of preaching the "mora-l trol of education away from the Catholic order of the Republic . . . thatwill make us a church and tried to set up a system of state people of brothers, a people of philosophers." schools at both the primary and secondary levels, but it lacked trained teachers to re- De-Christianization. Some revolutionar- place those the Catholic religious orders ies hoped the festival system would replace provided. As a result, opportunities for lear-n- the Catholic church aìtogether. They initiated ing how to read and write may have dimin- a campaign of de-Christianization that in- ished. In 1799, only one-fifth as many boys cluded closing churches (Protestant as well enrolled in the state secondary schools as as Catholic), selling many church buildings had studied in church schools ten years to the highest bidder, and trying to force earlier. even those clergy who had taken the oath of Although many of the ambitious repub- loyalty to atrandon their clerical vocations lican programs failed, almost all aspects of and marryr. Great churches became store- daily life became politicized, even colors. The houses for arms or grain, or their stones tricolor-the combination of red, white, and were sold off to contractors. The medieval blue that was to become the flag of France- statues of kings on the facade of Notre Dame was devised in July 1789, and by 1793 ev- cathedral we¡:e beheaded. Church bells were eryone had to wear a cockade (a badge made dismantled and church treasures melted of ribbons) with the colors. Using the formal down for government use. forms of speech-uoræ for'you"-or the tille In the ultimate step in de-Christianiza- monsí.ew or madømem1gþt identify someone tion, extremists tried to establish what they as an aristocrat; true patriots used the called the Cult of Reason to supplant Chris- informal tu and citogen' or citogenne ("citi- tianity. In Paris in the fall of 1793, a goddess zen") instead. Some people changed their of Liberty, played by an actress, presided names or gave their children new kinds of over the Festival of Reason in Notre Dame names. BiblicaÌ and saints'names such as cathedral. Local militants in other cities Jean, Pierre, Joseph, and Marie gave way to staged similar festivals, which alarmed narnes recalling heroes of the ancient Roman deputies in the National Convention, who republic (Bmtus, Gracchus, Cornelia), revo- were wa-ry of turning rural, devout popula- lutionary heroes, or flowers and plalts. Such tions against the republic. The Committee of changes symbolized adherence to the re- Public Safety halted the de-Christianization public and to Ðnlightenment ideals rather campaign, and Robespierre, with David's than to Catholicism. help, tried to institute an alternative, the Ðr.en the measures of time and space Cult of the Supreme Being, in June 1794. were revolutionized. In October 1793, the Robespierre objected to the de-Christianiza- National Convention introduced a new cal- tion campaign's atheism; he favored a endar to replace the Christian one. Its bases Rousseau-inspired deistic religion without were reason and republican principles. Year the supposedly superstitious trappings of I dated from the beginning of the republic on Catholicism. Neither cult attracted many fol- September 22, 1792. TWelve months of ex- lowers, but both show the depth of the com- actly thirty days each received new names mitment to overturning the old order and all its traditional institutions. 'citogen': sih twoy en :fü ,l R R cr¡;:Àñ ri; RÊ.iis.rn¡r.érr..::7.67,,:
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the derived from nature-for example' PluviÔse' the Virgin Mary in procession, hiding a rub- (roughly equivalent to Febmary) recalled the priest who would not take the oath, singing rng. ran (Lct pluíe) of late winter. Instead of seven- a royalist song-all these expressed dis- rton day weeks, ten-day dêcades provided only sent with the new symbols, rituals, and titor one day of rest every ten days and pointedly policies. Resistance also took more violent ned eliminated the Sunday of the Christian forms, from riots over food shortages or re- ople calendar. The five days left at the end of the ligious policies to assassination and full- ¡ted calendar year were devoted to special festivals scale civil war. om- called sqns-cuLottídes.+ The calendar re- )on- mained in force for twelve years despite con- W'omen's Resistance. Many women, in rolic tinuing resistance to it. More enduring was particular, suffered from the hard conditions tate the new metric system based on units of ten of life that persisted in this time of war, and lary tl¡at was invented to replace the hundreds they had their own ways of voicing discon- I re- of local variations in weights and measures. tent. Long bread lines in the cities exhausted lers Other countries in Europe and throughout the patience of women, and police spies ltTt- the world eventually adopted the metric reported their constant grumbling, which nin- system. occasionally turned into spontaneous demon- )oys Successive revolutionary legislatures had strations or riots over high prices or food ias also changed the rules of family life. The shortages. \Vomen also took the lead in )ars state took responsibilty for all famity matters protesting against changes forced on the away from the Catholic church: birth, death, Catholic church; they organized their fellow rub- and marriage registration now happened at parishioners to refuse to hea¡ mass offered by .s of city hall, not the parish church. Marriage the "constitutional" priests, and they pro- The became a civil contract and as such could be tected the priests who would not sign the and broken and thereby nulfifìed. The new divorce oath of loyalty. )e- law of September L792 was the most fa¡- Other forms of resistance were more in- ev- reaching in Europe: a couple could divorce by dividual. One young woman, Charlotte Lade mutual consent or for reasons such as in- Corday, assassinated the outspoken deputy mal sanity, abandonment, battering, or criminal Jean-Paul Ma¡at in JuIy 1793. Corday fer- title conviction. Thousands of men and women vently supported the Girondins, and she )one took advaltage of the law to dissolve un- considered it her patriotic duty to kill the the happymarriages, even though the pope had deputy who, in the columns of his paper, citi- condemned the measure. (In 1816, the gov- had constantly demanded more heads and heir ernment revoked the right to divorce, and not more blood. Marat was immediately eulo- sof until t]le l97os did French divorce laws re- glzed as a great martyr, and Corday went to ras turn to the principles of the 1792legislation.) the guillotine vilified as a monster but confi- yto In one of its most influential actions, the dent that she had "avenged many innocent nan Nationa-l Convention passed a series of laws victirns." 3VO- that created equal inheritance among all uch children in the family, including girls. The fa- Rebellion and Civil War. Organized resis- re- ther's right to favor one child, especiaily the tance broke out in many parts of France. The Jrer oldest male, was considered aristocratic and arrest of the Gi¡ondin deputies in June 1793 hence antirepublican. sparked insurrections in several depart- )ace ments. After the government retook the the city of Lyon, one of the centers of the revolt, Resisting the Revolution cal- the deputy on mission ordered sixteen ISCS By intruding into religion, culture, and daily hundred houses demolished. Special courts lea¡ life, the republic inevitably provoked resis- sentenced almost two thousand people to lon tance. Shouting curses against the republic, death. Thereafter, the name of the city ex- uprooting liberty trees, carryring statues of was changed to Ville Affranchie' (Liberated mes Town). rPluviôse: PLOO vee ohs t sd¡ts-culottides: sahn ku law TÐÐD 'ville Affranchie: veel uh FRAHNSH ee ¡-n.¡zQ ii¡,,Ç'o.ro4t",l¡:ÞiEe,v,é,!,ù¡o!.,. åilt7r;-b,18-tiiii .,,: .., :: I 789-l 800
In the Vendée region of western France, lowing the orders that you gave me I have resistance turned into full-scale civil war. crushed children under the feet of horses, Between Ma¡ch and December I7g\,peasants, massacred women who at least . . . will en_ artisans, and weat¡ers joined under noble gender no more brigands." leadership "Catholic to form a and R.oyal "Infernal columns" of republican troops Army." One rebel group explained its motives: marched through the region to restore "They con_ fthe republicans] trol, military courts ordered thousands exe_ have killed our king, cuted, and republican soldiers massacred chased away our priests, thousands of others. In one especially gr-ue_ sold the goods of our some incident, the deputy Jean_Baptiste church, eaten eveqrthing Carrier supenrised the drowning of some two we have and now they thousand Vendée rebels, including a number want to take our bodies of priests. Barges loaded with prisoners were [in the draft]." The up- floated into the Loire River nea¡ Nantes and rising took two different then sunk. Controversy still rages about the forms: in the Vendée it- rebellion's death toll. Estimates of rebel self, a counterrevolu- deaths alone range from atrout 2O,OOO to tionary army organized 250,000 and higher. Many thousands of rle_ to fight the republic; in publican soldiers and civilians also lost their nearby Brittany, resis- lives. Even the low estimates reveal the c¿rr_ tance took the form of nage of this catastrophic confrontation be_ guerrilla bands, which tween the republic and its opponents. The Vendée Rebellion, t795 united to attack a target and then quickly melted The Fall of into the countryside. Great Britain provided Robespierre and money and underground contacts for these the End of the Terror, 'lTg4-'l7gg attacks, which were almost always aimed In a¡r atmosphere of fear of conspiracy that at towns. Town officials sold church lands, ttrese outbreaks fueled, Robespierre tried simul_ enforced measures against the clergy, and taleously to exert the Nationa_l Convention's supervised conscription. In many ways this control over popular political activities and to was a civil war between town and countr¡r, weed out opposition among the deputies. As for the townspeople were the ones who sup- a result, the Terror intensified until ported July the Revolution and bought church 1794, when a group of deputies jojned within lands for themselves. The peasants had the Convention to order the a¡rest a¡rd exe_ gained most of what they wanted in 17gg cution of Robespierre and his followers. The with the abolition of seigneurial dues, and Convention then ordered elections and drew lJrey resented the government's dema¡rds for up a new republican constitution that gave money and manpower and actions taken executive power to five directors. This ,.Di_ against their local clergr. rectory government" maintained power dur_ For several months in 17g3, the Vendée ing four years of seesaw battles between rebels stormed the largest. towns in the re_ royalists and former Jacobins. Uttimately gion. it Both sides committed horrible atroci_ gave way to Napoleon Bonaparte. ties. At the small town of Machecoul, for example, the rebels massacred five hundred The Revolution Devours Its Own. In republicans, tlle including administrators and falJof 1793, the National Convention cracked National Gua¡d members; many were tied to- down on popular clubs and societies. F.irst to gether, shoved into freshly dug graves, and be suppressed were women's political clubs. shot, By ihe fall, however, republican soldiers Founded in early 1793, the Society of Revo_ had turned back the rebels. A republican lutionar5r Republican Women played a very general wrote public to the Committee of active part in sans-culottes politics. The Safety claiming, '"There so_ is no more Vendée, ciety urged harsher Ineasures against the citizens, it has perished under our free sword republic's enemies and insisted that women along with its women and children, . . . Fol_ have a voice in politics even if they did not ;"i::.;,:r,,::.ir¡'ì :i,l1 ¿.qt+¡l;n¡ ¡i,¡'è.1::;1. 9 17 89-1800 ve vote. Women had set up their own tinued and even worsened. A law passed in )S, have the n- clubs in many provincial towns and also at- June L794 denied tìle accused the right of le- tended the meetings of local men's organi- gal counsel, reduced the number ofjurors closing of women's ps zattons. The clubs marked necessary for conviction, and allowed only judgments: n- an important turning point in the Revolution. two acquittal or death. The cat- on the sans-culottes their egory of political crimes expanded to include :e- From then ald organizations carne increasingly un- "slandering patriotism" "seeking ed political a¡d to in- the ihumb of the Jacobin deputies in the spire discouragement." Ordinary people _e- der ,te Nalional Convention. risked the guillotine if they expressed any dis- National Convention abolished content. The rate of executions in Paris rose VO The ,er 14¡omen's political clubs in order to limit agi- from five a day in the spring of L794 to 're tation in the streets. As one deputy stated, twenty-six a day in the summer-. The politica-l clubs consisted "adventuresses, rd women's of atmosphere da¡kened even though the mil- fe kni$hts-erralt, emancipated women, ama- itary situation improved. At the end of June, zous." The deputies called on biological ar- the French armies decisively defeated the 'el about natural differences Lretween to guments main Austrian army and advanced through 'e- the sexes to bolstel thei¡ case. As one ar$ued, the Austrian Netherlands to Brussels and "Women suited :ir a¡e ill for elevated thoughts Antwerp. The emergency measures for fight- and serious meditations." In subsequent ing the war were working, yet Robespierre _r- years physicians, priests, and philosophers and his inner circle had made so many ene- e- amplified such opinions by formulating ex- mies that they could not afford to loosen the planations for women's "natural" differences grip of the Terror. from men to justi$ their inferior status. The Terror hardly touched many parts of In the spring of 1794, the Committee of France, but overall the experience was un- Public Safety moved against its critics deniably traumatic. Across the country the among leaders in Paris and deputies the official lives of least at in Terror cost the at forty National Convention itself. First a ha¡rdful of thousand Fr-ench people, most of them living ¡l- "ultrarevolutionaries"-in is fact a motley col- in the regions of major insurrections or nea-r lection of local Parisian politicians-were the borders with foreign enemies, where sus- to arrested a¡rd executed. Nert came the other picion of collaboration ran high. As many !s "indulgents," ly side, the so called because iJrey as 300,000 people-one out of every fifty favored a moderation of the Terror. Included French people-went to prison as suspects in among them was the deputy Danton, himself between March 1793 and August 1794. Tlre once a member of the Committee of Public toll for the aristocracy and the clergy u'as es- te Safety and a friend of Robespierre, pecially nobles perished w despite high. Many leading the striking contrast in their personalities. under the guillotine, and thousands emi- TC Danton was the Revolution's most flamboy- grated. Thirty thousand to forty thousand 'i- ant orator and, unlike Robespierre, a high- clergy refused emigrated, at r- who the oath living, high- spending, excitable politician. (including :n At least two thousand many nuns) it every critical turning point in national poli- were executed, and thousands were impris- tics, his booming voice had swayed opinion oned. The clergy were singled out in partic- in the National Convention. Now, under gov- ular in the civil war zones: 135 priests were ernment pressure, the Revolutionary 1'ri- massacred at Lyon in November 1793, and te bunal convicted him of 83 were shot one day during the Vendée :d and his friends in treason and sentenced them to death. revolt. Yet many victims of the Terror were -o Wit]. the arrest and execution of these peasants or ordinary working people. S. leaders in Paris, the prophecies of doom for The final crisis of the Terror came in )- the Revolution seemed about to be realized. July 1794. Conflicts within the Committee of v "The Revolution," as one of the Girondin vic- Public Safety and the National Convention )- tims of 1793 had remarked, "was devouring left Robespierre isolated. On J:uly 27, 1794 re its own (the of Year according to n children." Even after the major ninth Thermidor, II, threats Committee of Robespierre rt to the Public Safety's the revolutionary calendar), power had been eliminated, the Terror con- appeared L¡efore the Convention with yet I 789*1 800
another list of deputies to be arrested. Muly dinner parties, and "victims' bails" feared where they would be named, and they guests wore red ribbons around their necks shouted him down and ordered him arrested as reminders of the guillotine. Bands of along with his followers on the committee, the young men dressed in knee br.eeches president and of the Revolutionary 1ìjbunal in rich fabrics picked fìghts with known Paris, and the commander of the Farisian Jacobins and disrupted theater perfor_ National Gua¡d. An a¡med uprising led by mances with loud antjr-evolutionary songs. All the Paris city government failed to save over France people banded together and pe_ Robespierre when most of the Nalional Gua¡d titioned to reopen churches closed during took the side of the Convention. Robespierre the Terror. If necessary they broke into a tried to himself kill with a pistol but only chu¡ch to hold services with a priest who had broke jaw. his The next day he a¡rd scores of been in hiding or a lay schoolteacher who followers went to the guillotine. was willing to say Mass. Although the lbrror had ended, The tJle revo_ Thermidorian Reaction and the Di- lution had not. ln 1794, the most democratic rectory, L794-1799. The men who led the and most repressive phases of tJre Revolution attack on Robespierre in Thermidor (July both ended at once. Between l79S and lZ9g, 1794) did not intend to reverse all his poli- the republic endured in France, but it di_ cies, t¡ut that happened nonelàeless because rected a war effort abroad that would ulti_ of a violent backlash known as the Thermi- mately bring to power the man who would dorian Reaction. As most of the instru_ disrnantle the republic itself. ments of terror were dismantled, newspapers attacked the Robespierrists as ,,tiçrs thirst_ ing for human blood." The new government released hundreds of suspects and ar_ ranged a temporary truce in the Vendée. It purged Jacot¡ins from local bodies and re_ placed them with ttreir opponents. It arrested ,.terorists" some of the most notorious in the National Convention, such as Carrier, and put them to death. Within the year üre * Revolution on the March new leaders abolished the Revolutionary Tri- bunal and closed the Jacobin paris. Club in Beginning in 1792, war raged almost con_ Popular demonstrations met severe repres_ stantly until 1815. At one time or a¡rother, sion. In southeastern France, in particular, and sometimes all at once, France the "White faced every Terror" replaced the Jacobins' principal power in Europe. The French "Red Terror." Former officials and local Ja_ republic-and later tl-e French Empire under cobin leaders were harassed, beaten, and its supreme commander, Emperor Napoleon often murdered by paramilitary ba¡rds who Bonaparte-proved an even more formidable had tacit support from the new authorities. opponent than the France of I¡uis )ilV. New Those who remained in the National Con_ means of mobilizing and organizing soldiers vention prepared yet another constitution enabled the French to dominate Europe for in 1795, setting up a two-house legislature a generation. The influence of 1he Revolution and an executive body-the Directory, as a political model and the threat of French headed by five directors. military conquest combined to challenge the The Directory regime tenuously held on traditional order in Europe. to power for four years, all the while trying to fend_ off challenges from the ,"-âirri.rg Jacobins and the resurgent royaìists. The Arms and Conquests puritanical atmosphere of the Terror gave The powers allied against France way to the squan_ pursuit of pleasure-low-cut dered their best chance to triumph in early dresses of transparent materials, the reap_ 1793, when the French armies verged on pearance of prostitutes in the streets, fancy chaos because of the emigration of noble