DOCSLIB.ORG

Help, Hope, and Hype: Ethical Dimensions of Neuroprosthetics

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Help, Hope, and Hype: Ethical Dimensions of Neuroprosthetics Will brain and/or neural control of a prosthetic POLICY FORUM hand soon be a commonplace? brain processes occur unconsciously, and the highly complex computations in the brain are difficult to resolve. Human ac- countability for injuries caused in the use of such a symbiotic robot might occur in several ways. First, where there is a form of “veto” built into the system [e.g., override through voluntary ocular movements (1)], a person could be held liable for failing to exercise the veto, just as a driver may be re- sponsible for failing to apply brakes. Second, using an unpredictable or poorly TECHNOLOGY AND ETHICS controllable semiautonomous robot in cir- cumstances posing a risk of injury may be viewed as negligent (e.g., using it to pick up a Help, hope, and hype: Ethical baby, versus using it for other, less-risky activ- ities). Holding people responsible for injuries they inflict despite their lacking capacity or Downloaded from dimensions of neuroprosthetics control at the time of the injury is consistent with theories of moral and legal responsibil- Accountability, responsibility, privacy, and security are key ity (13), e.g., holding a driver responsible for injuries caused during an epileptic seizure if By Jens Clausen,1 Eberhard Fetz,2 John the fear of losing privacy and autonomy and the driver knowingly failed to take antisei- 3 4 Donoghue, Junichi Ushiba, Ulrike of self-dissolution. zure medication properly (14). Accordingly, http://science.sciencemag.org/ Spörhase,1 Jennifer Chandler,5 Niels These fears may seem exaggerated in light the user’s responsibility may transfer from Birbaumer,3,6 Surjo R. Soekadar7 of the current state of the art of BMIs, but the earlier to the later time if harm from the given the exponential growth of the field over inappropriate use of the device in the cir- rain-controlled prosthetic robots that the last decades (1–7), we should anticipate cumstances was reasonably foreseeable, and restore independent activities of daily that technological feasibilities might change the user had cognitive control over the risky living to paralyzed people are about to rapidly. Rather than neglecting such possi- choices that resulted in an injury. enter everyday life environments (1). bilities as being too far-fetched, current deci- Third, manufacturers of potentially risky The regained ability to grasp a cup of sions and technical developments should be tools bear moral and legal responsibilities coffee, hand over a credit card, or sign informed by such eventual scenarios. related to design, manufacture, and market- a document with a pen (1) enhances the inde- For example, the highest information ing (including risk disclosure). Legal systems B pendence and self-determination of severely readout of currently available BMIs is a tiny usually tolerate a certain level of risk in many on July 5, 2017 paralyzed individuals. However, introducing fraction of the information transfer rate via products, although reasonable steps to mini- devices controlled via brain-machine inter- normal sensorimotor channels and the in- mize risks, including education of users, are faces (BMIs) into everyday environments, formation processed in the brain (8). How- often expected. possibly enhancing the capabilities of able- ever, development of advanced sensors [e.g., We propose that any semiautonomous bodied people to interact with digital devices, (9)], allowing brain activity to be recorded system should include a form of veto con- raises a number of ethical and social chal- at higher spatial resolution, coupled with trol. This could be a useful adjunct to ad- lenges in the areas of (i) autonomy, respon- advances in machine learning and artificial dress some current weaknesses of direct sibility, and accountability; (ii) data security intelligence, could substantially enhance brain-machine interaction. The circum- and privacy; and (iii) managing end-user ex- BMI capabilities in the near future and over- stances under which it will be safe, ethical, pectations about a promising field of medical come the input-output constraint. This could and legal to use the systems depend on the advances. We here take a closer look at these enable more in-depth “mind-reading,” i.e., reliability of the veto signal and the condi- issues and suggest some possible answers to classification of brain states related to per- tions under which it can effectively mitigate addressing them. ceptions, thoughts, emotions, or intentions. possible risks. A device that continuously The use of BMIs shares some ethical issues records all relevant system parameters with other modern tools, such as sophisti- could help to distinguish malfunctions RESPONSIBILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY Y OR cated smartphones and semiautonomous In some sense, BMI-controlled devices might from misuse in possible legal cases. Such T A systems (e.g., self-driving cars). But there are be seen as just another tool (10, 11). However, continuous surveillance, however, can be OR B A L unique concerns about BMI technology: Al- inclusion of more and more autonomous privacy-invasive and is arguably discrimi- Y though effortless interactions between mind components into the tools (12) transforms OG OL N and machine seem intuitively appealing, their operation into an endeavor of shared H 1University of Education, 79085 Freiburg, Germany. 2University C TE creating direct links between a digital ma- control. Where do we draw the line between 3 O of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA. Wyss Center for R U chine and our brain may dangerously limit or the responsibility and accountability of the Bio and Neuroengineering, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland. 4Keio E N D suspend our capacity to control the interac- user and the manufacturer in such systems? Institute of Pure and Applied Sciences, Keio University, E I Kanagawa 223-8521, Japan. 5University of Ottawa, Ottawa, tion between the “inner” personal and outer A semiautonomous robot directly linked PPL 6 A Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada. University of Tübingen, 72074 O: worlds. For many, such a scenario raises fun- to and interacting with a brain makes the Tübingen, Germany. 7University Hospital Tübingen, 72076 T O H damental, even existential, fears—including source of an act difficult to identify. Most Tübingen, Germany. Email: [email protected] P 1338 30 JUNE 2017 • VOL 356 ISSUE 6345 sciencemag.org SCIENCE Published by AAAS DA_0630PolicyForum.indd 1338 6/28/17 11:17 AM INSIGHTS natory, given that such information is not cians). The potential for hacking biomedical sary to manage expectations of potential end collected or available from the many non- devices with possibly fatal consequences has users, caregivers, clinicians, scientists, and in- BMI users. been demonstrated for insulin pumps and vestors. This involves widespread responsibil- implantable cardiac defibrillators (17). Some ity, but particularly among the media, health SECURITY AND PRIVACY hackers could attack BMIs simply for gratifi- care providers, and companies that promote As soon as a biological signal is electroni- cation, to demonstrate the skills, or as a tech- and profit from neuroprosthetic technology. cally amplified, the resulting signal can be nophobe statement. We encourage improved health literacy intercepted and manipulated. There is, to our and neuro-literacy in the broader society. knowledge, no established technological so- MANAGING EXPECTATIONS Every citizen should be provided the basic lution for this problem. Amplified biological Impressive demonstrations of BMI technol- understanding necessary for an informed signals are often transmitted wirelessly (e.g., ogy (4–7) have so far involved relatively few choice. This includes public information, Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) without secure commu- participants. Many of these people did not teaching in school, and teacher education. nication protocols. Permanent use of a BMI require a BMI to restore such functions be- BMIs have restored autonomy and quality in everyday life environments could be a con- cause they could control the prosthetic de- of life for many individuals, but the full ca- siderable source of potentially sensitive data vices with other biosignals, such as muscle pability and long-term effects on the human related to neural activity. These data could be activity or eye movements (7). There are brain and mind remain unclear. The promise valuable for research but also raise questions reliable reports of only four persons world- that noninvasive BMIs could improve brain regarding data security and privacy. How and wide with complete locked-in syndrome functions like focus, attention, or concentra- where can data be encrypted and stored? (CLIS; i.e., complete paralysis including eye tion and could decrease distractibility in nor- Which standard of encryption would be ac- movements) who could answer simple “yes- mal users requires sound and clear scientific ceptable and necessary? Who should have ac- no” questions (5, 6) on the basis of signals evidence. Should society accept unlimited Downloaded from cess to these sensitive data? recorded with near-infrared spectroscopy marketing of such BMI devices under pos- Fortunately, we can begin applying so- monitoring of cerebral oxygen saturation. In sibly exaggerated promises, as long as they lutions from other fields, e.g., digital com- contrast to common beliefs, severely para- are safe and do no physical harm? Or must munication, that face similar challenges. we take steps to protect end users from being These include rigorous implementation of exploited or exposed to possible side effects? the highest data encryption standards and The time is now to set the course and take http://science.sciencemag.org/ information-hiding methodologies, as well as “A semiautonomous robot actions to ensure beneficial and safe use for network security measures, e.g., firewalls or directly…interacting with a brain-machine interaction. j intrusion prevention systems. The availability of sensitive neuronal data brain makes the source of an REFERENCES AND NOTES 1. S. R. Soekadar et al., Sci. Robot. 1, eaag3296 (2016). becomes particularly problematic in the use act difficult to identify.” 2. E. E. Fetz, Science 163, 955 (1969).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Computational Neuroscience Meets Optogenetics: Unlocking the Brain’S Secrets
    Health & Medicine ︱ Prof Simon Schultz and Dr Konstantin Nikolic Computational neuroscience meets optogenetics: Unlocking the brain’s secrets Working at the interface omposed of billions of specialised responsible for perception, action Simplified models allow researchers to study how the geometry of a neuron’s “dendritic tree” affects its ability to process information. between engineering and nerve cells (called neurons) wired and memory. But this is changing. neuroscience, Professor Simon C together in complex, intricate Schultz and Dr Konstantin webs, the brain is inherently challenging LET THERE BE LIGHT Nikolic at Imperial College to study. Neurons communicate with A powerful new tool (invented by Boyden of Neurotechnology and Director of SHEDDING LIGHT ON THE BRAIN AN INSIGHT INTO NEURONAL GAIN London are developing tools each other by transmitting electrical and and Deisseroth just a little over a decade the Imperial Centre of Excellence in Their innovative approach uses Using two biophysical models of to help us understand the chemical signals along neural circuits: ago) allows researchers to map the brain’s Neurotechnology, Dr Konstantin Nikolic, sophisticated two-photon microscopy, neurons, genetically-modified to include intricate workings of the brain. signals that vary both in space and time. connections, giving unprecedented Associate Professor in the Department optogenetics and electrophysiology two distinct light-sensitive proteins Combining a revolutionary Until now, technical limitations in the access to the workings of the brain. Its of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, to measure (and disturb) patterns of (called opsins): channelrhodopsin-2 technology – optogenetics available research methods to study the impressive resolution enables precise and Dr Sarah Jarvis are taking a unique neuronal activity in vivo (in living tissue).
    [Show full text]
  • Implantable Microelectrodes on Soft Substrate with Nanostructured Active Surface for Stimulation and Recording of Brain Activities Valentina Castagnola
    Implantable microelectrodes on soft substrate with nanostructured active surface for stimulation and recording of brain activities Valentina Castagnola To cite this version: Valentina Castagnola. Implantable microelectrodes on soft substrate with nanostructured active sur- face for stimulation and recording of brain activities. Micro and nanotechnologies/Microelectronics. Universite Toulouse III Paul Sabatier, 2014. English. tel-01137352 HAL Id: tel-01137352 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01137352 Submitted on 31 Mar 2015 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. THÈSETHÈSE En vue de l’obtention du DOCTORAT DE L’UNIVERSITÉ DE TOULOUSE Délivré par : l’Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier (UT3 Paul Sabatier) Présentée et soutenue le 18/12/2014 par : Valentina CASTAGNOLA Implantable Microelectrodes on Soft Substrate with Nanostructured Active Surface for Stimulation and Recording of Brain Activities JURY M. Frédéric MORANCHO Professeur d’Université Président de jury M. Blaise YVERT Directeur de recherche Rapporteur Mme Yael HANEIN Professeur d’Université Rapporteur M. Pascal MAILLEY Directeur de recherche Examinateur M. Christian BERGAUD Directeur de recherche Directeur de thèse Mme Emeline DESCAMPS Chargée de Recherche Directeur de thèse École doctorale et spécialité : GEET : Micro et Nanosystèmes Unité de Recherche : Laboratoire d’Analyse et d’Architecture des Systèmes (UPR 8001) Directeur(s) de Thèse : M.
    [Show full text]
  • ECE 5070: Neuroengineering and Neuroprosthetics
    ECE 5070: Neuroengineering and Neuroprosthetics Course Description An overview of the broad field of Neuroengineering for graduate and senior undergraduate students with engineering or neuroscience backgrounds. Focusing on neural interfaces and prostheses, this course covers from basic neurophysiology and computational neuronal models to advanced neural interfaces and prostheses currently being actively developed in the field. Transcript Abbreviation: Neur Eng & Prosth Grading Plan: Letter Grade Course Deliveries: Classroom Course Levels: Undergrad, Graduate Student Ranks: Junior, Senior, Masters, Doctoral Course Offerings: Autumn Flex Scheduled Course: Never Course Frequency: Even Years Course Length: 14 Week Credits: 3.0 Repeatable: No Time Distribution: 3.0 hr Lec Expected out-of-class hours per week: 6.0 Graded Component: Lecture Credit by Examination: No Admission Condition: No Off Campus: Never Campus Locations: Columbus Prerequisites and Co-requisites: Prereq: 3050 or BME 3703; or Neurosc 3010; or Grad standing in Engineering or Neurosc. Exclusions: Not open to students with credit for 5194.03 or Neurosc 5070. Cross-Listings: Cross-listed in Neurosc. Course Rationale: Introduce students a vibrant, interdisciplinary field which integrates engineering and neuroscience principles for treating neurological disorders. The course is required for this unit's degrees, majors, and/or minors: No The course is a GEC: No The course is an elective (for this or other units) or is a service course for other units: Yes Subject/CIP Code: 14.1001 Subsidy Level: Doctoral Course Programs Abbreviation Description CpE Computer Engineering EE Electrical Engineering Course Goals Master principles of neural interfaces. Be competent with computational neural models. Be competent with design of common neuroprostheses.
    [Show full text]
  • New Technologies for Human Robot Interaction and Neuroprosthetics
    University of Plymouth PEARL https://pearl.plymouth.ac.uk Faculty of Science and Engineering School of Engineering, Computing and Mathematics 2017-07-01 Human-Robot Interaction and Neuroprosthetics: A review of new technologies Cangelosi, A http://hdl.handle.net/10026.1/9872 10.1109/MCE.2016.2614423 IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine All content in PEARL is protected by copyright law. Author manuscripts are made available in accordance with publisher policies. Please cite only the published version using the details provided on the item record or document. In the absence of an open licence (e.g. Creative Commons), permissions for further reuse of content should be sought from the publisher or author. CEMAG-OA-0004-Mar-2016.R3 1 New Technologies for Human Robot Interaction and Neuroprosthetics Angelo Cangelosi, Sara Invitto Abstract—New technologies in the field of neuroprosthetics and These developments in neuroprosthetics are closely linked to robotics are leading to the development of innovative commercial the recent significant investment and progress in research on products based on user-centered, functional processes of cognitive neural networks and deep learning approaches to robotics and neuroscience and perceptron studies. The aim of this review is to autonomous systems [2][3]. Specifically, one key area of analyze this innovative path through the description of some of the development has been that of cognitive robots for human-robot latest neuroprosthetics and human-robot interaction applications, in particular the Brain Computer Interface linked to haptic interaction and assistive robotics. This concerns the design of systems, interactive robotics and autonomous systems. These robot companions for the elderly, social robots for children with issues will be addressed by analyzing developmental robotics and disabilities such as Autism Spectrum Disorders, and robot examples of neurorobotics research.
    [Show full text]
  • Brain-Machine Interface: from Neurophysiology to Clinical
    Neurophysiology of Brain-Machine Interface Rehabilitation Matija Milosevic, Osaka University - Graduate School of Engineering Science - Japan. Abstract— Long-lasting cortical re-organization or II. METHODS neuroplasticity depends on the ability to synchronize the descending (voluntary) commands and the successful execution Stimulation of muscles with FES was delivered using a of the task using a neuroprosthetic. This talk will discuss the constant current biphasic waveform with a 300μs pulse width neurophysiological mechanisms of brain-machine interface at 50 Hz frequency via surface electrodes. First, repetitive (BMI) controlled neuroprosthetics with the aim to provide transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) intermittent theta implications for development of technologies for rehabilitation. burst protocol (iTBS) was used to induce cortical facilitation. iTBS protocol consists of pulses delivered intermittently at a I. INTRODUCTION frequency of 50 Hz and 5 Hz for a total of 200 seconds. Functional electrical stimulation (FES) neuroprosthetics Moreover, motor imagery protocol was used to display a can be used to applying short electric impulses over the virtual reality hand opening and closing sequence of muscles or the nerves to generate hand muscle contractions movements (hand flexion/extension) while subject’s hands and functional movements such as reaching and grasping. remained at rest and out of the visual field. Our work has shown that recruitment of muscles using FES goes beyond simple contractions, with evidence suggesting III. RESULTS re-organization of the spinal reflex networks and cortical- Our first results showed that motor imagery can affect level changes after the stimulating period [1,2]. However, a major challenge remains in achieving precise temporal corticospinal facilitation in a phase-dependent manner, i.e., synchronization of voluntary commands and activation of the hand flexor muscles during hand closing and extensor muscles [3].
    [Show full text]
  • Practical and Ethical Issues at the Intersection of Brain Science and Society
    Emerging Neurotechnologies: Practical and Ethical Issues at the Intersection of Brain Science and Society James Giordano PhD Departments of Neurology and Biochemistry Neuroethics Studies Program, Pellegrino Center for Clinical Bioethics Georgetown University Medical Center Washington, DC, USA and EU-Human Brain Project SP-12 Uppsala University, Sweden Neuroscience… • Huge leaps using technology to study and understand how nervous systems and brains are structured and function. Allowed understanding at certain levels of causality: – Formal: Overall “workings” of biological systems – Material: Structure and functional roles of neurons, glia But not at others… – Efficient: How “grey stuff” actually makes “great stuff” – Final: For what? To what “ends”? Core Questions... What do we do with the information and capability we have? What do we do about the information and capability we don’t? Questions toward Innovation • Tools to Theory • Theory to Tools... ...to Theory AISC Approach Brain Science on the World Stage • EU Human Brain Project • US BRAIN initiative • China Brain Project • Japan Brain Project • Global NeuroS/T Economic Predictions 2025 – Asia – US/Western Europe – South America Neuroscience and Technologies (NeuroS/T) • Assessment – Biomarkers – Genetics/genomics – Imaging – Brain modeling/mapping • Interventional – Technopharmaceutics – P-Stim – Neurofeedback – Transcranial Modulation – Deep Brain Stimulation – BCI – Neuroprosthetics • Derivative – -Artificial neural networks – -AI technologies A-3: Actual Ability to Assess...Access...Affect To What Effect(s) and Ends? Neuroimaging – PET – CT – MR – fMR – DTI – MEG/qEEG Can we Scan the Brain to Depict Consciousness and/or “Read” Minds? text copyright, J. Giordano, 2014 Neurogenetics – Genotyping – Phenotyping – Proteomics – Genetic Intervention(s) Can we “Predict” or “Create” Present and Future “Selves”? text copyright, J.
    [Show full text]
  • A Framework to Assess the Military Ethics of Human Enhancement Technologies
    2017-06-09 DRDC-RDDC-2017-L167 Produced for: Paul Comeau, DRDC Chief Scientist Scientific Letter A Framework to Assess the Military Ethics of Human Enhancement Technologies Key Points . Human enhancements may be achieved through devices or drugs that augment or modify human performance. Militaries have used enhancements for years to improve soldier performance. Science and technology progress in human enhancements have outpaced regulatory policies. Emerging enhancements may raise ethical questions and face policy barriers that impede their development, evaluation and eventual adoption by the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF). It is imperative to consider the military ethical issues raised by human enhancement technologies before they are adopted by the CAF. A framework was developed to assess the military ethical issues associated with human enhancements. Identifying potential ethical issues early will enable policymakers to design policies that ensure the safe and ethical use of human enhancements, and will also allow the CAF to be prepared to deal with enhanced adversaries. Background Human enhancement has been defined in the literature in various ways.1-3 We define it herein as any science and technology (S&T) approach that temporarily or permanently modifies or contributes to human functioning. S&T efforts to enhance human health and performance are not new; vaccines (considered enhancements because they augment the immune system’s ability to protect against disease) have been used since the 18th century.4 Human enhancements permeate many aspects of society. Wearable health monitors like FitBits, which can inform changes in behaviour to improve health,5,6 are used by millions of people worldwide.
    [Show full text]
  • Encyclopedia of Computational Neuroscience
    Encyclopedia of Computational Neuroscience Dieter Jaeger • Ranu Jung Editors Encyclopedia of Computational Neuroscience With 1109 Figures and 71 Tables Editors Dieter Jaeger Ranu Jung Department of Biology Department of Biomedical Engineering Emory University Florida International University Atlanta, GA, USA Miami, FL, USA ISBN 978-1-4614-6674-1 ISBN 978-1-4614-6675-8 (eBook) ISBN 978-1-4614-6676-5 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-6675-8 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2014958664 # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Ethics in Published Brain–Computer Interface Research
    Journal of Neural Engineering PERSPECTIVE Related content - Informed consent in implantable BCI Ethics in published brain–computer interface research: identification of research risks and recommendations for development of best practices research Eran Klein and Jeffrey Ojemann - Ethical issues in neuroprosthetics To cite this article: L Specker Sullivan and J Illes 2018 J. Neural Eng. 15 013001 Walter Glannon - Perspective Patrick Rousche, David M Schneeweis, Eric J Perreault et al. View the article online for updates and enhancements. This content was downloaded from IP address 128.189.236.17 on 21/01/2019 at 19:11 IOP Journal of Neural Engineering Journal of Neural Engineering J. Neural Eng. J. Neural Eng. 15 (2018) 013001 (6pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-2552/aa8e05 15 Perspective 2018 Ethics in published brain–computer © 2018 IOP Publishing Ltd interface research JNEIEZ L Specker Sullivan2 and J Illes1 013001 1 National Core for Neuroethics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada 2 Center for Bioethics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America L Specker Sullivan and J Illes E-mail: [email protected] Received 6 June 2017, revised 14 September 2017 Accepted for publication 21 September 2017 Published 8 January 2018 Printed in the UK Abstract Objective. Sophisticated signal processing has opened the doors to more research with human JNE subjects than ever before. The increase in the use of human subjects in research comes with a need for increased human subjects protections. Approach. We quantified the presence or 10.1088/1741-2552/aa8e05 absence of ethics language in published reports of brain–computer interface (BCI) studies that involved human subjects and qualitatively characterized ethics statements.
    [Show full text]
  • Cyborgs and Enhancement Technology
    philosophies Article Cyborgs and Enhancement Technology Woodrow Barfield 1 and Alexander Williams 2,* 1 Professor Emeritus, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, DC 98105, USA; [email protected] 2 140 BPW Club Rd., Apt E16, Carrboro, NC 27510, USA * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-919-548-1393 Academic Editor: Jordi Vallverdú Received: 12 October 2016; Accepted: 2 January 2017; Published: 16 January 2017 Abstract: As we move deeper into the twenty-first century there is a major trend to enhance the body with “cyborg technology”. In fact, due to medical necessity, there are currently millions of people worldwide equipped with prosthetic devices to restore lost functions, and there is a growing DIY movement to self-enhance the body to create new senses or to enhance current senses to “beyond normal” levels of performance. From prosthetic limbs, artificial heart pacers and defibrillators, implants creating brain–computer interfaces, cochlear implants, retinal prosthesis, magnets as implants, exoskeletons, and a host of other enhancement technologies, the human body is becoming more mechanical and computational and thus less biological. This trend will continue to accelerate as the body becomes transformed into an information processing technology, which ultimately will challenge one’s sense of identity and what it means to be human. This paper reviews “cyborg enhancement technologies”, with an emphasis placed on technological enhancements to the brain and the creation of new senses—the benefits of which may allow information to be directly implanted into the brain, memories to be edited, wireless brain-to-brain (i.e., thought-to-thought) communication, and a broad range of sensory information to be explored and experienced.
    [Show full text]
  • Bayesian Inference for Biophysical Neuron Models Enables Stimulus
    RESEARCH ARTICLE Bayesian inference for biophysical neuron models enables stimulus optimization for retinal neuroprosthetics Jonathan Oesterle1, Christian Behrens1, Cornelius Schro¨ der1, Thoralf Hermann2, Thomas Euler1,3,4, Katrin Franke1,4, Robert G Smith5, Gu¨ nther Zeck2, Philipp Berens1,3,4,6* 1Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tu¨ bingen, Tu¨ bingen, Germany; 2Naturwissenschaftliches und Medizinisches Institut an der Universita¨ t Tu¨ bingen, Reutlingen, Germany; 3Center for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Tu¨ bingen, Tu¨ bingen, Germany; 4Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, University of Tu¨ bingen, Tu¨ bingen, Germany; 5Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States; 6Institute for Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics, University of Tu¨ bingen, Tu¨ bingen, Germany Abstract While multicompartment models have long been used to study the biophysics of neurons, it is still challenging to infer the parameters of such models from data including uncertainty estimates. Here, we performed Bayesian inference for the parameters of detailed neuron models of a photoreceptor and an OFF- and an ON-cone bipolar cell from the mouse retina based on two-photon imaging data. We obtained multivariate posterior distributions specifying plausible parameter ranges consistent with the data and allowing to identify parameters poorly constrained by the data. To demonstrate the potential of such mechanistic data-driven neuron models, we created a simulation environment for external electrical stimulation of the retina and optimized stimulus waveforms to target OFF- and ON-cone bipolar cells, a current major problem of retinal neuroprosthetics. *For correspondence: [email protected] Competing interests: The Introduction authors declare that no Mechanistic models have been extensively used to study the biophysics underlying information proc- competing interests exist.
    [Show full text]
  • Enhancing Selectivity of Minimally Invasive Peripheral Nerve Interfaces Using Combined Stimulation and High Frequency Block: from Design to Application
    Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Enhancing Selectivity of Minimally Invasive Peripheral Nerve Interfaces using Combined Stimulation and High Frequency Block: from Design to Application Adrien Rapeaux Submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Electrical and Electronic Engineering of Imperial College London, April 2020 Declaration of Originality This thesis represents my own work unless otherwise stated. Any text, figures, tables or other material that is not my own has been appropriately referenced. Any material that I have adapted for this work has been identified as such and where applicable the original source cited. i ii Copyright Declaration ‘The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Unless otherwise indicated, its contents are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International Licence (CC BY-NC).Under this licence, you may copy and redis- tribute the material in any medium or format. You may also create and distribute modified versions of the work. This is on the condition that: you credit the author and do not use it, or any derivative works, for a commercial purpose.When reusing or sharing this work, ensure you make the licence terms clear to others by nam- ing the licence and linking to the licence text. Where a work has been adapted, you should indicate that the work has been changed and describe those changes. Please seek permission from the copyright holder for uses of this work that are not included in this licence or permitted under UK Copyright Law.’ iii iv Abstract The discovery of the excitable property of nerves was a fundamental step forward in our knowl- edge of the nervous system and our ability to interact with it.
    [Show full text]