THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIAN:ȱAȱ COMPARISONȱBETWEENȱYOUTHȱOFȱ IMMIGRANTȱANDȱNONȬIMMIGRANTȱORIGINSȱ ȱ JenniferȱWenshyaȱLeeȱ&ȱYvonneȱM.ȱHébertȱ ȱ ȱ Theȱ meaningsȱ attachedȱ toȱ nationalȱ identityȱ areȱ theȱ mostȱ salientȱ citizenshipȱ issueȱ today.ȱ Weȱ analyzedȱ overȱ 300ȱ writtenȱ responsesȱ ofȱ Canadianȱ highȱ schoolȱ youth,ȱ ofȱ immigrantȱandȱnonȬimmigrantȱorigins,ȱtoȱtheȱquestionȱofȱ“Whatȱdoesȱitȱmeanȱforȱmeȱ toȱ be/becomeȱ aȱ Canadian?”ȱ Theȱ participantsȱ relatedȱ aȱ greaterȱ senseȱ ofȱ nationalȱ identityȱ thanȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ and/orȱ supranationalȱ belonging.ȱ Youthȱ ofȱ immigrantȱ originsȱ usedȱ aȱ discourseȱ ofȱ becomingȱ andȱ understandȱ multiculturalismȱ toȱ recognizeȱ ethnicȱ identitiesȱ associatedȱ withȱ Charterȱ rights.ȱ Theȱ findingsȱ areȱ contextualizedȱ inȱ socialȱ unrestȱ inȱ otherȱ countries,ȱ aȱ globalȱ migrationȱ pattern,ȱ andȱ newȱ formsȱ ofȱ economic,ȱ social,ȱandȱpoliticalȱdomination.ȱ ȱ Keywords:ȱCanadianȱidentity,ȱimmigrantȱyouth,ȱethnicȱidentity,ȱchangingȱeconomicȱ conditionsȱ ȱ Lesȱ diversȱ sensȱ donnésȱ àȱ laȱ notionȱ d’identitéȱ nationale,ȱ telleȱ estȱ laȱ questionȱ laȱ plusȱ importanteȱdeȱl’heureȱenȱmatièreȱdeȱcitoyenneté.ȱȱLesȱauteuresȱontȱanalyséȱplusȱdeȱ300ȱ réponsesȱécritesȱdeȱjeunesȱCanadiensȱauȱsecondaire,ȱimmigrantsȱetȱnonȬimmigrants,ȱàȱ laȱquestionȱ:ȱ«ȱQueȱveutȱdireȱêtreȱouȱdevenirȱCanadienȱpourȱmoiȱ?ȱ».ȱȱLesȱparticipantsȱ fontȱ étatȱ d’unȱ plusȱ grandȱ sentimentȱ d’appartenanceȱ auȱ paysȱ qu’àȱ desȱ groupesȱ ethniquesȱouȱȱȱsupranationaux.ȱȱLesȱjeunesȱimmigrésȱadoptentȱunȱdiscoursȱaxéȱsurȱleȱ devenirȱ etȱ considèrentȱ leȱ multiculturalismeȱ commeȱ laȱ reconnaissanceȱ desȱ identitésȱ ethniquesȱdansȱleȱcadreȱdeȱlaȱCharteȱcanadienneȱdesȱdroitsȱetȱlibertés.ȱȱLesȱrésultatsȱdeȱ l’étudeȱ sontȱ misȱ enȱ contexteȱ:ȱ agitationȱ socialeȱ dansȱ d’autresȱ pays,ȱ mouvementsȱ migratoiresȱàȱl’échelleȱȱmondialeȱetȱnouvellesȱformesȱdeȱdominationȱpolitique,ȱsocialeȱ etȱéconomique.ȱ ȱ Motsȱ clésȱ :ȱ identitéȱ canadienne,ȱ jeunesȱ immigrants,ȱ identitéȱ ethnique,ȱ évolutionȱ desȱ conditionsȱéconomiques.ȱ ______ȱ ȱ

CANADIANȱJOURNALȱOFȱEDUCATIONȱ29,ȱ2ȱ(2006):ȱ497Ȭ520ȱ 498ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ

INTEGRATION,ȱ IDENTIFICATION,ȱ ANDȱ THEȱ CITIZENSHIPȱ DEBATESȱ TheȱquestionȱofȱwhatȱitȱmeansȱtoȱbeȱCanadianȱisȱcontextualizedȱinȱourȱ époqueȱ byȱ economicȱ andȱ politicalȱ globalization,ȱ includingȱ majorȱ migrationȱ patternsȱ whoseȱ proportionsȱ areȱ unseenȱ inȱ Canadaȱ sinceȱ theȱ previousȱ turnȱ ofȱ theȱ century.ȱ Unlikeȱ Franceȱ whereȱ youthȱ riotsȱ haveȱ crystallizedȱ theȱ debateȱ onȱ integration,ȱ minorityȱ andȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ areȱ legallyȱrecognizedȱwithinȱtheȱCanadianȱCharterȱofȱRightsȱandȱFreedomsȱ (1982)ȱandȱtheȱCanadianȱMulticulturalȱActȱ(1985).ȱȱ Theȱ questionȱ ofȱ nationalȱ identificationȱ isȱ notȱ new,ȱ butȱ hasȱ becomeȱ distinctiveȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ postmodernity.ȱ Toȱ explainȱ theȱ sociallyȱ constructedȱnatureȱofȱnationalȱidentityȱdevelopment,ȱweȱrecognizeȱthatȱ Canadaȱ“imaginesȱitselfȱasȱaȱcommunity,ȱbecause,ȱregardlessȱofȱtheȱactualȱ inequalityȱ andȱ exploitationȱ thatȱ mayȱ prevail,ȱ theȱ nationȱ isȱ alwaysȱ conceivedȱ asȱ aȱ deep,ȱ horizontalȱ comradeship”ȱ (Anderson,ȱ 1991,ȱ p.ȱ 38;ȱ italicsȱ inȱ original).ȱ Thisȱ communityȱ isȱ complicatedȱ byȱ strugglesȱ overȱ language,ȱ race,ȱ ethnicity,ȱ sexuality,ȱ andȱ ecology;ȱ byȱ consumptionȱ asȱ aȱ constitutiveȱ partȱ ofȱ identityȱ formation;ȱ byȱ theȱ productionȱ ofȱ images,ȱ experiences,ȱ andȱ knowledgeȱ inȱ aȱ postȬindustrialȱ economy;ȱ andȱ byȱ changingȱmaterialȱandȱsymbolicȱconditionsȱ(Côtéȱ&ȱAllahar,ȱ2006;ȱIsinȱ&ȱ Wood,ȱ1999).ȱThisȱquestionȱalsoȱcallsȱupȱtheȱtensionsȱbetweenȱlevelsȱofȱ attachmentȱ andȱ belonging,ȱ beȱ theseȱ linguistic,ȱ racial,ȱ ethnoȬcultural,ȱ socioȬeconomic,ȱ political,ȱ local,ȱ national,ȱ orȱ supranationalȱ (Hébertȱ &ȱ Wilkinson,ȱ2002;ȱKlusmeyer,ȱ2001).ȱ Withȱ theȱ firstȱ waveȱ ofȱ culturalȱ orȱ identityȱ politics,ȱ discriminationȱ couldȱ notȱ beȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ categoriesȱ ofȱ race,ȱ gender,ȱ orȱ ethnicity;ȱ whereasȱtheȱsecondȱwaveȱrejectedȱthisȱpoliticsȱofȱinclusionȱasȱitȱobscuredȱ culturalȱandȱpoliticalȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheseȱgroupsȱandȱsociety,ȱandȱ arguedȱ insteadȱ forȱ aȱ politicsȱ ofȱ recognitionȱ and/orȱ differenceȱ (Taylor,ȱ 1994).ȱ Moreȱ recently,ȱ aȱ thirdȱ waveȱ ofȱ culturalȱ politicsȱ seeksȱ toȱ “thinkȱ affirmativelyȱ aboutȱ identityȱ withoutȱ eitherȱ freezingȱ orȱ dissolvingȱ differenceȱamongȱgroups”ȱ(Isinȱ&ȱWood,ȱ1999,ȱp.ȱ14)ȱwhichȱgoesȱbeyondȱ identityȱ asȱ essentialȱ differenceȱ orȱ asȱ socialȱ prejudiceȱ toȱ beȱ overcome.ȱ Fromȱ thisȱ perspective,ȱ identityȱ isȱ aȱ strategicȱ competenceȱ thatȱ acknowledgesȱ aȱ desireȱ toȱ affirmȱ identitiesȱ andȱ toȱ transcendȱ them,ȱ andȱ imaginingȱtheȱculturalȱotherȱisȱtheȱfirstȱstepȱinȱbuildingȱaȱcivicȱidentityȱ THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIANȱȱ 499ȱȱȱ

(Abowitz,ȱ 2002;ȱ Hébert,ȱ 2002;ȱ Hoerder,ȱ Hébertȱ &ȱ Schmitt,ȱ 2005).ȱ Theȱ strategicȱidentificationȱevokesȱandȱinvolvesȱrightsȱandȱresponsibilitiesȱforȱ deliberationȱandȱparticipation,ȱoftenȱreferredȱtoȱasȱaȱCharterȱidentityȱinȱ theȱCanadianȱcontext.ȱȱȱ Theȱnatureȱofȱbelongingȱliesȱatȱtheȱheartȱofȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱ cultureȱandȱstate,ȱestablishesȱminorityȱrightsȱandȱidentificationsȱasȱpartȱ ofȱ democraticȱ citizenshipȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ “aȱ wideȱ rangeȱ ofȱ publicȱ policies,ȱ legalȱ rights,ȱ andȱ constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ soughtȱ byȱ ethnicȱ groupsȱforȱtheȱaccommodationȱofȱtheirȱculturalȱdifferences”ȱ(Kymlickaȱ&ȱ Norman,ȱ2000,ȱp.ȱ2).ȱTheȱnotionsȱofȱminorityȱrightsȱandȱidentifications,ȱ however,ȱgiveȱriseȱtoȱcontrastingȱviews.ȱOnȱoneȱhand,ȱthereȱareȱfearsȱthatȱ supposeȱthatȱ“minorityȱrightsȱwillȱhaveȱaȱnegativeȱimpactȱonȱcitizenshipȱ practices,ȱ orȱ willȱ inhibitȱ theȱ state’sȱ abilityȱ toȱ promoteȱ citizenshipȱ effectively”ȱ (p.ȱ 2)ȱ andȱ thatȱ minorityȱ rightsȱ willȱ “erodeȱ theȱ abilityȱ ofȱ citizensȱ toȱ fulfillȱ theirȱ responsibilitiesȱ asȱ democraticȱ citizens—e.g.,ȱ byȱ weakeningȱ citizens’ȱ abilityȱ toȱ communicate,ȱ trust,ȱ andȱ feelȱ solidarityȱ acrossȱ groupȱ differences”ȱ (p.ȱ 10).ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ defendersȱ ofȱ minorityȱrightsȱexpressȱscepticismȱaboutȱappealsȱtoȱcitizenshipȱbecauseȱ theyȱ considerȱ thatȱ citizenshipȱ hasȱ servedȱ asȱ aȱ coverȱ byȱ whichȱ theȱ majorityȱ groupȱ extendsȱ itsȱ language,ȱ institutions,ȱ mobilityȱ rights,ȱ andȱ politicalȱpowerȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱtheȱminoritiesȱ(AbuȬLabanȱ&ȱStasiulis,ȱ 2000;ȱBattisteȱ&ȱSemaganis,ȱ2002).ȱȱ Theȱcentralȱproblemȱthenȱbecomesȱhowȱtoȱtranscendȱessentialistȱandȱ constructivistȱ viewsȱ ofȱ identityȱ (Isinȱ &ȱ Wood,ȱ 1999).ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ productionȱofȱcitizensȱthroughȱeducationalȱmeansȱhasȱsparkedȱrenewedȱ interestȱ inȱ academicȱ fieldsȱ andȱ governmentȱ policymakingȱ forȱ twoȱ decades,ȱonlyȱnowȱisȱaȱbodyȱofȱpublishedȱCanadianȱresearchȱemergingȱ thatȱ considersȱ theȱ voicesȱ ofȱ youngȱ peopleȱ onȱ citizenshipȱ issuesȱ (Charland,ȱ2003;ȱHoerderȱetȱal.,ȱ2005).ȱȱ Inȱ considerationȱ ofȱ theȱ disagreementsȱ onȱ theȱ theorizationȱ ofȱ rightsȱ andȱ freedoms,ȱ theȱ tensionsȱ betweenȱ nationalȱ identityȱ andȱ diversityȱ requireȱ thoroughȱ examinationȱ withȱ specificȱ caseȱ studies,ȱ includingȱ immigrantȱ andȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ youngȱ people,ȱ toȱ gainȱ deeperȱ understandingsȱ ofȱ theȱ variousȱ patternsȱ ofȱ citizenshipȱ inȱ pluralisticȱ democraticȱsocieties.ȱInȱthisȱlight,ȱourȱarticleȱcontributesȱunderstandingsȱ ofȱ contemporaryȱ youthȱ ofȱ theirȱ citizenshipȱ processȱ andȱ identityȱ 500ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ affiliationsȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ developmentȱ andȱ expressionȱ ofȱ aȱ nationalȱ identityȱinȱaȱpluralisticȱnationȱsuchȱasȱCanada.ȱ HowȱdoȱCanadianȱyouthȱtalk,ȱthink,ȱandȱfeelȱaboutȱbeingȱCanadian?ȱ Howȱ doesȱ immigrationȱ shapeȱ conceptionsȱ ofȱ Canadianȱ identityȱ amongȱ youngȱ people?ȱ Toȱ takeȱ upȱ theseȱ questions,ȱ weȱ analyzedȱ aȱ largeȱ setȱ ofȱ writtenȱ narrativeȱ textsȱ ofȱ youngȱ peopleȱ onȱ theȱ meaningȱ ofȱ Canadianȱ citizenship,ȱ withinȱ aȱ majorȱ researchȱ projectȱ onȱ identityȱ formationȱ ofȱ immigrantȱyouthȱasȱstrategicȱcompetence.ȱWeȱsoughtȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱ multipleȱdimensionsȱofȱcitizenship,ȱtoȱcompareȱdifferentȱperceptionsȱofȱ beingȱ Canadianȱ betweenȱ immigrantȱ andȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ youthȱ inȱ Calgary,ȱandȱtoȱexploreȱtheirȱunderstandingsȱofȱbeingȱCanadian.ȱȱ CONCEPTUALȱFRAMEWORKȱȱ Toȱ captureȱ theȱ realitiesȱ ofȱ citizenship,ȱ Gagnonȱ &ȱ Pagéȱ (1999)ȱ haveȱ developedȱ aȱ conceptualȱ frameworkȱ thatȱ encompassesȱ multifariousȱ dimensionsȱ andȱ componentsȱ ofȱ differentȱ contemporaryȱ approachesȱ toȱ citizenshipȱinȱliberalȱdemocraticȱsocietiesȱcontainingȱdiverseȱpopulations.ȱ Theȱframework,ȱconceptualizedȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱfourȱmajorȱcomponentsȱ —ȱ nationalȱ identity;ȱ cultural,ȱ social,ȱ andȱ transnationalȱ belonging;ȱ anȱ effectiveȱ systemȱ ofȱ rights;ȱ andȱ politicalȱ andȱ civicȱ participationȱ —ȱ isȱ subdividedȱintoȱotherȱcomponentsȱthatȱareȱalsoȱlogicallyȱinterȬrelated.ȱȱ Inȱ thisȱ conceptualȱ framework,ȱ nationalȱ identityȱ refersȱ toȱ theȱ collectiveȱ identityȱ ofȱ aȱ politicalȱ community.ȱ Social,ȱ cultural,ȱ andȱ supranationalȱaffiliationsȱreferȱtoȱhowȱcitizensȱmayȱdefineȱthemselvesȱinȱ termsȱofȱoneȱorȱseveralȱfeelingsȱofȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱbelongingȱwithinȱaȱ society,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ supranationalȱ belonging,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ demographic,ȱ geographic,ȱsocial,ȱorȱculturalȱattachmentsȱandȱdemandsȱforȱrecognitionȱ flowingȱfromȱthisȱdiversity.ȱTheseȱfeelingsȱofȱbelongingȱincludeȱaȱsetȱofȱ characteristicsȱ thatȱ allȱ citizensȱ areȱ invitedȱ orȱ encouragedȱ toȱ share.ȱ Definedȱinȱtermsȱofȱattachmentȱtoȱaȱpoliticalȱcommunity,ȱpatriotismȱandȱ allegianceȱ referȱ toȱ emotionalȱ andȱ symbolicȱ attachmentȱ toȱ theȱ nationalȱ symbols,ȱ toȱ theȱ governmentȱ andȱ itsȱ structures,ȱ toȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ civicȱ responsibility,ȱ andȱ toȱ theȱ traditionsȱ andȱ customsȱ ofȱ aȱ politicalȱ community.ȱTheȱemotionalȱdimensionȱofȱpatriotismȱisȱcharacterizedȱbyȱ anȱ unconditionalȱ acceptanceȱ ofȱ theȱ countryȱ andȱ itsȱ institutionalȱ structuresȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ aȱ veryȱ strongȱ senseȱ ofȱ belongingȱ towardȱ theȱ THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIANȱȱ 501ȱȱȱ country.ȱAllegianceȱisȱdefinedȱinȱtermsȱofȱloyaltyȱandȱconformityȱtoȱtheȱ institutionsȱofȱaȱpoliticalȱcommunity.ȱȱ Anȱeffectiveȱsystemȱofȱrightsȱaimsȱtoȱensureȱtheȱqualityȱofȱcitizenshipȱ inȱ liberalȱ democraciesȱ whileȱ politicalȱ andȱ civicȱ participationȱ bringsȱ togetherȱ theȱ competencies,ȱ actions,ȱ andȱ stepsȱ expectedȱ ofȱ citizensȱ andȱ theirȱ commitmentȱ toȱ theȱ governanceȱ ofȱ theȱ societyȱ (Gagnonȱ &ȱ Pagé,ȱ 1999,ȱp.5).ȱMoreȱspecifically,ȱcivicȱcultureȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱlegalȱandȱpoliticalȱ principlesȱembodiedȱinȱaȱtraditionȱparticularȱtoȱeachȱdemocraticȱsocietyȱ (e.g.,ȱ theȱ Canadianȱ Charterȱ ofȱ Rightsȱ andȱ Freedoms).ȱ Societalȱ cultureȱ refersȱtoȱeverythingȱthatȱcharacterizesȱtheȱpublicȱlifestyleȱofȱindividualsȱ inȱtheȱsocietyȱsuchȱasȱitsȱfood,ȱitsȱrecreation,ȱtheȱmostȱprevalentȱlifestyles,ȱ andȱ itsȱ distinctiveȱ architecture.ȱ Toȱ schematizeȱ theȱ macroȬconceptsȱ andȱ secondaryȱconcepts,ȱFigureȱ1ȱbelowȱcombinesȱtheȱfiveȱoriginalȱfiguresȱinȱ GagnonȱandȱPagéȱ(1999).ȱ

ȱ Figureȱ1:ȱConceptualȱModelȱforȱAnalysesȱofȱCitizenshipȱ ȱ Theȱfourȱcomponentsȱinteractȱwithȱoneȱanotherȱasȱinȱaȱnetwork.ȱForȱ example,ȱ theȱ conceptȱ ofȱ nationalȱ identityȱ determinesȱ howȱ specificȱ belongingsȱareȱrecognizedȱinȱthatȱsocietyȱwhereasȱtheȱeffectiveȱsystemȱofȱ 502ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ rightsȱisȱlinkedȱ toȱ theȱ recognitionȱgivenȱ toȱ specificȱformsȱ ofȱ belonging,ȱ nationalȱ identity,ȱ andȱ participationȱ inȱ civilȱ society.ȱ Becauseȱ theȱ frameworkȱ conceptualizesȱ andȱ describesȱ theȱ multipleȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ citizenshipȱ andȱ accountsȱ forȱ theȱ interrelationshipȱ amongȱ theȱ variousȱ elementsȱ ofȱ citizenship,ȱ weȱ adoptedȱ itȱ hereȱ toȱ analyzeȱ youngȱ people’sȱ meaningsȱofȱbeingȱCanadian.ȱ METHODOLOGYȱ Objectivesȱ Inȱthisȱarticle,ȱweȱfocusȱuponȱtheȱimmigrantȱandȱnonȬimmigrantȱstatusȱofȱ participatingȱ youthȱ inȱ Calgaryȱ toȱ understandȱ theȱ influenceȱ ofȱ immigrationȱonȱwhatȱitȱmeansȱtoȱbecomeȱCanadian.ȱToȱdoȱso,ȱweȱdrawȱ uponȱ narrativeȱ dataȱ orȱ lifeȱ storiesȱ fromȱ aȱ largerȱ study,ȱ writtenȱ inȱ responseȱ toȱ eightȱ questionsȱ inȱ aȱ fourȬpageȱ booklet.ȱ Oneȱ questionȱ thatȱ focusedȱ onȱ theȱ meaningȱ ofȱ beingȱ orȱ becomingȱ Canadianȱ providesȱ theȱ dataȱforȱthisȱarticle.ȱȱ ParticipantȱProfilesȱȱ Twoȱ participantȱ profilesȱ wereȱ identifiedȱ accordingȱ toȱ generationȱ ofȱ migrationȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ andȱ characterizedȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ citizenship,ȱ gender,ȱgrade,ȱandȱancestry.ȱTheȱterm,ȱimmigrant,ȱrefersȱtoȱyouthȱwhoȱ areȱ theȱ firstȱ generationȱ toȱ liveȱ inȱ Canada,ȱ whoȱ wereȱ bornȱ inȱ countriesȱ otherȱ thanȱ Canada,ȱ andȱ whoseȱ parents,ȱ oneȱ orȱ both,ȱ wereȱ bornȱ elsewhere.ȱ Theȱ term,ȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ refersȱ toȱ youthȱ whoȱ wereȱ bornȱ inȱ Canadaȱ andȱ whoseȱ parentsȱ wereȱ bothȱ bornȱ inȱ Canada.ȱ Theȱ immigrantȱ groupȱ consistedȱ ofȱ 95ȱ participants,ȱ andȱ theȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ group,ȱ 131ȱ participants.ȱOfȱtheȱimmigrantȱgroup,ȱmostȱ(48%)ȱareȱCanadianȱcitizensȱ andȱ anotherȱ 16ȱ perȱ centȱ holdȱ dualȱ citizenship.ȱ Malesȱ andȱ femalesȱ areȱ nearlyȱ equallyȱ distributedȱ inȱ theȱ immigrantȱ group,ȱ withȱ 47ȱ andȱ 48ȱ respectively,ȱwhereasȱthereȱareȱ46ȱ(35%)ȱmalesȱandȱ85ȱ(65%)ȱfemalesȱinȱ theȱnonȬimmigrantȱgroup.ȱAtȱtheȱtimeȱofȱdataȱcollection,ȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱ participantsȱwereȱinȱgradeȱ11ȱ(77%ȱofȱtheȱgroupȱofȱimmigrantȱoriginsȱandȱ 75%ȱofȱtheȱnonȬimmigrantȱgroups),ȱaȱlesserȱnumberȱinȱgradeȱ12ȱ(18%ȱandȱ 17%ȱrespectively),ȱwithȱtheȱremainderȱinȱgradeȱ10.ȱȱ Theȱancestralȱoriginsȱofȱtheȱtwoȱgroupsȱcontrastȱworldȱregionsȱandȱ reflectȱ changingȱ patternsȱ ofȱ immigrationȱ (seeȱ Tableȱ 1).ȱ Ofȱ theȱ nonȬ THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIANȱȱ 503ȱȱȱ immigrantȱgroup,ȱoverȱ43ȱperȱcentȱofȱparticipantsȱreportedȱtheirȱancestryȱ asȱ originatingȱ inȱ Europe,ȱincludingȱ Britishȱ (26.5%)ȱandȱ otherȱ Europeanȱ countriesȱ (16.7%).ȱ Almostȱ 15ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ theseȱ participantsȱ identifiedȱ themselvesȱasȱCanadianȱandȱnearlyȱ27ȱperȱcentȱindicatedȱthatȱtheyȱhadȱ twoȱ orȱ moreȱ thanȱ twoȱ ethnicȱ backgrounds.ȱ Asȱ forȱ theȱ immigrantȬbornȱ group,ȱ almostȱ 47ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ participantsȱ reportedȱ theirȱ countriesȱ ofȱ originȱasȱEastȱorȱSouthȱEastȱAsian,ȱfollowedȱbyȱMiddleȱEast/SouthȱAsianȱ (23.5%)ȱ andȱ Latinȱ Americanȱ (13.6%).ȱ Finally,ȱ 29ȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ andȱ 14ȱ immigrantȱyouthȱdidȱnotȱindicateȱtheirȱancestryȱinȱtermsȱofȱethnicity.ȱ ȱȱ Tableȱ1:ȱDistributionȱofȱAncestryȱbyȱGenerationȱ Ethnicȱancestryȱ NonȬimmigrantȱ Immigrantȱ Britishȱ 27ȱ(26.5%)ȱ 0ȱ(0.0%)ȱ ContinentalȱEuropeanȱ 17ȱ(16.7%)ȱ 5ȱ(6.2%)ȱ Canadianȱ 15ȱ(14.7%)ȱ 1ȱ(1.2%)ȱ LatinȱAmericanȱ 1ȱ(1.0%)ȱ 11ȱ(13.6%)ȱ MiddleȱEast/SouthȱAsianȱ 0ȱ(0.0%)ȱ 19ȱ(23.5%)ȱ East/SEȱAsianȱ 1ȱ(1.0%)ȱ 38ȱ(46.9%)ȱ MultiȬOriginsȱ 27ȱ(26.5%)ȱ 3ȱ(3.7%)ȱ Othersȱ 14ȱ(13.7%)ȱ 4ȱ(4.2%)ȱ Totalȱ 102ȱ(100%)ȱ 81ȱ(100%)ȱ ȱ FINDINGSȱ Contentȱanalysisȱwasȱusedȱtoȱmeasureȱtheȱfrequencyȱofȱtheȱmainȱthemesȱ ofȱtheȱconceptualȱframework,ȱandȱtoȱcompareȱandȱgeneralizeȱacrossȱtwoȱ hundredȱ andȱ twentyȬsixȱ youth,ȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ theirȱ immigrantȱ andȱ nonȬ immigrantȱ origins.ȱ Theȱ findingsȱ areȱ presentedȱ inȱ tablesȱ andȱ illustratedȱ byȱtypicalȱquotationsȱfromȱparticipants.ȱBecauseȱsomeȱparticipants’ȱshortȱ writtenȱ responsesȱ toȱ theȱ openȬendedȱ questionȱ referȱ toȱ differentȱ dimensions,ȱresponseȱfrequencyȱisȱprovidedȱinȱtheȱanalysis,ȱratherȱthanȱ theȱnumberȱofȱparticipants.ȱ Theȱ frequencyȱ ofȱ responsesȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ framework’sȱ fourȱ mainȱ themesȱ –ȱ nationalȱ identity;ȱ social,ȱ culturalȱ andȱ supranationalȱ belonging;ȱ rights;ȱ andȱ responsibilitiesȱ–ȱ isȱ presentedȱ inȱ Tableȱ2.ȱ Aȱ fifthȱ 504ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ categoryȱofȱ‘other’ȱresponsesȱincludesȱ‘don’tȱknow,’ȱ‘notȱimportant’ȱandȱ ‘negativeȱviews.’ȱȱ ȱ Tableȱ2:ȱTheȱMeaningȱofȱBeingȱCanadianȱ

Meaningsȱ NonȬimmigrantȱ Immigrantȱ Nationalȱ Civilȱculture:ȱ8.5%ȱ(12)ȱ Civilȱculture:ȱ3.7%ȱ(4)ȱ Identityȱ Societalȱculture:ȱ12.1%ȱ(17)ȱ Societalȱculture:ȱ9.2%ȱ(10)ȱ Heritage:ȱ2.8ȱ%ȱ(4)ȱ ȱ Allegianceȱ&ȱpatriotism:ȱ Allegianceȱ&ȱpatriotism:ȱ 36.9%ȱ(52)ȱ 14.7%ȱ(16)ȱ Subtotal:ȱ60.3%ȱ(85)ȱ Subtotal:ȱ27.6ȱ%ȱ(30)ȱ Social,ȱ Regional:ȱ1.4%ȱ(3)ȱ Ethnic:ȱ11.0%ȱ(12)ȱ Culturalȱ&ȱ Transnational:ȱ11.0%ȱ(12)ȱ Supranationalȱ Subtotal:ȱ22.0%ȱ(24)ȱ Belongingȱ Rightsȱ Fundamental:ȱ16.9%ȱ(24)ȱ Fundamental:ȱ18.3%ȱ(20)ȱ Political:ȱ0.7%ȱ(1)ȱ ȱ Socialȱ&ȱeconomic:ȱ4.9%ȱ(7)ȱ Socialȱ&ȱeconomic:ȱ9.2%ȱ(10)ȱ Subtotal:ȱ22.5%ȱ(32)ȱ Subtotal:ȱ27.5%ȱ(30)ȱ Politicalȱ&ȱȱ 7.1%ȱ(10)ȱ 15.6%ȱ(17)ȱ civicȱ participationȱ Otherȱ Notȱimportantȱ:ȱ3.6%ȱ(5)ȱ Notȱimportantȱ:ȱ4.6%ȱ(5)ȱ ȱȱȱ Don’tȱknowȱ:ȱ2.8%ȱ(4)ȱ Don’tȱknowȱ:ȱ1.8%ȱ(2)ȱ ȱȱ Negativeȱviewsȱ:ȱ2.1%ȱ(3)ȱ Negativeȱviewsȱ:ȱ0.9%ȱ(1)ȱ ȱȱȱ Subtotal:ȱ8.5%ȱ(12)ȱ Subtotal:ȱ7.3%ȱ(8)ȱ Totalȱ 100%ȱ(142)ȱ 100%ȱ(109)ȱ frequencyȱ ȱ Immigrantȱ youthȱ appearȱ toȱ beȱ particularlyȱ sensitiveȱ toȱ theȱ overallȱ ideaȱ ofȱ becomingȱ Canadianȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ itsȱ status,ȱ complexity,ȱ andȱ diversity,ȱ asȱ revealedȱ inȱ theirȱ writing.ȱ Reflectingȱ uponȱ theȱ statusȱ andȱ expectationsȱofȱbecomingȱaȱCanadianȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱinfluencesȱuponȱtheȱ senseȱofȱself,ȱbelonging,ȱCanadianȱvalues,ȱandȱcontribution,ȱaȱyoungȱmanȱ ofȱimmigrantȱoriginsȱwrote:ȱ ȱȱȱ THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIANȱȱ 505ȱȱȱ

Toȱ beȱ aȱ Canadian,ȱ Iȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ openȱ mindȱ aboutȱ othersȱ andȱ willingȱ toȱ acceptȱ otherȱcultures.ȱIȱshouldȱhaveȱaȱworldȬclassȱofȱview,ȱIȱshouldȱnotȱjudgingȱthingsȱ fromȱaȱcertainȱperspectiveȱinstead,ȱIȱshouldȱviewȱthemȱinȱdifferentȱsides.ȱToȱbeȱaȱ Canadian,ȱIȱhaveȱ[to]ȱbeȱaȱwellȬroundedȱpeople,ȱorȱfullȱperson.ȱIȱhaveȱtoȱenjoyȱ outdoorȱnatureȱandȱsport[s]ȱbecauseȱCanadaȱisȱaȱgreatȱlandȱwithȱaȱlotȱofȱresource.ȱ Weȱ haveȱ toȱ knowȱ howȱ toȱ takeȱ careȱ ofȱ them.ȱ (#77,ȱ male,ȱ immigrant,ȱ Chinese,ȱ Taiwaneseȱcitizen)ȱ ȱ AlsoȱreflectingȱdeeplyȱonȱwhatȱitȱmeansȱtoȱbeȱCanadian,ȱaȱyoungȱwomanȱ ofȱ immigrantȱ originsȱ commentedȱ onȱ theȱ complexȱ feelingsȱ ofȱ becomingȱ andȱbeing.ȱHerȱcommentȱisȱfollowedȱbyȱaȱnoteȱonȱdiversityȱbyȱaȱyoungȱ manȱofȱnonȬimmigrantȱorigins.ȱ

OnȱbeingȱaȱCanadian….ȱIȱfeltȱI’veȱbeingȱacceptedȱasȱoneȱpartȱofȱthisȱgroup,ȱI’veȱ beingȱ ableȱ toȱ liveȱ upȱ theirȱ waysȱ ofȱ living.ȱ Iȱ haveȱ rightsȱ onȱ thisȱ land;ȱ Iȱ haveȱ freedomȱasȱIȱalwaysȱwanted,ȱofȱcourse.ȱIȱamȱstillȱproudȱofȱbeingȱaȱChinese.ȱIt’sȱ whereȱIȱwasȱborn,ȱwhereȱI’veȱlivedȱforȱsoȱlong,ȱandȱit’sȱmyȱmotherȱcountry.ȱBeingȱ aȱCanadianȱisȱnotȱreallyȱsoȱspecial,ȱbutȱsinceȱIȱliveȱonȱtheȱlandȱofȱCanada,ȱitȱisȱ importantȱthen.ȱIȱlikeȱtheȱCanadianȱwayȱofȱliving,ȱofȱstudy,ȱandȱofȱeverything.ȱToȱ becomeȱ aȱ Canadian,ȱ I’veȱ wentȱ throughȱ manyȱ things.ȱ Someȱ areȱ glad,ȱ someȱ areȱ sad,ȱbutȱI’veȱwalkedȱthroughȱit.ȱ(#86,ȱfemale,ȱimmigrant,ȱChinese,ȱdualȱcitizen)ȱ

Toȱ beȱ Canadianȱ isȱ toȱ beȱ acceptingȱ ofȱ othersȱ inȱ everyȱ factȱ ofȱ yourȱ life,ȱ becauseȱ diversityȱisȱsomethingȱyouȱdealȱwithȱeveryȱdayȱhere.ȱ(#139,ȱmale,ȱnonȬimmigrant,ȱ Swiss,ȱCanadianȱcitizen)ȱ Themeȱ1:ȱNationalȱIdentityȱ Theȱ fourȱ characteristicsȱ ofȱ nationalȱ identity—civilȱ culture,ȱ societalȱ culture,ȱ heritage,ȱ andȱ allegianceȱ andȱ patriotism—wereȱ evincedȱ inȱ participants’ȱ understandingsȱ ofȱ theȱ meaningȱ ofȱ beingȱ Canadian,ȱ asȱ illustratedȱ inȱ Tableȱ 3.ȱ Theȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ responsesȱ includeȱ allȱ fourȱ characteristicsȱandȱtheȱimmigrantȱresponseȱeschewsȱheritage;ȱotherwise,ȱ theȱresponsesȱareȱsimilar.ȱ Civicȱculture.ȱAlmostȱnineȱperȱcentȱofȱtheȱnonȬimmigrantȱparticipantsȱ andȱfourȱperȱcentȱofȱtheȱimmigrantȱadolescentsȱwereȱproudȱofȱCanadaȱasȱ aȱ countryȱ thatȱ isȱ democratic,ȱ multicultural,ȱ free,ȱ equal,ȱ andȱ fullȱ ofȱ opportunity.ȱȱȱ ȱ ȱ 506ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ

Tableȱ3:ȱComparisonȱofȱNationalȱIdentityȱ

Meaningȱ NonȬImmigrantȱ(60.3%ȱ)ȱ Immigrantȱ(27.6%)ȱ Nationalȱ Civicȱcultureȱ(8.5%):ȱȱ Civicȱcultureȱ(3.7%):ȱȱ identityȱ Multiculturalism;ȱ Peaceful;ȱmultiȬcultural;ȱ freedom;ȱsecurity;ȱ securityȱ democracy;ȱjusticeȱȱ ȱ Societalȱcultureȱ(12.1%):ȱȱ Societalȱcultureȱ(9.2%):ȱȱ Twoȱofficialȱlanguages;ȱ Politeȱpeople;ȱhockey,ȱ friendlyȱpeople;ȱsportsȱ beer;ȱhavingȱadvantageȱ team;ȱbeerȱ(Molson);ȱ overȱmanyȱcountries;ȱ respectedȱbyȱothers;ȱ respectedȱbyȱothers,ȱ peacemaker;ȱexcellentȱ helpingȱ&ȱcaringȱaboutȱ combinationȱofȱwealthȱ&ȱ otherȱcountries;ȱhighȱ respect;ȱhighestȱstandardȱ standardȱofȱlivingȱ ofȱlivingȱ ȱ Heritageȱ(2.8%):ȱȱ ȱ History;ȱculture;ȱRockiesȱ Allegianceȱ&ȱpatriotismȱ Allegianceȱ&ȱpatriotismȱ (36.9%):ȱȱ (14.7%):ȱRespectingȱandȱ Love,ȱrespectȱ&ȱloyalȱtoȱ caringȱforȱtheȱcountry;ȱ theȱcountry;ȱpreservingȱ patrioticȱduringȱOlympicȱ itsȱwayȱofȱlifeȱ&ȱmakingȱitȱ events;ȱfeelȱ better;ȱbeingȱpatriotic;ȱ cool/good/special/ȱ proudȱofȱmyȱcountry;ȱ different/ȱwonderful;ȱ senseȱofȱbelongingȱȱ senseȱofȱbelongingȱȱ ȱ ToȱbeȱCanadianȱmeansȱtoȱbeȱproudȱandȱtoȱbeȱableȱtoȱacceptȱsomethingȱdifferentȱ fromȱyourȱself;ȱthisȱisȱbecauseȱtheȱpeopleȱmakeȱupȱaȱcountry’sȱidentity.ȱCanadaȱisȱ veryȱ muchȱ likeȱ this,ȱ comfortablyȱ multicultural.ȱ (#134,ȱ male,ȱ nonȬimmigrant,ȱ British,ȱCanadianȱcitizen)ȱ

I’mȱ proudȱ toȱ beȱ inȱ aȱ multiculturalȱ countryȱ andȱ I’mȱ proudȱ thatȱ Canadaȱ isȱ aȱ peacefulȱ country.ȱ Iȱ don’tȱ feelȱ leftȱ outȱ beingȱ aȱ Chineseȱ andȱ I’mȱ notȱ afraidȱ thatȱ Canadaȱwillȱbeȱattacked.ȱ(#83,ȱmale,ȱimmigrant,ȱChinese,ȱdualȱcitizen)ȱȱ

ȱ THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIANȱȱ 507ȱȱȱ

Societalȱculture.ȱSlightlyȱoverȱtwelveȱperȱcentȱofȱnonȬimmigrantȱandȱ nineȱperȱcentȱofȱimmigrantȱparticipantsȱassociatedȱsocietalȱcultureȱwithȱ theirȱ Canadianȱ identity.ȱ Amongȱ theseȱ adolescents,ȱ someȱ consideredȱ massȱ cultureȱ asȱ aȱ componentȱ ofȱ nationalȱ identity,ȱ suchȱ asȱ hockeyȱ andȱ beer.ȱȱ

IȱamȱveryȱproudȱtoȱbeȱCanadianȱbecauseȱit’sȱtheȱbestȱcountryȱinȱtheȱworld!ȱIȱlikeȱ beingȱknownȱforȱbeingȱnice,ȱpoliteȱandȱpeaceȱkeepersȱinȱotherȱcountries.ȱ(#267,ȱ female,ȱnonȬimmigrant,ȱIrish/French,ȱCanadian,ȱCanadianȱcitizen)ȱ ȱ Toȱliveȱinȱoneȱofȱtheȱbestȱcountriesȱinȱtheȱworld;ȱgoodȱbeer,ȱgoodȱpeople,ȱlotsȱlessȱ violenceȱthanȱotherȱplaces,ȱcoldness,ȱBobȱandȱDougȱMackenzie,ȱ2ndȱlargestȱlandȱ massȱinȱtheȱworld.ȱ(#148,ȱmale,ȱimmigrant,ȱHispanic,ȱdualȱcitizen)ȱ ȱ ȱ Heritage.ȱ Onlyȱ 2.8ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ nonȬimmigrantsȱ and,ȱ asȱ canȱ beȱ expected,ȱ noneȱ ofȱ theȱ adolescentsȱ ofȱ immigrantȱ origins,ȱ indicatedȱ thatȱ theyȱwereȱproudȱofȱbeingȱCanadianȱbecauseȱofȱtheirȱCanadianȱheritage.ȱȱ ȱ Iȱ amȱ proudȱ toȱ beȱ Canadianȱ becauseȱ Iȱ knowȱ thatȱ throughoutȱ ourȱ historyȱ (fromȱ colonisationȱtoȱtheȱpresentȱtime)ȱweȱfoughtȱforȱwhatȱweȱbelieveȱinȱandȱcontinueȱ toȱfight.ȱWhileȱourȱhealthȱcareȱhasȱdecreasedȱinȱquality,ȱitȱwillȱprobablyȱimproveȱ soon.ȱ Weȱ alsoȱ produceȱ manyȱ ofȱ theȱ bestȱ musicians,ȱ actors,ȱ andȱ athletes.ȱ (#108,ȱ female,ȱnonȬimmigrant,ȱGerman/Ukrainian,ȱCanadianȱcitizen)ȱ ȱ ȱ Allegianceȱ andȱ patriotism.ȱ Almostȱ 40ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ theȱ nonȬ immigrantȱandȱ15ȱperȱcentȱofȱtheȱimmigrantȱadolescentsȱexpressedȱtheirȱ loyaltyȱandȱpassionȱtowardsȱbeingȱCanadian.ȱTheȱyouthȱrevealedȱstrongȱ feelingsȱtowardȱtheȱcountry,ȱtheȱland,ȱtheȱnationalȱsymbols,ȱandȱaȱbeerȱ slogan,ȱasȱnotedȱbelow,ȱparticularlyȱforȱtheȱnonȬimmigrantȱyouth.ȱȱ ȱ Iȱ amȱ proudȱ ofȱ myȱ countryȱ andȱ amȱ notȱ ashamedȱ toȱ admitȱ it.ȱ Iȱ feelȱ veryȱ proudȱ whenȱIȱhearȱorȱreadȱthatȱCanadaȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱsafestȱnations,ȱhasȱfriendlyȱcitizensȱ andȱthatȱpeopleȱallȱaroundȱtheȱworldȱwouldȱloveȱtoȱliveȱinȱCanada,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱ knowȱwhatȱaȱwonderfulȱcountryȱitȱis.ȱIȱloveȱtheȱMolsonȱcommercial—Iȱthinkȱitȱ drivesȱtheȱmessageȱhomeȱthatȱCanadaȱhasȱitsȱownȱveryȱdistinctȱidentityȱwhichȱIȱ feelȱ isȱ veryȱ important.ȱ (#351,ȱ female,ȱ nonȬimmigrant,ȱ Westernȱ European,ȱ Canadianȱcitizen)ȱ

ȱ 508ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ

Canadianȱ meanȱ youȱ areȱ theȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ majorȱ importantȱ countryȱ inȱ theȱ world,ȱ mostȱbeautifulȱcountry,ȱandȱIȱamȱproudȱtoȱbeȱhere,ȱandȱhonourȱtoȱbeȱaȱCanadian.ȱ (#57,ȱfemale,ȱimmigrant,ȱBangladesh,ȱdualȱcitizen)ȱ ȱ Althoughȱveryȱsimilarȱstatementsȱareȱgivenȱforȱtheirȱprideȱinȱbeingȱ Canadian,ȱ suchȱ asȱ bestȱ country,ȱ multiculturalism,ȱ patriotism,ȱ senseȱ ofȱ belonging,ȱ orȱ respectedȱ byȱ others,ȱ theȱ frequencyȱ ofȱ responseȱ dwellingȱ uponȱ nationalȱ identityȱ forȱ theȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ groupȱ wasȱ muchȱ higherȱ thanȱ thatȱ ofȱ theȱ immigrantȱ groupȱ (60.3%ȱ andȱ 27.6%ȱ respectively).ȱ Theȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ participantsȱ presentedȱ theirȱ Canadianȱ identityȱ withȱ muchȱmoreȱpassionȱandȱconfidenceȱthanȱdidȱimmigrantȱyouthȱwhoȱgaveȱ rationalȱ statementsȱ forȱ feelingȱ proudȱ ofȱ beingȱ Canadianȱ suchȱ asȱ goodȱ reputation,ȱbestȱcountryȱtoȱliveȱin,ȱorȱpeacefulȱandȱcaringȱcountry.ȱȱȱ Themeȱ2:ȱSocial,ȱCulturalȱ&ȱSupranationalȱBelongingȱ Threeȱ typesȱ ofȱ belongingȱ wereȱ revealedȱ inȱ participants’ȱ responses:ȱ regional,ȱethnic,ȱandȱsupranational,ȱpresentedȱinȱTableȱ4ȱbelow.ȱ Tableȱ4:ȱComparisonȱofȱSocio,ȱCultura,lȱ&ȱSupranationalȱBelongingȱ

Meaningȱ NonȬImmigrationȱ(1.4%)ȱ Immigrantȱ(22%)ȱ Socio,ȱ Regionalȱattachment:ȱ(1.4%)ȱ Ethnicȱattachmentȱ Culturalȱ &ȱ (11%)ȱ Loyalȱtoȱprovinceȱandȱcityȱ Supranationalȱ Proudȱofȱmyȱ Belongingȱ ethnicity;ȱloyalȱtoȱ ourȱownȱculture/ȱ heritage;ȱkeepingȱmyȱ cultureȱ&ȱfreelyȱ expressingȱmyȱ culture;ȱidentifyingȱ selfȱasȱownȱethnicȱ group.ȱȱ Transnationalȱ attachmentȱ(11%)ȱ BeingȱaȱCanadianȱ withoutȱchangingȱ THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIANȱȱ 509ȱȱȱ

yourȱidentity;ȱ consideringȱselfȱasȱ Canadianȱandȱownȱ ethnicity;ȱintegratingȱ Canadianȱcultureȱ withȱownȱethnicȱ culture.ȱ

ȱ OnlyȱthreeȱnonȬimmigrantȱandȱnoneȱofȱimmigrantȱparticipantsȱindicatedȱ theirȱstrongȱsenseȱofȱregionalȱbelonging.ȱȱ

Itȱmeansȱeverythingȱtoȱme,ȱespeciallyȱbeingȱaȱCalgarian.ȱThroughoutȱtheȱworld,ȱ Calgariansȱ haveȱ theȱ highestȱ standardȱ ofȱ living.ȱ Weȱ haveȱ aȱ goodȱ life.ȱ (#159,ȱ female,ȱnonȬimmigrant,ȱChinese,ȱCanadianȱcitizen)ȱ ȱ Yetȱ overȱ 11ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ theȱ immigrantȱ youthȱ reportedȱ havingȱ strongȱ attachmentsȱ toȱ theirȱ ethnicȱ cultureȱ andȱ identity.ȱ Theyȱ wereȱ proudȱ ofȱ theirȱ ethnicity,ȱ willingȱ toȱ keepȱ theirȱ ownȱ cultureȱ andȱ heritage,ȱ happyȱ aboutȱbeingȱableȱtoȱfreelyȱexpressȱtheirȱculture,ȱorȱidentifyingȱselfȱasȱtheirȱ ownȱethnicȱgroup.ȱȱȱ

Itȱisȱactuallyȱnotȱbadȱtoȱbeȱaȱcitizenȱofȱtwoȱcountries,ȱIranȱandȱCanada.ȱButȱIȱseeȱ myselfȱasȱanȱIranianȱwhoȱcomesȱfromȱtheȱMiddleȱEastȱandȱrepresentsȱIslam.ȱ(#27,ȱ male,ȱ1stȱgeneration,ȱPersian,ȱdualȱcitizen)ȱ ȱ Anotherȱ 11ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ immigrantȱ youthȱ heldȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ transnationalȱ belonging,ȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ Canadianȱ identityȱ wasȱ predominant,ȱ withoutȱ erasingȱtheirȱspecificȱethnicȱidentity.ȱȱ ȱ Toȱ beȱ Canadianȱ isȱ toȱ beȱ multicultural.ȱ Toȱ holdȱ theȱ redȱ mapleȱ leafȱ flagȱ inȱ allȱ esteem,ȱ toȱ beȱ patrioticȱ duringȱ Olympicȱ events,ȱ andȱ toȱ cheer,ȱ notȱ onlyȱ forȱ myȱ heritageȱcountry,ȱChina,ȱbutȱalsoȱforȱmyȱnewȱhomeȱCanada.ȱToȱbeȱCanadianȱisȱtoȱ beȱfriendly,ȱtoȱSEEȱwithȱyourȱheartȱandȱnotȱwithȱyourȱeyes.ȱLessonsȱlikeȱthisȱIȱ haveȱlearnedȱuponȱarrivingȱinȱCanadaȱfromȱChinaȱandȱlivingȱinȱCanadaȱforȱtenȱ yearsȱplus.ȱIȇveȱadaptedȱtoȱbecomeȱCanadian,ȱkeepingȱmyȱfundamentalȱheritageȱ rootsȱbutȱalsoȱwelcomingȱtheȱCanadianȱpatrioticȱesteemȱandȱvaluesȱcloseȱwithinȱ me.ȱ(#85,ȱfemale,ȱimmigrant,ȱChinese,ȱCanadianȱcitizen)ȱ 510ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ

Themeȱ3:ȱAnȱEffectiveȱSystemȱofȱRightsȱ Theȱ percentageȱ ofȱ immigrantȱ groupȱ whoȱ identifiedȱ themselvesȱ asȱ Canadiansȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ rightsȱ isȱ slightlyȱ higherȱ thanȱ forȱ theȱ nonȬ immigrantȱ groupȱ (27.5%ȱ andȱ 22.5%ȱ respectively).ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ theȱ majorityȱ ofȱ participantsȱ inȱ bothȱ groupsȱ withinȱ thisȱ macroȬconceptȱ focusedȱ onȱ fundamentalȱ rightsȱ suchȱ asȱ freedomȱ andȱ securityȱ (16.9%ȱ responsesȱ forȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ groupȱ andȱ 18.3%ȱ forȱ immigrantȱ group).ȱ Moreȱ immigrantȱ youthȱ (10/30ȱ responses)ȱ consideredȱ opportunitiesȱ toȱ obtainȱ aȱ betterȱ education,ȱ chooseȱ theirȱ lifeȱ style,ȱ andȱ achieveȱ theirȱ lifeȱ goalsȱ byȱ becomingȱ Canadianȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ essenceȱ ofȱ whatȱ itȱ meansȱ toȱ beȱ Canadianȱ thanȱ didȱ nonȬimmigrantsȱ (4/32).ȱ Onlyȱ oneȱ immigrantȱ participantȱmentionedȱpoliticalȱrights.ȱTheseȱresponsesȱareȱcategorizedȱinȱ Tableȱ5ȱandȱillustratedȱinȱtheȱquotationsȱfollowing.ȱ ȱ Tableȱ5:ȱComparisonȱofȱEffectiveȱSystemȱofȱRightsȱFocusȱbyȱGenerationȱ

Meaningȱ NonȬImmigrationȱȱ22.5%ȱȱ Immigrantȱȱ27.5%ȱȱ Rightsȱ Fundamental:ȱ16.9%ȱȱ Fundamentalȱ:ȱ18.3%ȱȱ

Freedomȱofȱreligion,ȱ Havingȱtheȱrightȱtoȱmanyȱ speech,ȱthough,ȱmovement;ȱ things;ȱfreedomȱofȱspeechȱ&ȱ equality,ȱsecurity;ȱ religion;ȱmakingȱownȱ independentȱfromȱothers’ȱ choices;ȱfeelingȱsafeȱȱ opinions.ȱȱ Socialȱ&ȱeconomic:ȱ9.2%ȱȱ Politicalȱrights:ȱ0.7%ȱȱ Opportunitiesȱtoȱimproveȱ Voting;ȱmakingȱownȱchoiceȱ status,ȱeducationȱ&ȱfindȱ ofȱpoliticalȱaffairsȱ goodȱjobs.ȱȱ

Socialȱ&ȱeconomic:ȱ4.9%ȱ ȱ

Goodȱqualityȱofȱlife;ȱbeingȱ wellȱeducated;ȱopportunityȱ

ȱ ToȱbeȱCanadianȱitȱmeansȱfreedomȱandȱequality.ȱWeȱareȱfreeȱtoȱdoȱwhateverȱweȱ want,ȱ wearȱ whateverȱ weȱ want,ȱ prayȱ howeverȱ weȱ want,ȱ believeȱ whateverȱ weȱ want.ȱ Weȱ canȱ speakȱ upȱ forȱ ourselves,ȱ andȱ menȱ andȱ womenȱ areȱ seenȱ asȱ equal.ȱ (#126,ȱfemale,ȱnonȬimmigrant,ȱinformationȱonȱancestryȱmissing)ȱ THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIANȱȱ 511ȱȱȱ

Oneȱwordȱ–ȱOPPORTUNITY!ȱIȱcanȱhonestlyȱsayȱthatȱIȱcanȱdoȱwhateverȱIȱwantȱ withȱmyȱlifeȱnowȱandȱinȱtheȱfuture,ȱbecauseȱschoolȱisȱfree.ȱIȱcanȱplayȱbasketballȱ wheneverȱIȱwant.ȱIȱcanȱgoȱtoȱuniversityȱorȱtravelȱorȱworkȱ–ȱit’sȱallȱupȱtoȱME.ȱ(#38,ȱ male,ȱimmigrant,ȱFilipino,ȱdualȱcitizen)ȱ Immigrantȱ youthȱ mentioningȱ rightsȱ oftenȱ associatedȱ theseȱ withȱ otherȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ anȱ effectiveȱ regimeȱ ofȱ rights,ȱ suchȱ asȱ “withoutȱ punishment,”ȱ “withoutȱ fearȱ ofȱ makingȱ ownȱ decision,”ȱ “beȱ keptȱ awayȱ fromȱ killingȱ andȱ murders,”ȱ andȱ soȱ on.ȱ Thisȱ mayȱ beȱ attributableȱ toȱ theȱ experiencesȱ inȱ orȱ notionsȱ ofȱ theirȱ countriesȱ ofȱ origin,ȱ orȱ thoseȱ ofȱ theirȱ parents.ȱȱȱ ȱ Beingȱ Canadianȱ offersȱ meȱ safetyȱ fromȱ warsȱ andȱ aȱ placeȱ toȱ callȱ home.ȱ Beingȱ CanadianȱmeansȱIȱcanȱbeȱkeptȱawayȱfromȱkillingsȱandȱmurdersȱonȱbasisȱofȱmyȱ skinȱ color,ȱ sexȱ orȱ religion.ȱ Canadaȱ offersȱ meȱ aȱ chanceȱ toȱ improveȱ myȱ status/educationȱ inȱ aȱ greatȱ environment.ȱ (#113,ȱ male,ȱ immigrant,ȱ AfricanȬ Canadian)ȱȱ Themeȱ4:ȱPoliticalȱandȱCivicȱParticipationȱ YouthȱfromȱbothȱgroupsȱthoughtȱthatȱbeingȱCanadianȱmeantȱtakingȱupȱ certainȱ responsibilities,ȱ suchȱ asȱ participatingȱ inȱ theȱ society,ȱ makingȱ contributionsȱ toȱ society,ȱ keepingȱ Canada’sȱ goodȱreputation,ȱandȱ soȱ on.ȱ Asȱ shownȱ inȱ Tableȱ 6,ȱ theȱ twoȱ groupsȱ differed,ȱ however,ȱ regardingȱ responsibilities.ȱ Tableȱ6:ȱComparisonȱofȱPoliticalȱ&ȱCivicȱParticipationȱbyȱGenerationȱ

Meaningȱ NonȬImmigrationȱ(7.1%)ȱ Immigrantȱ(15.6%)ȱ Politicalȱ&ȱ Participation:ȱȱ Participation:ȱȱ civicȱ Donating,ȱvolunteeringȱ Contributingȱtoȱtheȱ participationȱ peopleȱ&ȱ Requisiteȱskillsȱ&ȱknowledge:ȱȱ communityȱ Knowingȱhistoryȱ&ȱtheȱ ObeyingȱCanadianȱ NationalȱAnthem;ȱmustȱ lawsȱ speakȱeitherȱofficialȱ languageȱȱȱ KeepingȱCanadian’sȱ reputation:ȱȱ KeepingȱCanadian’sȱreputation:ȱ Beȱaȱpeaceȱlover;ȱbeȱ 512ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ

Beȱnice,ȱfriendly;ȱ friendly,ȱpolite,ȱ multiculturalismȱ goodȱattitudeȱ (acceptingȱdiverseȱ ȱ people/getȱalongȱwithȱ them)ȱ

ȱ Moreȱimmigrantȱyouthȱconsideredȱpoliticalȱandȱcivicȱparticipationȱasȱ theȱ meaningȱ ofȱ beingȱ Canadianȱ thanȱ didȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ youthȱ (15.6%ȱ andȱ 7.1%ȱ respectively).ȱ Asȱ well,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ immigrantȱ youth,ȱ theirȱ responsibilitiesȱ wereȱ relatedȱ toȱ obeyingȱ lawsȱ andȱ civicȱ participation,ȱ whileȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ adolescentsȱ focusedȱ onȱ prerequisiteȱ knowledgeȱ andȱskills,ȱandȱacceptingȱdiverseȱpeople.ȱȱ

Iȱthink,ȱtoȱbeȱaȱCanadian,ȱyouȱmustȱspeakȱtheȱofficialȱlanguageȱofȱeitherȱEnglishȱ orȱ French.ȱ Forȱ me,ȱ Iȱ mustȱ loveȱ andȱ respectȱ myȱ country.ȱ Helpȱ outȱ inȱ anyȱ wayȱ possibleȱtoȱmakeȱitȱbetter.ȱAcceptȱtheȱpeople.ȱKnowȱallȱtheȱwordsȱtoȱtheȱNationalȱ Anthemȱandȱknowȱtheȱhistory.ȱHowȱcouldȱyouȱbeȱaȱcitizenȱofȱaȱcountryȱifȱyouȱ don’tȱknowȱhowȱitȱcameȱtoȱbeȱorȱwhatȱit’sȱabout.ȱ(#164,ȱfemale,ȱnonȬimmigrant,ȱ Norwegian/Swedishȱancestry)ȱ

Beingȱ aȱ Canadianȱ citizenȱ toȱ meȱ meansȱ obeyingȱ theȱ lawsȱ thatȱ areȱ imposed,ȱ participatingȱ inȱ communityȱ affairs.ȱ (#42,ȱ female,ȱ immigrant,ȱ Filipino,ȱ Canadianȱ citizenship)ȱ ȱ Thus,ȱtheseȱfindingsȱshow,ȱgenerally,ȱthatȱmostȱparticipatingȱyouth,ȱ residingȱinȱCalgary,ȱhaveȱpositiveȱviewsȱtowardsȱbeingȱCanadian.ȱTheyȱ feltȱ proudȱ ofȱ beingȱ Canadian,ȱ valuedȱ theȱ countryȱ theyȱ liveȱ in,ȱ andȱ perceivedȱ theȱ positiveȱ worldȱ imageȱ ofȱ Canadaȱ inȱ theirȱ dailyȱ lives,ȱ schooling,ȱmassȱmedia,ȱandȱtheirȱtravelingȱexperiences.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheseȱ youngȱpeopleȱrecognizedȱwhatȱkindȱofȱrightsȱtheyȱpossessedȱandȱwhatȱ kindȱofȱresponsibilitiesȱtheyȱneededȱtoȱtakeȱupȱasȱaȱCanadian.ȱ Theȱ youthȱ ofȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ backgroundȱ tendedȱ toȱ commitȱ toȱ aȱ nationalȱidentityȱbyȱaȱmarginȱofȱoverȱ60ȱperȱcent,ȱwhichȱtheyȱpresentedȱ withȱmuchȱpassionȱandȱconfidence.ȱAsȱtheirȱcitizenshipȱhasȱbeenȱpassedȱ onȱthroughȱtheȱgenerations,ȱitȱwasȱrelativelyȱeasyȱforȱtheseȱyouthȱtoȱfeelȱ atȱ homeȱ inȱ Canada.ȱ Withȱ ancestralȱ originsȱ inȱ Britishȱ orȱ Europeanȱ countries,ȱitȱwasȱeasyȱforȱthemȱtoȱbeȱpartȱofȱCanada,ȱgivenȱtheirȱcolour,ȱ religion,ȱculture,ȱandȱlongȱsettlement.ȱȱ THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIANȱȱ 513ȱȱȱ

Theȱ youthȱ ofȱ immigrantȱ origins,ȱ however,ȱ committedȱ toȱ theirȱ Canadianȱcitizenshipȱbyȱaȱlesserȱmarginȱofȱ27.6ȱperȱcent.ȱMoreover,ȱtheyȱ didȱ notȱ haveȱ theȱ sameȱ relationshipȱ withȱ theirȱ countryȱ ofȱadoptionȱ andȱ residence.ȱ Recentȱ citizens,ȱ youthȱ ofȱ immigrantȱ originsȱ tendedȱ toȱ useȱ aȱ discourseȱ ofȱ becomingȱ expressedȱ inȱ wordsȱ suchȱ asȱ ‘feel,’ȱ ‘can,’ȱ andȱ ‘become.’ȱ Byȱ comparison,ȱ aȱ discourseȱ ofȱ homingȱ expressingȱ anȱ attachmentȱ ofȱ beingȱ atȱ homeȱ wasȱ usedȱ byȱ youthȱ whoseȱ familiesȱ haveȱ beenȱinȱCanadaȱforȱtwoȱorȱmoreȱgenerations,ȱwithȱwordsȱsuchȱasȱlove,ȱ home,ȱ andȱ proud.ȱ Forȱ theȱ youthȱ ofȱ immigrantȱ origins,ȱ developingȱ aȱ nationalȱidentityȱisȱaȱjourneyȱthatȱisȱbothȱchallengingȱandȱcomplicated.ȱȱȱ Theȱ youthȱ alsoȱ differedȱ accordingȱ toȱ theirȱ understandingȱ ofȱ multiculturalism.ȱ Youthȱ ofȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ backgroundȱ consideredȱ multiculturalismȱ asȱ theȱ Canadianȱ identity,ȱ whichȱ meantȱ acceptingȱ culturalȱ diversityȱandȱ treatingȱ othersȱequally.ȱ Byȱ comparison,ȱ youthȱ ofȱ immigrantȱoriginȱthoughtȱofȱitȱasȱretainingȱandȱrecognizingȱtheirȱethnicȱ identity,ȱ suchȱ asȱ prideȱ ofȱ theirȱ ethnicityȱ andȱ expressionȱ ofȱ theirȱ ownȱ cultureȱfreely.ȱȱ Theȱ youthȱ ofȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ backgroundȱ attendedȱ mostlyȱ toȱ theȱ generalȱ notionȱ ofȱ nationalȱ identity,ȱ whereasȱ theȱ immigrantȱ youthȱ associatedȱ almostȱ equallyȱ withȱ allȱ fourȱ concepts,ȱ thusȱ assumingȱ aȱ Charterȱ identity.ȱ Theseȱ findingsȱ indicateȱ thatȱ mostȱ immigrantȱ youthȱ haveȱunderstoodȱtheȱtensionsȱbetweenȱnationalȱidentityȱandȱaȱdiversityȱ ofȱ waysȱ ofȱ belonging,ȱ setȱ withȱ Canadianȱ normsȱ ofȱ equality,ȱ asȱ manifestedȱ inȱ theȱ systemȱ ofȱ rightsȱ thatȱ guaranteesȱ theirȱ securityȱ andȱ recognition.ȱThus,ȱwithȱlegalȱrecognitionȱforȱtheirȱethnoȬculturalȱidentityȱ andȱ groupȱ support,ȱ especiallyȱ inȱ theȱ earliestȱ stagesȱ ofȱ theȱ settlementȱ periodȱ(Hébert,ȱLee,ȱSun,ȱ&ȱBerti,ȱ2003),ȱimmigrantȱyouthȱtendedȱtoȱhaveȱ confidenceȱinȱculturalȱinterchangeȱandȱidentifiedȱwithȱtheȱlargerȱpoliticalȱ communityȱ(Kymlicka,ȱ2003;ȱKymlickaȱ&ȱNorman,ȱ2000;ȱModood,ȱ1996).ȱȱ INTERPRETINGȱANDȱCOMPARINGȱTHEȱPATTERNSȱ Theoretically,ȱyouthȱhaveȱgenerallyȱbeenȱconceptualizedȱasȱproblematic.ȱ Overȱaȱhundredȱyearsȱago,ȱadolescentȱstormȱandȱstressȱwasȱproclaimedȱ toȱbeȱuniversallyȱpartȱofȱhumankind’sȱgeneticȱmakeȬupȱ(Hall,ȱ1904),ȱanȱ ideaȱtakenȱupȱbyȱEriksonȱ(1968),ȱthusȱcreatingȱadolescenceȱasȱaȱtimeȱofȱ crisisȱ inȱ Northȱ America.ȱ Theȱ impactȱ ofȱ theseȱ negativeȱ perceptionsȱ ofȱ 514ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ youthȱonȱresearchȱandȱeducational,ȱpsychological,ȱandȱjudicialȱservicesȱisȱ amplyȱdocumentedȱandȱcommentedȱonȱinȱaȱnumberȱofȱstudiesȱ(AymanȬ Nolleyȱ &ȱ Taira,ȱ 2000;ȱ Cohenȱ &ȱ Ainley,ȱ 2000;ȱ Côtéȱ &ȱ Allahar,ȱ 2006;ȱ Hébertȱ &ȱ Hartley,ȱ 2006;ȱ Karakayali,ȱ 2005).ȱ Althoughȱ scholarsȱ areȱ sensitiveȱtoȱtheȱnegativeȱeffectsȱofȱthisȱlimitedȱandȱlimitingȱperspective,ȱ thisȱisȱnotȱtoȱdenyȱthatȱimmigrationȱisȱproblematicȱforȱmanyȱyouthȱwhoȱ needȱ additionalȱ parentalȱ andȱ communityȱ supportȱ (Anisefȱ &ȱ Kilbride,ȱ 2003;ȱHagan,ȱDinovitzer,ȱ&ȱParker,ȱ2003).ȱȱ YouthȱinȱComparableȱContextsȱ Turningȱnowȱtoȱmultipleȱinterpretationsȱofȱtheȱfindings,ȱweȱsetȱourȱstudyȱ inȱ nationalȱ andȱ internationalȱ contextsȱ toȱ betterȱ understandȱ theȱ significanceȱofȱtheȱfindingsȱandȱtoȱaddressȱsocialȱpolicyȱissues.ȱȱ Nationalȱ Comparisons.ȱ Theȱ Calgaryȱ participantsȱ holdȱ similarȱ viewsȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ nationalȱ andȱ collectivizedȱ pluralistȱ identificationsȱ asȱ thoseȱ reportedȱ inȱ studiesȱ ofȱ youthȱ inȱ twoȱ otherȱ provinces.ȱ Britishȱ ColumbiaȱandȱQuébecȱyouthȱenrolledȱinȱsecondaryȱschoolsȱconstructedȱ theirȱnationalȱidentityȱinȱlightȱofȱtheirȱsocialȱstudies/historyȱcurriculumȱ andȱlifeȱexperienceȱ(Lévesque,ȱ2003).ȱTheȱimmigrantȱyouth’sȱexperienceȱ inȱ theirȱ countryȱ ofȱ originȱ mayȱ haveȱ providedȱ themȱ withȱ aȱ comparisonȱ betweenȱ liberalȱ democracy,ȱ oppression,ȱ andȱ dictatorship.ȱ Suchȱ youthȱ exhibitedȱ prideȱ andȱ loyaltyȱ withȱ referenceȱ toȱ livingȱ inȱ Canada,ȱ andȱ foundȱcompabilityȱbetweenȱmulticulturalismȱandȱcitizenship.ȱThisȱviewȱ allowedȱthemȱtoȱexpressȱmultipleȱidentificationsȱwithoutȱfearȱofȱpublicȱ discriminationȱ andȱ alsoȱ encouragedȱ aȱ progressiveȱ adaptationȱ intoȱ theȱ hostȱsociety.ȱȱȱ Thisȱ Canadianȱ youthȱ patternȱ isȱ likelyȱ toȱ resultȱ inȱ reducedȱ socialȱ tensions.ȱItȱwillȱbecomeȱincreasingȱdifficultȱtoȱcategorizeȱ‘others’ȱandȱtoȱ locateȱthemȱalongȱracializedȱfaultȱlinesȱinȱCanadianȱsociety,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱ FrenchȬEnglishȱ divide,ȱ orȱ theȱ AboriginalȬWhiteȱ divide,ȱ asȱ perceivedȱ withinȱmodernityȱwhereinȱidentityȱisȱstableȱinȱadulthood,ȱconstructedȱinȱ concreteȱ andȱ steel,ȱ andȱ fixedȱ asȱ yellowedȱ imagesȱ inȱ dogȬearedȱ photoȱ albums.ȱInstead,ȱtheȱfluidityȱandȱstrategicȱnatureȱofȱgroupȱandȱnationalȱ identitiesȱ requiresȱ newȱ formsȱ ofȱ complexȱ andȱ changingȱ identifications,ȱ educationalȱactivities,ȱandȱpedagogiesȱthatȱfocusȱonȱtheȱchangeȱprocessȱ THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIANȱȱ 515ȱȱȱ andȱallowȱcomplexȱidentificationsȱthatȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱexperiencesȱinȱ countriesȱofȱorigin,ȱadoption,ȱandȱresidence.ȱȱȱ WhetherȱtheȱyouthȱareȱinȱCalgary,ȱBritishȱColumbia,ȱorȱQuébec,ȱtheyȱ areȱ allȱ childrenȱ ofȱ multiculturalism.ȱ Becauseȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ immigrantȱ youthȱ inȱ theseȱ threeȱ locationsȱ haveȱ learnedȱ theȱ harshȱ consequencesȱ ofȱ extremeȱformsȱofȱracializedȱhatred,ȱintolerance,ȱandȱallegiance,ȱitȱisȱnotȱ surprisingȱthatȱtheyȱareȱpartialȱtoȱculturalȱpluralism.ȱAsȱSeligmanȱ(2000)ȱ pointsȱout,ȱȱ ȱ pluralismȱasȱaȱvalueȱimpliesȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱexistȱtogetherȱwithȱother,ȱcompetingȱ visionsȱ ofȱ societyȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ cosmos.ȱ Itȱ impliesȱ toleranceȱ ofȱ errorȱ andȱ ofȱ alternativeȱandȱcompetingȱcivilizationalȱworldviews,ȱeachȱwithȱtheirȱownȱclaimsȱ toȱtheȱpublicȱsphereȱandȱtheȱorganizationȱofȱcommunalȱlife.ȱ(p.ȱ13)ȱȱ ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ youth’sȱ identificationsȱ areȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ inȱ aȱ complementaryȱrelation,ȱandȱtoȱallowȱforȱmutualȱrecognition,ȱsympathyȱ forȱoneȱanother’sȱviews,ȱandȱpossiblyȱevenȱsomeȱformȱofȱbenevolence.ȱ InternationalȱContexts.ȱTheȱintegrationȱofȱyouthȱofȱimmigrantȱoriginsȱ isȱaȱburningȱsocialȱpolicyȱissueȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱcitizenshipȱdebatesȱthatȱrageȱ inȱallȱpluralistȱdemocraticȱcountries.ȱInȱFrance,ȱforȱexample,ȱyouthȱhaveȱ beenȱ riotingȱ inȱ theȱ streetsȱ sinceȱ 2002,ȱ withȱ theȱ socialȱ unrestȱ reachingȱ criticalȱ proportionsȱ andȱ receivingȱ internationalȱ attentionȱ threeȱ yearsȱ later.ȱ Systemicȱ exclusionȱ isȱ rampantȱ withȱ hideousȱ housingȱ inȱ urbanȱ perimeters,ȱ aȱ harshȱ educationalȱ system,ȱ oppressiveȱ policing,ȱ andȱ anȱ economicȱ systemȱ thatȱ leavesȱ theseȱ youthȱ massivelyȱ unemployedȱ inȱ aȱ myopicȱ societyȱ withȱ aȱ hugeȱ raceȬandȬpovertyȱ gapȱ dueȱ toȱ economicȱ policiesȱthatȱareȱunfavourableȱtoȱtheseȱsocialȱclassesȱ(Brouardȱ&ȱTiberj,ȱ 2005;ȱCharlot,ȱ1999;ȱDjouder,ȱ2006;ȱSaunders,ȱ2005;ȱSmith,ȱ2004).ȱȱ Takingȱ upȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ socialȱ unrestȱ inȱ Canadaȱ ofȱ theȱ sameȱ natureȱandȱintensityȱasȱinȱFrance,ȱtwoȱoppositeȱargumentsȱareȱpossibleȱinȱ lightȱofȱourȱfindingsȱandȱthoseȱofȱLévesqueȱ(2003).ȱFirst,ȱitȱseemsȱhighlyȱ unlikely,ȱ givenȱ theȱ Canadianȱ Charterȱ ofȱ Rightsȱ andȱ Freedoms,ȱ itsȱ guaranteeȱofȱmulticulturalȱandȱcollectiveȱrights,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱinfluencesȱ ofȱ theȱ socialȱ studies/historyȱ curriculum,ȱ lifeȱ experiencesȱ andȱ understandings,ȱ thatȱ Canadianȱ youthȱ ofȱ immigrantȱ originsȱ wouldȱ riseȱ upȱ inȱ ultraȬviolentȱ rebellion.ȱ Nevertheless,ȱ Canadianȱ urbanȱ schoolsȱ areȱ nowȱ beginningȱ toȱ seeȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ tensionsȱ inȱ majorȱ Americanȱ andȱ 516ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ

Continentalȱcities,ȱalbeitȱtoȱaȱlesserȱdegree,ȱsuchȱasȱhighȱdropȬoutȱrates,ȱ poorȱ attendance,ȱ boredom,ȱ lackȱ ofȱ motivation,ȱ lackȱ ofȱ achievement,ȱ inequityȱinȱachievement,ȱhighȱremediationȱrates,ȱlackȱofȱjobȱperformance,ȱ seriousȱandȱpervasiveȱschoolȱviolence,ȱandȱhighȱstudentȱanxiety.ȱȱ Second,ȱ anȱ importantȱ growingȱ underclassȱ linkedȱ toȱ povertyȱ andȱ scarcityȱofȱfullȬtimeȱpermanentȱemploymentȱforȱyouthȱexistsȱinȱCanadaȱ asȱwellȱasȱinȱmanyȱotherȱcountries.ȱAccessingȱonlyȱlowȬpayingȱjobsȱlimitsȱ theȱpotentialityȱofȱyoungȱpeopleȱtoȱbeȱproductiveȱcontributorsȱtoȱadultȱ societyȱandȱtoȱbeȱefficaciousȱactiveȱcitizens.ȱInȱtheȱglobalȱeconomy,ȱyouthȱ areȱ bothȱ workersȱ andȱ consumers,ȱ spendingȱ theirȱ limitedȱ incomeȱ onȱ fashionȱ andȱ leisureȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ prevailingȱ consumerȱ cultureȱ (Côtéȱ &ȱ Allahar,ȱ 2006;ȱ Klein,ȱ 2000).ȱ Whetherȱ theseȱ areȱ theȱ outcomesȱ ofȱ socialȱ disorganizationȱcreatedȱasȱeconomicȱchangesȱerodeȱnormativeȱstructuresȱ andȱsafeguards,ȱorȱwhetherȱtheyȱareȱdirectlyȱorchestratedȱbyȱcontrollingȱ interestsȱinȱsociety,ȱdoesȱnotȱseemȱtoȱmatter.ȱȱ Whatȱ isȱ importantȱ isȱ thatȱ educatorsȱ andȱ policyȱ makersȱ alikeȱ recognizeȱtheȱneedȱtoȱbeȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱeconomicȱdisempowermentȱ andȱpoliticalȱdisenfranchisementȱofȱallȱyouth.ȱThereȱareȱimmediateȱsocialȱ policyȱ implicationsȱ forȱ restructuringȱ societyȱ toȱ assureȱ normativeȱ economic,ȱsocial,ȱandȱpoliticalȱbenefitsȱforȱallȱyouth,ȱandȱforȱenhancingȱ theȱ qualityȱ ofȱ schooling,ȱ theȱ settlementȱ andȱ integrationȱ experiences,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ pluralistȱ understandingsȱ andȱ practicesȱ thatȱ enhanceȱ mutualȱ recognition,ȱempathyȱforȱoneȱanother’sȱviews,ȱandȱbenevolenceȱtowardsȱ others.ȱ CONCLUSIONȱ Givenȱ theȱ social,ȱ political,ȱ andȱ economicȱ normativeȱ deȬstructuringȱ ofȱ societiesȱwithinȱȱglobalization,ȱitȱisȱparticularȱimportantȱthatȱnationsȱandȱ culturalȱ groupsȱ continueȱ toȱ provideȱ allȱ citizensȱ andȱ especiallyȱ youthȱ citizens,ȱ withȱ theirȱ primaryȱ senseȱ ofȱ belonging,ȱ regardlessȱ ofȱ theȱ immigrantȱ experienceȱ orȱ itsȱ absence.ȱ Canadianȱ societyȱ hasȱ movedȱ towardsȱaȱgrowingȱappreciationȱofȱculturalȱdifference,ȱasȱcontextualizedȱ withinȱCanadianȱmulticulturalȱpoliciesȱandȱprograms.ȱInȱcharacterizingȱ Canadianȱcitizenship,ȱitȱbecomesȱnecessaryȱtoȱconsiderȱnationalȱidentityȱ andȱ ethnoculturalȱ membershipsȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ oneȱ another.ȱ Asȱ Gagnonȱ andȱ Pagéȱ (1999)ȱ suggest,ȱ “citizensȱ whoseȱ rootsȱ lieȱ inȱ ethnicȱ groupsȱ THEȱMEANINGȱOFȱBEINGȱCANADIANȱȱ 517ȱȱȱ probablyȱ feelȱ aȱ strongerȱ connectionȱ withȱ Canadianȱ identityȱ becauseȱ itȱ recognizesȱtheȱthingsȱthatȱmakeȱthemȱdifferent”ȱ(p.ȱ21).ȱ Theȱvoicesȱofȱyouthȱinȱthisȱstudyȱrevealȱthat,ȱinȱpractice,ȱaȱdiversityȱ ofȱethnoculturalȱidentitiesȱdoesȱnotȱnecessarilyȱdiminishȱassociationȱwithȱ theȱnationalȱidentityȱinȱCanada.ȱOnȱoneȱhand,ȱimmigrantȱyouthȱexpressȱaȱ strongȱattachmentȱtoȱtheirȱethnicȱorigins,ȱwhichȱallowsȱthemȱtoȱintegrateȱ intoȱ Canadianȱ identityȱ whileȱ attemptingȱ toȱ identifyȱ themselvesȱ asȱ membersȱ ofȱ theirȱ ownȱ ethnicȱ groupsȱ andȱ toȱ revealȱ themselvesȱ asȱ sensitiveȱ aboutȱ differencesȱ inȱ racial,ȱ linguistic,ȱ cultural,ȱ andȱ immigrantȱ status.ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ theirȱ attemptsȱ toȱ integrateȱ intoȱ Canadianȱ societyȱalsoȱgiveȱriseȱtoȱdesiresȱtoȱbeȱacceptedȱasȱfullȱmembersȱinȱgoodȱ standing.ȱ Forȱ immigrantȱ youth,ȱ aȱ positiveȱ interactionȱ amongȱ nationalȱ identity,ȱequalityȱrights,ȱandȱspecificȱgroupȱmembershipsȱinfluencesȱtheȱ formationȱofȱcomplexȱidentificationsȱasȱaȱCanadian.ȱȱ Theseȱ findingsȱ areȱ ofȱ considerableȱ theoreticalȱ andȱ practicalȱ significanceȱforȱthereȱareȱtensionsȱbetweenȱtwoȱideals:ȱ“theȱmulticulturalȱ stateȱ thatȱ fairlyȱ accommodatesȱ diversityȱ inȱ itsȱ lawsȱ andȱ publicȱ institutions;ȱandȱtheȱinterculturalȱcitizenȱwhoȱfeelsȱcomfortableȱdealingȱ withȱdiversityȱinȱhisȱorȱherȱindividualȱinteractions”ȱ(Kymlicka,ȱ2003,ȱp.ȱ 158).ȱ Generallyȱ speaking,ȱ theȱ participatingȱ youthȱ composedȱ relativelyȱ wellȱwithȱdiversityȱinȱdailyȱschoolȱandȱlifeȱsituationsȱwhichȱhighlightȱtheȱ positiveȱimpactȱofȱCanadianȱidentityȱonȱtheȱsenseȱofȱbelonging,ȱvalues,ȱ andȱ expectationȱ ofȱ participants’ȱ lives.ȱ Theȱ nonȬimmigrantȱ youthȱ areȱ stronglyȱ attachedȱ toȱ Canadaȱ andȱ appreciateȱ theȱ diversityȱ ofȱ Canadianȱ society;ȱ whereasȱ theȱ immigrantȱ youthȱ securelyȱ exerciseȱ theirȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ withinȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ becomingȱ Canadian.ȱ Revealingȱ aȱ desiredȱ harmonyȱbetweenȱnationalȱidentityȱandȱminorityȱrights,ȱtheȱparticipatingȱ youth’sȱ discoursesȱ onȱ theȱ meaningsȱ ofȱ beingȱ Canadianȱ suggestȱ thatȱ aȱ country’sȱsocialȱpoliciesȱshapeȱyouth’sȱintegrationȱpossibilities.ȱȱ Anȱelaborativeȱmodelȱofȱcitizenshipȱeducationȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱableȱtoȱ formȱ aȱ citizenryȱ respectfulȱ ofȱ multipleȱ identities,ȱ sharingȱ aȱ commonȱ senseȱofȱbelongingȱandȱhavingȱfullȱparityȱofȱrightsȱandȱobligationsȱandȱ dutiesȱandȱresponsibilitiesȱwithinȱCanadianȱsociety.ȱNonetheless,ȱunlessȱ youthȱ andȱ educatorsȱ areȱ fullyȱ awareȱ ofȱ changingȱ materialȱ andȱ societalȱ conditionsȱ thatȱ disempowerȱ andȱ disenfranchiseȱ youngȱ people,ȱ andȱ areȱ sensitiveȱtoȱtheȱunderstandingȱthatȱsocietyȱandȱschoolingȱareȱnotȱbenign,ȱ 518ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱJENNIFERȱWENSHYAȱLEEȱ&ȱYVONNEȱM.ȱHÉBERTȱ

Canadianȱ youthȱ willȱ certainlyȱ developȱ diffuseȱ feelingsȱ ofȱ anxietyȱ andȱ exclusion.ȱInȱtheȱlongȱrun,ȱsuchȱuneaseȱwouldȱbringȱyouthȱtoȱmobilizeȱ againstȱtheirȱexploitation,ȱtoȱriseȱupȱagainstȱineffectualȱgovernments,ȱandȱ toȱtargetȱeducationalȱinstitutionsȱasȱtheȱinstrumentȱofȱtheȱstate.ȱ

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSȱ

Theȱ researchȱ project,ȱ Identityȱ Formation:ȱ Strategicȱ Competenceȱ ofȱ Immigrantȱ Youthȱ wasȱ fundedȱ byȱ aȱ threeȬyearȱ standardȱ grantȱ fromȱ theȱ Socialȱ Sciencesȱ andȱ Humanitiesȱ Researchȱ Councilȱ ofȱ Canada,ȱ aȱ oneȬyearȱ grantȱ fromȱ theȱ MulticulturalismȱProgrammeȱofȱCanadianȱHeritage,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtravelȱgrantsȱfromȱ theȱPrairieȱCentreȱofȱExcellenceȱforȱResearchȱonȱImmigrationȱandȱIntegration.ȱY.ȱ Hébertȱservedȱasȱprincipalȱinvestigatorȱand,ȱasȱresearchȱassistant,ȱJ.ȱW.ȱLee,ȱwhoȱ hasȱsinceȱcompletedȱherȱdoctorate.ȱȱ

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