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Constraining Crustal Silica on Ancient Earth

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Constraining Crustal Silica on Ancient Earth Constraining crustal silica on ancient Earth C. Brenhin Kellera,1 and T. Mark Harrisonb,1 aDepartment of Earth Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755; and bDepartment of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095 Contributed by T. Mark Harrison, July 21, 2020 (sent for review May 15, 2020; reviewed by Francis Albarede` and Jun Korenaga) Accurately quantifying the composition of continental crust on make our planet habitable: erosion by the wind, rain, and ice of Hadean and Archean Earth is critical to our understanding of the an active hydrosphere; the slow return of ancient felsic crust to physiography, tectonics, and climate of our planet at the dawn the mantle by sediment subduction and subduction–erosion; and of life. One longstanding paradigm involves the growth of a rel- the assimilation and metamorphism accompanying the birth of atively mafic planetary crust over the first 1 to 2 billion years new crust from mantle-derived magma (e.g., ref. 22). In compar- of Earth history, implying a lack of modern plate tectonics and ison to currently quiescent worlds like Mars (23) or our Moon a paucity of subaerial crust, and consequently lacking an effi- (24), most of Earth’s crust is geologically young (25). While cient mechanism to regulate climate. Others have proposed a this first-order challenge is well known, recent estimates of the more uniformitarian view in which Archean and Hadean conti- composition of Earth’s Archean crust have nonetheless reached nents were only slightly more mafic than at present. Apart from widely divergent results, from mafic (15–18) to felsic (26–28). complications in assessing early crustal composition introduced We suggest that these divergent results may be explained by crustal preservation and sampling biases, effects such as the by two factors that have been even less appreciated than the secular cooling of Earth’s mantle and the biologically driven oxi- first-order biases introduced by incomplete sampling (29) and dation of Earth’s atmosphere have not been fully investigated. We preferential preservation of weakly radioactive crust (30): 1) the find that the former complicates efforts to infer crustal silica from secular cooling of Earth’s mantle and 2) the radically changing compatible or incompatible element abundances, while the latter oxidation state of Earth’s atmosphere and hydrosphere, driven undermines estimates of crustal silica content inferred from ter- primarily by oxygenic photosynthesis. rigenous sediments. Accounting for these complications, we find Secular mantle cooling is widely expected as a consequence that the data are most parsimoniously explained by a model with of Earth’s ongoing loss of heat, today estimated to be about 46 nearly constant crustal silica since at least the early Archean. terawatts (31), compounded by exponentially declining radio- genic heat production (31, 32). The primary observable con- EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC, AND PLANETARY SCIENCES continental crust j plate tectonics j Archean j Hadean sequence is the declining melt fraction in mantle magmas, as has long been noted in the context of the declining abundance lone among the planets of our solar system, Earth possesses of komatiites (magnesian magmas produced by high-degree Atwo compositionally and morphologically distinct types of melting of mantle peridotite) since the Archean (33, 34). This crust—a basaltic variety underlying the oceans, and a higher- declining melt fraction results in changing major element sys- silica type comprising the continents. Of these two, the oceanic tematics of mantle-derived basalts, notably including decreasing crust is more analogous in composition to the crusts of other sil- MgO (35, 36). The rather straightforward generalization of this icate planets, while the felsic continental crust is the anomaly phenomenon to compatible and incompatible trace elements is (1–4). In this context, it has long been suggested that the exis- discussed at some length by Keller and Schoene (37, 38); in brief, tence of continental crust is due to a feedback system whereby compatible element concentrations decrease while incompatible subduction of ocean water to the mantle catalyzes the production element concentrations increase in preserved continental basalts of felsic magmas by altering solidus temperature, viscosity, and over the past 4 Gyr. phase relationships during magmatic differentiation (3) In turn, those buoyant, felsic magmas stabilize liquid water at Earth’s sur- Significance face by forming subaerial crust whose weathering draws down atmospheric CO2, thus preventing runaway greenhouse loss of On geologic timescales, Earth’s habitable climate is main- surface oceans (5, 6). tained by a negative feedback process wherein atmospheric There is a hard limit to the maximum age of Earth’s first felsic CO2 is consumed by reaction with silicate rocks during ero- (henceforth continental) crust, since energetic planetary accre- sion and weathering. However, relative to modern continental tion culminating in formation of Moon prior to 4.51 Ga (7, 8) crust, many models propose an ancient crust that was thin- likely left, in its wake, a primordial magma ocean (9). Crystal- ner, denser, and significantly lower in silica for the first 1 to 2 lization of that magma could not itself have directly produced billion years of Earth history. Like modern oceanic crust, such a felsic crust, due to the reaction of the latter with olivine to mafic crust would likely be poorly exposed to the atmosphere, produce pyroxene. In the absence of any consensus on the subse- resulting in a less climatically stable early Earth. We find that quent formation and growth of Earth’s continental crust (10, 11), two geologic processes (mantle cooling and atmospheric oxi- two competing conceptual end member models have emerged. dation) significantly compromise some previous methods for In the first, what Moorbath (12) characterized as the “majority estimating ancient crustal composition. Accounting for these view” of continental crust growth, Earth features predominantly factors results in estimates much closer to the composition of mafic crust, no plate tectonics, and (presumably) a less well- modern continental crust. regulated climate until sometime in the mid-Archean (e.g., refs. 13–18). The second more uniformitarian view posits felsic conti- Author contributions: C.B.K. designed research; C.B.K. performed research; C.B.K. and nental crust (and thus subduction) and relatively equable climate T.M.H. analyzed data; and C.B.K. and T.M.H. wrote the paper.y since and possibly during the Hadean (10, 19–21). Consequently, Reviewers: F.A., University of Lyon System; and J.K., Yale University.y the question of Earth’s ancient crustal composition is deeply The authors declare no competing interest.y connected to our inference of the physiography, tectonics, and Published under the PNAS license.y climate of our planet at the dawn of life. 1 To whom correspondence may be addressed. Email: [email protected] or tmark. Our ability to determine the past composition of the conti- [email protected] nental crust is, however, limited by the very same processes that First published August 17, 2020. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2009431117 PNAS j September 1, 2020 j vol. 117 j no. 35 j 21101–21107 Downloaded by guest on September 30, 2021 The second factor, the oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere and hydrosphere, is mediated primarily by biological factors: oxy- A 0-1 Ga genic photosynthesis. For much of Earth’s early history, before 12 1-2 Ga 2-3 Ga 2,450 Ma, atmospheric oxygen is thought to have been less 3-4 Ga than 10−5 of the modern partial pressure, as indicated by mass- independent sulfur isotope fractionation driven by atmospheric photochemical reactions that occur only in the absence of oxy- 8 gen (39, 40). The path of subsequent oxygenation is less clear, but is thought to have reached comparatively modern, breath- able levels by no later than 400 Ma (41–43). The effects of this MgO (wt. %) 4 oxygenation on the geochemistry and phase relations of exposed crust and sediment have been widely considered in other con- texts (e.g., refs. 44 and 45), yet many estimates of Archean crustal 0 composition rely critically on redox-sensitive trace element ratios 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 in terrigenous sediments (e.g., refs. 16–18). B Secular Variation as a Function of Silica Content 4 To further explore the difficulties posed by secular cooling for some previous estimates of Archean crustal composition, we employ the dataset and weighted bootstrap resampling approach 3 of Keller and Schoene (37, 38). This weighted bootstrap resam- pling approach attempts to reduce sampling bias by assigning to O (wt. %) 2 each sample a resampling probability that is inversely related 2 to spatiotemporal sample density (37, 38). However, more crit- K ical to the results than any improvement in evenness is simply 1 the ability to accurately represent each measured value (be it age, silica, K2O, etc.) as a distribution rather than as a sin- gle value. We accomplish this numerically, by adding Gaussian 0 noise with appropriate variance to each sample in each resam- 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 pling step—but an analogous result can be equally obtained C by Gaussian kernel methods as in Pt´aˇcek et al. (28). As in 1.2 Keller and Schoene (37, 38), the dataset includes data pre- viously compiled by EarthChem (49) (including contributions from NAVDAT and GEOROC), Condie and O’Neill (50), and Moyen (51). 0.8 Since many studies rely upon trace element ratios as prox- ies to infer major element concentrations of the Archean crust (15–18), it is critical to understand the relationship between such Median Rb / Sr 0.4 ratios and SiO2 if we wish to infer Archean crustal silica con- tent in this way.
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