Survey of Internal Parasites in Sheep and Goats in the White Nile State – Sudan (April – May 2009)

View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE

provided by KhartoumSpace

SURVEY OF INTERNAL PARASITES IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN THE WHITE NILE STATE – SUDAN (APRIL – MAY 2009)

By MOHAMMED ABAKAR YOUSIF (B.V.M., University of Khartoum, 2002)

Supervisor PROF. AHMED ABDEL RAHIM GAMEEL

Dissertation Submitted to the University of Khartoum in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Tropical Animal Health, (M.T.A.H).

Department of Preventive Medicine and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum.

February 2010

DEDICATION

Parents

I ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Prof. A.A.Gameel for his help and best guidance.

Thanks and appreciation are extended to Dr.Tariq Mohammed. of Rabak Veterinary Research Laboratory for facilitating the laboratory works. My colleagues and friends who offered great help to me, especially Dr.Mortada Mohammed, Dr. Osama Ishaq, Dr.Hassan Ali, Dr.Atif Ahmed, Dr.Amjad Mohammed, and Dr. Abd Algadir Al-fadil The Staff of Rabak veterinary research laboratory for their help, especially Abo bakar Abd Al-rahman who helped me in collection of samples, Sedig Boshra, Ahmed Al-bashir and khadiga Hamid The staff of Animal Resources Administration, Rabak for providing data especially Dr Kamal Hassan Great thanks to Salwa Osman for her technical help The technical staff of the Department of Preventive Medicine and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum especially Hamed Abd Alwahid and Hessin Abdel Rahim.

II TABLE OF CONTENTS

Subject …………………………………………………………...... Page Dedication …………………………………………………………………...I Acknowledge ……………………………………………………………….II Table of contents …………………………………………………………..III List of tables …………………………………………………………….....VI List of figures ………………………………………………………...... VII List of plates ……………………………………………………………..VIII Abstract ……………………………………………………………………IX Arabic abstract ……………………………………………………………XII Introduction …………………………………………………………………1 CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………...... 4 1.1. Helminthoses ………………………………………………………...…4 1.1.1. Nematodes …………………………………………………………....5 1.1.1.1. Life cycle …………………………………………………………...6 1.1.1.2 Factors affecting nematode abundance ….………………………….7 1.1.1.2.1. Climatic factors …………………………………………………..8 1.1.1.2.2. Management systems …………………………………………...10 1.1.1.2.3. Host factors …………….…………………………………...... 11 1.1.1.2.4. Parasite factors...…………………….…………………………..11 1.1.2. Trematodes ………………………………………………………….12 1.1.2.1. Life cycle ………………………………………………………….13 1.1.2 Cestodes …………………………………….……………………….15 1.1.2.1 Life cycle …………………………………………………………..15 1.2. Coccidia ……………………………………………………...... 15 1.2.1. Life cycle ……………………………………………………………16

III 1.3. Diagnosis of parasites in small ruminants ……………………………17 1.4. Control ………………………………………………………………...17 1.5. Prevalence of helminths in the world …...... 21 1.6. Prevalence of coccidia in the world …………………………………..22 1.7. Prevalence of helminths in Sudan …………………………………….23 1.8. Prevalence of coccidia in Sudan ………….…………………………...24 CHAPTER TWO: MATERIALS AND METHODS ……………………...25 2.1 STUDY AREA ………………………………………………………...25 2.1.1 Location ……………………………………………………………...25 2.1.2 Climatic conditions ………………………………………………….25 2.1.2 Animals populations …………………………………………………25 2.2 Study design …………………………………………………………...26 2.3 Sample size …………………………………………………………….26 2.4 Animals ………………………………………………………………..27 2.5 Data collection …………………………………………………………27 2.6 Faecal examination …………………………………………………….27 2.6.1 The Willis technique ………………………………………………...27 2.6.2 The Modified Mc Master Technique ………………………………...28 2.6.3 Sedimentation ………………………………………………………..29 CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS …………………………………………..30 3.1 Pasture status: ………………………………………………………….30 3.2 Microscopicall examination results ……………………………………30 3.2.1Prevalence of parasites ……………………………………………….30 3.2.2 Eggs and oocyst count………………………………………………..31 3.3Questionnaire results …………..……………………………………….47 3.3.1Parasites problem …………………………………………………….47 3.3.2Control of parasites …………………………………………………..47

IV 3.3.3Veterinary care ……………………………………………………….47 CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION ………………………………………..50 RECOMMENDATIONS:………………………………………………….57 REFERENCES: ……………………………………………………….…...58 APPENDIX

V LIST OF TABLES

1. Table(3.1): Number Of Goats And Sheep Infected In All Regions ...32 2. Table (3.2): Number of goats and sheep infected with various internal parasites in four regions in White Nile State ……………………….33 3. Table(3.3): Prevalence of internal parasites ………………………34 4. Table(3.4): Single and multiple parasitic infections in sheep and goats ……………………………………………………………………… 35 5. Table (3.5): range of Strongylids and coccidia eggs per gram ( EPG) ……..………………………………………………………………...42 6. Table (3.6): Results of Questionnaire Survey ………….……...... 48

VI LIST OF FIGURES

1. Figure 3.1 Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in all region ……………………………………………………………….36 2. Figure 3.2 Prevalence of internal parasites in all animals ………....37 3. Figure 3.3 Prevalence of internal parasite in sheep and goat in Aljazeera Aba ……………………………………………………….38 4. Figure 3.4 Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in Kosti ………………………………………………………………...39 5. Figure 3.5 Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in Rabak ……………………………………………………………….40 6. Figure 3.6 Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in Omjar………………………………………………………………..41 7. Figure 3.7 Average eggs per animal of Strongylids and coccidia in Algazeera Aba ………………………………………………………43 8. Figure 3.8 Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia in Kosti ……………………………………………………………..44 9. Figure 3..9 Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia in Rabak …………………………………………………...... 45 10. Figure 3. 10 Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia in Omjar …………………………………………………...46

VII

LIST OF PLATES

1. Plate(1.1): The FAMACHA technique …………………………….20

VIII

ABSTRACT

The present study was carried out in the White Nile State during the period of April – May 2009 to determine the prevalence rate of internal parasites in sheep and goats. A total of 409 animals were examined in four areas of which 51, 53 and 50 animals from each species in Al gazeera Aba, Rabak and Kosti areas, respectively. Besides, 51 sheep and 50 goats were examined in Omjar area. For detecting the ova and ooysts, fecal samples were collected directly from the rectum and examined using the floatation method and the modified McMaster egg counting technique for counting nematode eggs and coccidian oocysts. The sedimentation method was used for trematode eggs. The results indicated that gastrointestinal parasites are common in sheep and goats and that overall parasites egg counts were higher in the goats. The overall prevalence of infection in sheep and goats was 79%, and about 36% – 57% of sheep and 41% – 44% of goats had single infections. The parasites detected were Coccidia (41.2% in sheep and 50.2% in goats), Strongylids (24.5% in sheep and 31.2% in goats), Schistosoma (23.o% in sheep and 26.8% in goats), Monezia(25.5% in sheep and 15.6% in goats), Fasciola (5.9% in sheep and 6.8% in goats), Paramphistomum (2.0% in sheep and 2.9% in goats), Trichuris (0.5% in sheep and 2.9% in goats), and Strongyliodes (0.97% in goats). In general, the prevalence of parasitic infections were higher in goats than in sheep (81.95% and 76.96% respectively) and that Coccidia, Strongylids and Schistosoma infection were the most obvious.

IX Data obtained from official records and from animal owners indicated that the owners are aware of the importance of internal parasites on the health and productivity of their animals. They treat their animals using anthelmintics, but they do not usually abide by treatment protocol. In general, sheep seem to be more attended than goats, and this may explain the higher prevalence of parasitic infection in goats.

X ﻤﺴﺢ ﻟﻠﻁﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺨﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻀﺄﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻋﺯ ﻓﻲ ﻭﻻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴل ﺍﻷﺒﻴﺽ - ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ (ﺍﺒﺭﻴل - ﻤﺎﻴﻭ 2009)

ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﻠﺹ: ﺃﺠﺭﻴﺕ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻭﻻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴل ﺍﻷﺒﻴﺽ ﻟﺘﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻨﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺨﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻀﺄﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻋﺯ.ﺘﻡ ﻓﺤﺹ 409 ﺤﻴﻭﺍﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺭﺒﻊ ﻤﻨﺎﻁﻕ ﻭ ﻫﻲ 51 ﻭ 53 ﻭ 50 ﺤﻴﻭﺍﻥ ﻤﻥ ﻜل ﻨﻭﻉ ﻜﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺯﻴﺭﺓ ﺃﺒﺎ ﻭ ﺭﺒﻙ ﻭﻜﻭﺴﺘﻲ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻭﺍﻟﻲ. ﺒﺠﺎﻨﺏ 50 ﻀﺄﻥ ﻭ51 ﻤﺎﻋﺯ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻡ ﺠﺭ.ﻟﻤﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﻭﺠﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺽ ﻭ ﺍﻜﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻜﻭﻜﺴﻴﺩﻴﺎ‘ ﺠﻤﻌﺕ ﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺭﻭﺙ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﻴﻡ ﻤﺒﺎﺸﺭﺓ ﻭﺃﺠﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻔﺤﺹ ﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺭﻭﺙ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﻁﺭﻕ, ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻭ ﻭ ﺘﻘﻨﻴﺔ ﻋﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺩﻟﺔ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﺸﺭﻴﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻜﻤﺎﺴﺘﺭ ﻟﻔﺤﺹ ﻭ ﻋﺩ ﺒﻴﺽ ﺍﻟﺩﻴﺩﺍﻥ ﺍﻻﺴﻁﻭﺍﻨﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺃﻜﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻜﻭﻜﺴﻴﺩﻴﺎ ، ﻭﺍﺴﺘﻌﻤﻠﺕ ﻁﺭﻴﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺴﻴﺏ ﻟﻔﺤﺹ ﺒﻴﺽ ﺍﻟﺩﻴﺩﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻠﻁﺤﺔ.ﺃﺸﺎﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺨﻠﻴﺔ ﺸﺎﺌﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻀﺄﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻋﺯ ﻭ ﻟﻜﻥ ﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺽ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺭﺍﻡ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﻭﺙ ﻜﺎﻨﺕ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻋﺯ.ﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻨﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻜﺎﻥ 79% ﻭ ﺤﻭﺍﻟﻲ 36% - 57% ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﺄﻥ ﻭ 41% - 44% ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻋﺯ ﻜﺎﻨﺕ ﻤﺼﺎﺒﺔ ﺒﻨﻭﻉ ﻭﺍﺤﺩ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ. ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻭﺠﺩﺕ ﻜﺎﻨﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻭﻜﺴﻴﺩﻴﺎ(41.2% ﻀﺄﻥ ﻭ50.2% ﻤﺎﻋﺯ), ﺍﺴﺘﺭﻭﻨﺠﺎﻴﻠﻴﺩ( 24.5% ﻭ31.2%), ﺒﻠﻬﺎﺭﺴﻴﺎ( 23% ﻭ26.8%), ﻤﻭﻨﻴﺯﻴﺎ( 25.5% ﻭ%15.6), ﻓﺎﺸﻭﻻ(5.9% ﻭ6.8%), ﺒﺎﺭﺍﻤﻔﺴﺘﻭﻡ( 2% ﻭ2.9%), ﺘﺭﺍﻜﻴﻭﺭﺱ(0.5% ﻭ2.9%) ﻭ ﺍﺴﺘﺭﻭﻨﺠﺎﻴﻠﻭﻴﺩﺱ(1% ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻋﺯ). ﻋﻤﻭﻤﺎ ﻜﺎﻥ ﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻨﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻋﺯ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﺄﻥ (76.96% ﻭ81.95% ﻋﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻭﺍﻟﻲ) ﻭ ﺍﻹﺼﺎﺒﺔ ﺒﺎﻟﻜﻭﻜﺴﻴﺩﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺴﺘﺭﻭﻨﻘﻴﻠﻴﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﻬﺎﺭﺴﻴﺎ ﻜﺎﻨﺕ ﺃﻜﺜﺭ ﻭ ﻀ ﻭ ﺤ ﺎﹰ. ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﺴﺘﺨﻠﺼﺕ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﺠﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺭﺴﻤﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺃﺼﺤﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻭﺍﻨﺎﺕ ﺃﺸﺎﺭﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﻥ ﺃﺼﺤﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻭﺍﻨﺎﺕ ﻟﺩﻴﻬﻡ ﻤﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﺒﺄﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺨﻠﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻤﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻭﺍﻥ ﻭ ﻴﻌﺎﻟﺠﻭﻥ ﺤﻴﻭﺍﻨﺎﺘﻬﻡ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﻤﻀﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﻴﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ ﻟﻜﻥ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻻ ﻴﻠﺘﺯﻤﻭﻥ ﺒﺎﻟﻨﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﺠﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺩﺩ.

XI ﻋﻤﻭﻤﺎ ﻴﺒﺩﻭﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﺄﻥ ﺘﺤﻅﻲ ﺒﺎﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻜﺒﺭ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻋﺯ ﻭ ﺫﻟﻙ ﻗﺩ ﻴﻔﺴﺭ ﺍﺭﺘﻔﺎﻉ ﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻨﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻁﻔﻴﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻋﺯ.

XII

INTRODUCTION

Sheep and goats are important livestock species in developing countries, because of their ability to convert forages, crops and household residues into meat, fiber, skins and milk (FAO, 1985). 96% of the milk and meat producing goats and sheep populations are found in developing countries, and 4% are found in developed countries. The total milk production for goats and sheep was 13.8 and 8.7 million tonnes respectively while meat quantity was 8.6 million tonnes for sheep and 4.9 million tones for goat worldwide (FAO, 2008). Goats play an important socioeconomic role in rural areas especially for women who are among the most poor resource farmers in Africa. They are prolific and require low inputs for a moderate level of production, reach maturity early and are profitable to keep (Deyendrac and Burns, 1970). Gastro-intestinal (GI) nematode and trematode (fluke) infections of ruminant livestock cause major problems in the developing world. These parasites are difficult to manage because in some cases they develop resistance to all available commercial dewormers and resistance to dewormers is now see worldwide (Zajac and Gipson, 2000;Kaplan, 2004). Economic losses incurred by these parasites include reduced animal performance and weight gain, condemnation of whole carcass or affected organs at slaughter, cost of treatment, and mortality in severe cases (Over et al., 1992; Nari et al., 1997; Gatongi et al., 1997; Perry and Randolph, 1999; Perry et al., 2002). The main nematodes causing severe losses to the livestock industry, are Trichostrongyles, Haemonchus

1 contortus, Oesophagostomum spp, Cooperia spp and Trichostrongylus spp (Waller, 2006). Haemonchus contortus is a blood-sucking nematode of the abomasum in small ruminants, It is responsible for extensive losses and huge animal welfare problems globally and it is associated with clinical and pathological manifestations that include hemorrhagic anemia, hypoproteinemia, and parasitic gastroenteritis ( Ahmed and Ansari, 1989; Albers et al., 1990). Infections by liver flukes (Fasciola spp) also result in major economic losses in sheep and goats (Anonymous, 1994; Hansen and Perry, 1994; Urquhart et al., 1996). The construction of dams and the establishment of irrigation systems have further increased the distribution of these parasites by creating favorable environments for their snail intermediate hosts (Anonymous, 1994).Small liver flukes (Dicrocoelium spp) and rumen flukes (Paramphistomum spp) are less important parasites, but may cause sporadic losses in small ruminants (Anonymous, 1994; Urquhart et al., 1996). Coccidiosis in small ruminants is mainly caused by the Eimeria species (Soulsby, 1982). Heavy infections will result in severe diarrhoea which sometimes contains blood and diagnosis can be done through faecal examination for oocyst identification (Urquhart et al., 1996).

Aims of the study The present study is, therefore, aimed at surveying the parasitic infections of goats and sheep grazing together at the same pasture in the white Nile State of the Sudan during the dry season of the year in four areas.

Specific objectives: survey the internal parasite affecting sheep and goats grazing at same pasture. determine the load of the parasites. To compare the susceptibility of sheep and goats to parasite infection.

CHAPTER ONE

LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1. Helminthoses: Helminth infections, or helminthoses, refer to a complex of conditions caused by the Nematod, Cestod and Trematod parasites. Although all grazing sheep and goats may be infected with the above- mentioned parasites, low worm burdens usually have little impact on animal health. But as the worm numbers increase, effects in the form of reduced weight gain and decreased appetite occur. With heavier worm burdens clinical signs such as weight loss, diarrhoea, anaemia, or sub-mandibular oedema (bottle jaw) may develop(Lughano and Dominic, 1996). Parasitic helminths of small ruminants belong to the phyla Platyhelminthes (flatworms) and Nemathelminthes (roundworms) (Soulsby, 1982; Urquhart et al., 1996). The former phylum has two classes Cestode (tapeworms) and Trematode (flukes). The most important cestode parasites of ruminants, both in terms of public health and veterinary medicine, belong to the family Taeniidae. adult cestode parasites of the genera Moniezia, Avitellina, Thysanosoma and Stilesia are common parasites of small ruminants in African countries (Urquhart et al., 1996). All of the trematode species that are parasitic in small ruminants belong to the subclass Digenea. The most important of these species in Africa are the liver flukes, Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica and Dicrocoelium spp., and rumen flukes (Paramphistomes),

4 Paramphistomum spp (Soulsby , 1982; Anon, 1994; Hansen & Perry, 1994; Urquhart et al., 1996). The causes of helminth parasitism in ruminant livestock are multiple and often interactive, the vast majority of cases are due to any of the following basic reasons. (1) An increase in the number of infective stages on pasture (2) An alteration in host susceptibility (3) The introduction of susceptible stock into an infected environment (4) The introduction of infections into an environment (5) Ineffective parasite removal from the host animals due to the use of sub-standard anthelmintic doses and/or the development of anthelmintic resistance(Urquhart et al., 1996). 1.1.1. Nematode: The Nemathelminthes (nematodes) include several superfamilies of veterinary importance. These are Trichostrongyloidea, Strongyloidea, Metastrongyloidea, Ancylostomatoidea, Rhabditoidea, Trichuroidea, Filarioidea, Oxyuroidea, Ascaridoidea and Spiruroidea. The Gastrointestinal nematodes of greatest importance in small ruminants are members of the order Strongylida, which contains the first four superfamilies, Trichostrongyloidea, Strongyloidea, Metostrongyloidea, Ancylostomatoidea, but most belong to the superfamily Trichostrongyloidea, All grazing sheep and goats are infected with a community of these Strongylid nematodes, whose combined clinical effect is the condition known as parasitic gastroenteritis (Zajac, 2006). The most common species of nematodes associated with parasitic gastroenteritis in small ruminants in most sub-Saharan countries are Haemonchus contortus, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Trichostrongylus

5 colubriformis, Trichostrongylus axei, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Cooperia curticei, Trichuris ovis, Trichuris globulosus, Strongyloides papillosus, Gaigeria pachyscelis and Chabertia ovina . Lungworms such as Dictyocaulus filaria, Muellerius capillaris and Protostrongylus rufescens cause parasitic bronchitis particularly in young animals. Haemonchus contortus, Teladorsagia circumcincta and Trichostrongylus spp.(T. axei, T. colubriformis and T. vitrinus)are the most important, (Hansen & Perry, 1994; Lughano&Dominic, 1996).

1.1.1.1. Life cycle: The life cycles are direct, requiring no intermediate hosts, which applies to all of the economically important Strongylid parasites of small ruminants (Hansen &Perry, 1994; Urquhart et al., 1996). In these cycles, adult female parasites in the GI tract produce eggs that are passed out with the faeces of the animal Development occurs within the faecal mass, the eggs embryonate and hatch into first-stage larvae (L1), which in turn moult into second-stage larvae (L2), shedding their protective cuticle in the process. During this time the larvae feed on bacteria. The L2 moult into third-stage larvae (L3), but retain the cuticle from the previous moult. The L3 constitute the infective stage, and these migrate onto surrounding vegetation where they become available for ingestion by grazing sheep and goats. Following ingestion, the L3 larvae pass to the abomasum or intestine, where they ex-sheathe. The L3 of the Trichostrongyle worms penetrate the epithelial layer of the mucus membrane (in the case of Haemonchus and Trichostrongylus) or enter the gastric glands (Teladorsagia). In normal development, the L3 moult within 2–3 days to become fourth-stage larvae (L4), which remain in the mucous membrane or in the gastric glands for a

6 further 10 to 14 days. Finally, the L4 emerge and moult to become young adult parasites. The time between ingestion of L3 and the parasite becoming mature adults (refered to as the prepatent period) which varies between parasite species, but generally is between 3 and 5 weeks. Nematodirus, Trichuris, Bunostomum and Strongyloides species are exceptions to the life cycle. Nematodirus species, the larval stages develop inside the eggshell which is extremely tough, resistant to drought and freezing.Larvae take a very long time to develop and eggs dropped in early summer will have reached 3rd stage infective larvae by autumn at the earliest. Trichuris adlult lives in large intestine. Female lays eggs that pass through feces and infective larvae develops in the eggs within few weeks. In moist surrounding Tirchuris eggs remain viable for months or a year. Bunostomum eggs require few days after passage in feces before infective larvae are produced. The larvae enter the body via skin or mouth. Strongyloides lay embryonated eggs. The eggs hatch quickly, and the larvae escape into the lumen of the small intestine. Some pass out of the body with the faeces, others develop quickly and penetrate the body through the side of the lower intestine, and migrate through the tissues until they reach the small intestine where they also become adults and reproduce. In this way Strongyloides multiply in the body (Soulsby, 1982; Urquhart etal., 1996; Fritz etal., 2001).

1.1.1.2. Factors affecting nematode abundance: The epidemiology of parasitic diseases depends on factors such as the infection pressure in the environment and the susceptibility of the host species (or individual). The infection pressure, in turn, depends on factors that affect the free - living and intermediate stages, such as

7 temperature, rainfall and moisture. Furthermore, the availability of large numbers of susceptible definitive and intermediate hosts will increase the parasites’ ability to reproduce and result in high parasite abundance (Torgerson & Claxton, 1999).

1.1.1.2.1. Climatic factors: The development, survival and transmission of the free-living stages of nematode parasites are influenced by micro-climatic factors within the faecal pellets and herbage. These include sunlight, temperature, rainfall, humidity and soil moisture (Lughano and Dominic, 1996). Under optimal conditions (high humidity and warm temperature ), the development process takes 7 to 10 days (Soulsby, 1982; Hansen & Perry, 1994; Urquhart etal., 1996). In most African countries, the temperatures are usually favourable for larval development in the environment. Development of Trichostrongylid larvae occurs in a temperature range of approximately 10 – 36 °C, No development of Trichostrongylid larvae occurs below 5°C while emperatures above 40°C are lethal (Lughano and Dominic, 1996). The optimal humidity requirement for freeliving tage development of most species is 85%. Although desiccation is lethal for the free-living stages of parasite worms, the important nematode parasites can survive such conditions either as embroynated eggs or as infective larvae (Donald, 1968; Tembely, 1998;O'Connor etal., 2006). The L3 of Trichostrongylid nematodes may survive for varying periods, depending on species and particularly the prevailing weather conditions. In the desiccated state L3 can survive for several months, but once hydrated they become active and rapidly exhaust their food reserves (Tembely, 1998; Torina etal., 2004; O'Connor et al., 2006).

8 Higher worm burdens and outbreaks of parasitic gastroenteritis in goats and sheep in sub-sahara regions are encountered during or immediately after the end of the rainy season(Lughano and Dominic, 1996). In the arid tropical climates of lowland areas of Ethiopia, parts of Somalia and Sudan, there exists an environmental gradation which ranges from deserts, to extensive pasturelands and browse plants, to intensive grazing areas around permanent water courses (lakes and rivers) and irrigated land. Thus, there exists a change of environments, which range from being hostile to those that are most favourable for development and survival of free-living stages of the parasites (Sissay, 2007). Some Trichostrongylid larvae such as Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Oesophagostomum columbianum are known to be resistant to desiccation and this ability enables them to survive under extremely low or high temperatures (Lughano and Dominic, 1996). Gastrointestinal nematodes can survive harsh conditions by hypobiosis or arrested development of larvae (usually L3 or early L4) within the host. In the absence of hypobiosis nematodes survive in hosts during the hot and dry season as adults. In general the humid tropical climate is favourable for the survival, development and transmission of gastrointestinal nematodes (Donald, 1968; Hansen and Perry, 1994; Urquhart etal., 1996). However, the combined effects of these factors are responsible for the seasonal fluctuations in the availability of L3 on pasture, and subsequently in the prevalence of worm burdens in the hosts. This seasonal variation of parasite population dynamics has been described in a number of studies in many African countries (Assoku, 1981; Vercruysse, 1983; Van Wyk, 1985; Fakae, 1990; Fritsche etal., 1993; Maingi etal., 1993; Pandey etal., 1994; Tilahun, 1995; Tembely etal., 1997; Nginyi etal., 2001; Debela, 2002).

1.1.1.2.2. Management systems: Management systems for the animals have a strong influence on the epidemiology of gastrointestinal nematodes. High stocking density increases the contamination of the environment with nematode eggs or larvae and thus makes the infective stages to be more accessible to susceptible animals. High stocking rates and intensive management with little or minimal rotational grazing, are associated with high pasture contamination and outbreaks of clinical helminthosis, On the other hand, low stocking rates and extensive management systems in the traditional husbandry systems preclude a built-up of high worm burdens. The concentration of animals at watering points particularly during the dry season may also result in massive contamination of pastures with eggs or larvae leading to outbreaks of parasitic gastro-enteritis. In addition to contributing to pasture degradation and soil erosion, this forces the animals to graze closer to faecal material, which results in the uptake of higher numbers of infective larvae (Lughano and Dominic, 1996). Anthelmintic treatment reduces the prevalence and severity of gastrointestinal nematode infections and may significantly influence their epidemiology (Lughano and Dominic, 1996), but developed resistance to one or more of the available anthelmintic groups has threatened the efforts of control globally (Sangster, 1999; Jackson and Coop, 2000;Kaplan, 2004; Miller and Waller, 2004; Waller, 2006).

10 1.1.1.2.3. Host factors: The incidence rate and severity of infection with gastrointestinal nematodes can also be influenced by host factors such as age, breed, nutrition, physiological state and presence or absence of intercurrent infections, for instance , kids and lambs are known to be more susceptible than adults and there is a tendency for the worm burdens in goats and sheep to decrease with increasing age. Some breeds of goats and sheep are known to be genetically resistant to gastrointestinal nematodes infections than others (Lughano and Dominic, 1996). For example in sheep and goats, adult female nematodes may increase their egg output around the time of parturition. This phenomenon, known as the peri-parturient rise (PPR), is of great importance in the epidemiology of nematodes of small ruminants, and has been reported in different African countries (Connan, 1976; Agyei etal., 1991; Tembely, 1995; Ng'ang'a etal., 2006). A PPR in nematode egg excretion has been observed as early as two weeks before lambing and kidding, and persisted up to 8 weeks post - partum when lambing and kidding took place during the wet seasons, Thus, pregnant, or lactating, ewes become the major source of infection for the new-born lambs and kids. (Zajac etal., 1988; Agyei etal., 1991; Tembely, 1995; Ng'ang'a etal., 2006; Sissay, 2007).

1.1.1.2.4. Parasite factors: The intrinsic multiplication rate of the nematode species determines the rate of establishment and size of nematode burden in the host. The multiplication rate is determined by the fecundity of the adult worms, the prepatent period and the survival and development rate of the parasite in the environment. For example, Haemonchus contortus is one of the most

11 prolific nematodes; a female Haemonchus contortus may produce thousands of eggs each day, and larval numbers on pasture can rapidly increase during the wet seasons (Soulsby, 1982; Hansen and Perry, 1994; Urquhart etal., 1996).Oesophagostomum columbianum also have a high biotic potential such that establishment of these nematodes occurs very rapidly as long as environmental factors are favourable. Trichostrongylus spp has a lower biotic potential and hence its establishment is slower (Lughano and Dominic, 1996).

1.1.2. Trematodes: The life-cycles of important trematode species (Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica , schistosoma. Spp, Parampistomum .spp and Dicrocoelium .spp) of small ruminants all involve intermediate hosts such as different species of aquatic or terrestrial snails, and ants for Dicrocoelium species (Urquhart, etal., 1996). Fluke infections in small ruminants depends on many variables, including the presence of suitable intermediate hosts as well as favourable climatic and ecological conditions. Such environmental factors include temperature, rainfall, humidity and moisture. The factors influencing the development and survival of both the larval stages of the flukes and their intermediate hosts are similar to those of the nematode parasites (Anon, 1994; Hansen and Perry, 1994; Urquhart etal., 1996; Torgerson and Claxton, 1999). In most parts of Africa, the temperatures and moisture are favourable for embryonation and hatching of the fluke eggs, development and survival of fluke larvae in the intermediate host, as well as for breeding of the snail host. In those African countries with distinct wet and dry seasons, it appears that optimal development of eggs to miracidia occurs at the beginning of the wet

12 season, and development within the snail is complete by the end of the rains. Shedding of cercariae commences at the start of the dry season, when the water level is still high, and continues as the water level drops. The animals then ingest the metacercariae while grazing on these areas during the dry season, and clinical problems, occur at the end of that season or at the beginning of the next wet season, depending on the rate of infection (Urquhart etal, 1996). The most important intermediate host in the transmission for F.hepatica is the aquatic snail, Lymnaea trucatula which is widespread. Lymnaea auricularia being most important intermediate of Fasciola gigantica. Lymnaea natalensis in Africa has also been found to serve as an intermediate host of Fasciola gigantica. Snails such as Planorbis spp and Bulinus spp serve as intermediate hosts of Paramphistomum spp. (Soulsby, 1982).

1.1.2.1. Life cycle: Adult Fasciola spp lay eggs in the bile ducts and the eggs are transported to the gall bladder through the bile. When the gall bladder contracts the eggs enter the duodenum and then are expelled from the host with the faeces. Under optimum conditions of temperature and moisture the eggs hatch into miracidia. The latter actively penetrate snail hosts and develop through the sporocyst, redial and cercarial stages. The cercariae leave the snail hosts, encyst onto herbage just below the water level and become metacercariae, which are the infective stage. The metacercariae are ingested by grazing animals with infected herbage or water. They excyst in the duodenum, penetrate the intestinal wall and pass through abdominal cavity to the liver where they penetrate the liver capsule. The immature flukes migrate in the

13 liver parenchyma and then enter the bile ducts where they mature and start to produce eggs, (Soulsby, 1982). The transmission of Paramphistomum spp is similar to that of Fasciola spp. However, after excystation and attachment in the duodenum, the immature Paramphistomes migrate up the alimentary tract and finally attach to the epithelium of the rumen and reticulum (Soulsby, 1982).The immature Paramphistomes in duodenum and ileum are plug feeders and cause haemorrhage which leads to bleeding and diarrhoea and bleeding for a prolonged period may cause anaemia, which further weakens the host (Soulsby, 1982). Schistosomes have a complex life cycle, in which cercariae, free-living in fresh water, can penetrate healthy human skin. The head of the cercaria transforms into an endoparasitic larva, the schistomule. The schistomules pass several days in the skin then enter the venous circulation and eventually migrate to the lungs. They then travel through the circulatory system to the hepatoportal circulation where they mature into adult worms and mate. Depending on the species, the schistosomes migrate to their final infection site either on the bladder or the intestine where the females begin egg production. These eggs are attached to the wall of the lumen. The eggs penetrate the wall of the lumen, this is assisted by lytic factors secreted from the eggs and by forceful piercing of the tissues by the pointed end of the egg. They are then expelled in the feces or urine. The miracidium, liberated from the egg, seek out snail hosts where they enter a sporocyst stage that eventually results in free-living cercariae that seek out hosts (Fritz etal,. 2001; Soulsby, 1982; Christensen etal., 1983; Semuguruka, 1992). In Sudan there are two species of Bulinus, (intermediate host of Schistosoma) found along the White Nile from Kosti to the Jabal Aulia Dam

14 (William and Hunter, 1968).Bulinus truncatus and Biomphalaria pfeifferi snails has been reported by Sulaiman and Ibrahim(1985) in the same area.

1.1.2 cestodes The cestodes have indirect life cycles and the intermediate host may be the soil-inhabiting oribatid mites such as Oribatula spp, Galumna spp in case of Moniezia (Soulsby, 1982).

1.1.2.1 Life cycle The adult worms are found in the small intestine of goats and sheep. Proglottids and eggs are passed out in the faeces of the infected animal. In the environment, the eggs may be ingested by oribatid mites where they develop into cysticercoids. The cysticercoids which are the infective forms are produced in 4 months. Ruminants are infected by the ingestion of the infected mites with herbage. The prepatent period is 37-40 days (Soulsby, 1982)

1.2. Coccidia: These organisms are typical intracellular parasite. They occur chiefly in vertebrates and the majority of those of medical or veterinary importance belong to the families Eimeriidae and Sarcocystidae. The organisms are, with a few exception, intracellular parasites of epithelial cells. They have single host. Can multiply asexually and sexually (Soulsby, 1982).

15 1.2.1. Life cycle: According to Soulsby(1982). The oocyst ,which contains a zygote is extruded from host tissues and passed to the exterior in the faeces. This is the resistant stage of the life-cycle ,and under appropriate conditions it forms the mature infective oocyst. In the sporulated oocyst there are four sporocysts in Eimeria and two Sporocysts in Isospora. The parasite life-cycle of the coccidia is initiated when the infective oocyst is ingested by the appropriate host .Excystation releases the contained sporozoites .which enter the epithelial cell and become Rounded up, as trophozoite. within a few days the nucleus of the trophozoite divides to become schizont (the first generation of schizogony ). When the schizont is mature the first generation merozoites are released and the number of merozoites varies according to species. Merozoite enters other epithelial cell in the area and continue the cycle of asexual development. In new host cell the merozoite first round up to become trophozoite and then undergoes multiple fission as before. The second generation merozoite may proceed to a third or more generation of asexual reproduction or they differentiate into sexual or gametogonous form. The factors responsible for the initiation of the gametogonous cycle are not fully understood. Although it is generally considered to be genetically determined. Host responses may play a role ,through phenotypic determination in termination of schizogony, and there are two distinct types of schizont and merozoite of both the first and second generation found in area of the intestine where microgamont or macrogamont developed. The microgamont arises in the same way as the macrogamont , but as it enlarges , the nucleus undergoes multiple division with production of a large number of microgametes. Liberated the microgametes will fertilize the macrogametes to form zygote. With a few

16 exception , sporulation does not occur until the oocyst is shed to the exterior of the body. The time required for sporulation to the infective stage is specific feature of each species of coccidia and used as a characteristic in identification . oxygen and adequate moisture are necessary for the sporulation. The optimum temperature for sporulation is about 30 C in general.

1.3. Diagnosis of parasites in small ruminants: The diagnosis of parasites of small ruminants is based on demonstrating the presence of eggs or oocyst and larvae, in faecal samples, or the presence of parasites recovered from the digestive tracts or other viscera of the animals.Although a great variety of methods and modifications have been described for such diagnosis, standardization of techniques, such as egg or larval counts, worm counts, pasture larval counts, etc., does not exist. Therefore, in practice, most diagnostic laboratories as well as teaching and research establishments apply their own set and protocols of test procedures (Kassai, 1999). However diagnostic procedures as described by (soulsby, 1986;Thienpont etal., 1986 and Margaret etal., 1989) are usually adopted.

1.4. Control: Successful control of parasitic diseases is highly dependent on available information on local conditions and the strength of the extension service transferring this knowledge to the farmer, Therefore, we need comprehensive information about the epidemiology of parasites of ruminants, on a regional or national basis, and also information about variables such as host resistance, climate, and management data which can

17 be used to adequately quantify the occurrence of disease (Niezen etal., 1996; Waller, 1999). The issue of controlling gastrointestinal parasites is of particular economic importance in production systems worldwide (Rinaldi etal., 2007a&b). Conventional methods of worm control involve treatment(s) of the whole flock with synthetic anthelmintics. However, in this day the global problem of anthelmintic resistance in small ruminants ensures that attention also needs to be given to the sustainability of anthelmintic treatment regimes as well as to their immediate economic benefit (Cringoli etal., 2007a&b and Cringoli etal., 2008). There is currently a general agreement to replace the practice of treating the whole flock with targeted selective treatments, where only animals showing clinical symptoms or reduced productivity are given drugs (Van Wyk etal., 2006). FAMACHA is a technique developed in South Africa that is used to identify anemic animals on a 1 to 5 scale. The system is based on examination of the lower eyelid of sheep and goats in comparison with the FAMACHA© color chart depicting varying degrees of anemia. This test is used to determine the need for anthelmintic treatment. Administration of treatment should follow only if anemia (a sign of parasitism) is present (Bath etal.,1996;van Wyk and Bath, 2002). To control liver flukes must use narrow spectrum anthelmintics (Flukicide). Most broad spectrum anthelmintics (against most nematodes and cestodes) have little or no effect on liver flukes. If possible, delay grazing on flooded pasture until the area has been dry for at least eight weeks. Most fluke cysts will have been killed by then. It is also possible to leave the grass until it dries well and use it to make hay to feed the animals during the dry period.

18 Pastures that remain wet for long periods are ideal environments for the survival of internal parasite larvae. Drainage of fields reduces the larvae chances of survival and extend grazing periods. It is also important that animal watering areas be situated in well drained places (ESGPIP, 2007).

Plate(1.1):The FAMACHA© technique (picture from. attra.ncat.org)

20 1.5. Prevalence of helminths in the world : Worm populations in sheep and goats with greatest burdens are recorded around the peaks of the rainy seasons (Donald, 1968; Hansen and Perry, 1994; Urquhart etal., 1996). In Bangladesh Mazid etal.(2006) reported that six species of trematodes, two species of cestodes and three species of nematodes were identified, and (94.67%) of sheep were positive for one or more species of helminth parasites. In Ethiopia the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites was 75.3%, and 84.1% in Sheep and goats respectively , Strongyles and Eimeria were the most prevalent parasites encountered in the area (Fikru etal,. 2006). An other study revealed that the prevalence rate of Moneizia spp., were 27.65 % in sheep and 24.20 % in goats (Abebe, 2001). In Pakistan75.2% of Sheeps were positive for one or more nematodes species of six genera and the most prevalent nematode recovered was Heamonchus contortus (Muhammed etal., 1999). On the other hand 53.33% Sheep were infected with gastrointestinal parasite while 66.45% of goats were detected positive. Trichuris(40%), Haemonchus (28.88%), Coccidia(27.77%) , Nematodirus (11.11%) and Fasciola (4.44 %) were in sheep. In case of goats Haemonchus (64.19%), Coccidia (43.87%), Trichuris (35.48%), Nematodirus (13%), Trichostrongylus (4.51%), Strongyloides (3.22%) and Fasciola were (0.64 %) were reported (Gadahi etal., 2009). A recent study reported that the Prevalence of Paramphistomum cervi in sheep was 28.57% and 23.80% in goats (Raza etal., 2009).

21 1.6. Prevalence of coccidia in the world The coccidia have world wide distribution, and of various species. Eimeria is limited only by availability of the host, as no vector is needed for the transmission of infective stage. Sheep coccidiosis seem to be world wide in distribution and that it was reported in Europe, Americas, Australia, and Africa. In Eurrope five species of Eimeria were recorded in Italy by Battelli and Poglayen (1980). These were E.ahsata, E.ovina, E.ovinoidalis, E.parva, and E.intricata. In North West Germany, Barutzki etal (1990) reported ten species and new five species were detected, those were :E.crandalis, E.weybridgensis, E.faurei, E.granulosa and E.pallida. In England and Wales, similar ten species were detected and E.weybridgensis, was found to be the most frequent species (Catchpole etal., 1975). In the United State, 69% of apparently healthy sheep were found to have coccidia oocyst in their faeces. E.ovina was the most prevalent species. In Australia, O`Callaghan etal(1986) reported that 80% of sheep were positive for coccidia and eleven species of Eimeria were identified, ten species were similar to those previously detected. E.punctata was the new species observed. In Kenya, the prevalence of the disease in sheep was(42.7%)and (45.2%) during dry seasons and wet seasons, respectively and eight species of Eimeria were recognized (Maingi and Munyua,1994). A study was conducted to determine the prevalence and types of coccidia in Tanzania, revealed that, 91% of goats and 93% of sheep were infected with coccidia (Kusiluka etal., 1996).

22 1.7. Prevalence of helminths in Sudan Many attempts were performed to evaluate the occurrence of helminthes in deferent regions of the Sudan. Most cases of gastrointestinal parasites were more of a multiple infections than single endoparasites infections of different genera (Gadahi etal., 2009). Elkhawad etal. (1976) performed a survey of cattle, sheep and goots helminthes in Southern Sudan , and the results indicated that parasitic helminth were widely spreading .In another study on the incidence of helminthes parasites in ruminants slaughtered in Western States of the Sudan, the prevalence of different species in sheep was recorded: Haemonchus contortus, 45.5% ; Oesophagostomum columbianum, 39.5%; Trichuris ovis, 20%; Moniezia expansa, 9% and Avitellina spp, 3%. The following prevalence were obtained in goats : Oesophagostomum columbianum, 49%; Haemonchus contortus. 39.4%; Trichuris ovis, 25% (Elkhawad etal,. 1978). In a study performed in Central Kordofan and White Nile State, results indicated that infections with nematodes , cestodes as well as tremarodes are common. Nematodes were the most prevalent and they belonged to the genera Haemonchus, Trichostrogylus, Strongyloides, Oesophagostomum, Coopria, Trichuris, and Skrjabinema. Paramphistomum spp. They showed low frequency in sheep from both areas (Ghada, 2000). Several authors reported the genera of nematode parasites, in rumenants. Haemonchus contortus, Strongyloides papillosus, Oesophagostomum columbianum and Trichuris ovis were the most common identified parasites in Sudan (Gagoad and Eisia, 1968; Eisia and Ibrahim, 1970; El badawi etal., 1978;Atta El Mannan, 1983; Ahmed and El Malik, 1997 ;Ghada, 2000 and Gundi, 2004).

23 1.8. Prevalence of Coccidia in sudan Different report of Eimeria infection of sheep and goat were documented in the sudan from different localities. Seven species of Eimeria infection were reported, for the first time from clinical cases of sheep in Khartoum state (Osman etal., 1990).The prevalence of these species was as follows: E.ovina (40%), E.intricata (23%), E.ahsata(13%), E.parva (7%), E.crandalis(7%), and E.pallida(3%). Later, Abakar (1996) conducted a wide survey in various part of Sudan and reported the prevalence of eleven species in Sudanese sheep. In addition to the above mentioned four new species namely E.faurei (28%), E.marsica(13%), E.granulosa(8%) and E.punctata(0.03%). The overall prevalence of infection was 59%. Abakar etal. (2001) reported the prevalence of 67% of enteric coccidia in sheep in South Darfur State and eight species were detected. In the Red Sea State, cases of coccidiosis of sheep diagnosed at Port Sudan Veterinary Laboratory were represented as 13% and 33% during years 2000 and 2001, respectively (Anon, 2000a&b; Anon, 2001).

24 CHAPTER TWO

MATERALS AND METHODS

2.1 STUDY AREA

2.1.1 Location: White Nile State is located in medial section of Sudan between geographical co-ordinates 12:00 and 15:15 North and 31:33 and 33:15 East. It covers 39701 Kg; divided into eight localities , Kosti ,Tandalti ,Alsalam ,Aldiweam ,Omrimta ,Rabak ,Aljabalian ,and Algiteana its surround by Khartoum, Algazeera, Sinar, Upper Nile, South Kordofan and North Kordofan States .

2.1.2 Climatic conditions: The State receives an average rainful of 150 – 700 mm annually, and is covered by savannah grass. White Nile river the main source of water in this state and it has many islands, these islands like Omjar island have big number of animals. In dry season, most animals are found near the river . Maximum day temperature was 41Ċ in April and minimum temperature was 24Ċ in January (Anon, 2003).

2.1.2 Animals populations: The current cattle, sheep, goat and camel populations of state are approximately 3,430,516 cattle, 2,414,697sheep, 2,341,120 goats and 28,919 camels.

25 Animal resource represents about 8% of the national herd. On the other hand 40% of people in the state are grazier and depend on livestock for living (Anon, 2008). According to tradition owning livestock equals wealth and it has not only economical but also a social value, including a role in religious rituals (Cecilia, 2006).

2.2 Study design: The study was conducted on sheep and goats originating from four zones of White Nile State, particularly from Kosti, Rabak, Algazeera Aba and Omjar areas. Multi-stage random sampling procedure was used to select animals, and from each district, about 50 sheep and 50 goats were randomly selected, during April and May 2009.

2.3 Sample size: Total of 409 fecal samples were collected directly from the rectum of sheep and goats (about 10 gram per animal), which grazed together. Total of 204 sheep and 205 goats, were chosen randomly.20 animals about six month old , 20 animals about one year old, 30 animals about two years and 30 animals exceeded three years old were selected for each area. The collected feces were preserved in 10% formalin and were put into a plastic container and the data pertaining to the species, and feces consistency were recorded, and dispatched to Rabak laboratory.

26 2.4 Animals: Sheep is of a local breed (White Nile sheep) and goats are also of a local breed. Type of management is traditional one. During the day the sheep and goats flock are herded on grazing pasture together with cattle, camels and equines. Sample collection was carried out at the dry season when animals were barks .

2.5 Data collection: Data on the livestock management and health was collected from each region, through interviews. The interviews were based on a questionnaire (see Appendix) with main questions.

2.6 Faecal examination: The faecal sample were examined during this study and the following techniques were adopted.

2.6.1 The Willis technique: This technique was described by soulsby (1986) as follows: 1. Two grams of faeces were transferred to a morter and mixed with saturated sodium chloride solution . 2. The mixture stirred gently until the faeces were thoroughly suspended it was then poured through a tea strainer into a container and gently pressing the excess fluid from the debris remaining in the strainer. 3. The mixture was immediately poured into test tube until it produced a convex meniscus.

27 4. A clean glass slide was then placed over the top of the tube and left for 10 minutes after which the slide was removed quickly. 5. A cover glass was applied on the slide which was then examined microscopically for parasite eggs. The identification of eggs and oocysts was achieved according to( Soulsby , 1986;Thienpont etal., 1986 and Margaret etal., 1989).

2.6.2 The Modified Mc Master Technique: Number of nematode eggs, cestodes eggs and coccidia oocysts were counted using the following technique, which is described by soulsby (1986): 1. Two grams of faeces were weighed and transferred to mortar 2. forty- two ml of tap water added, the faeces were rubbed using pestle. 3. The mixture was sieved through a tea strainer into another container. 4. the filtrate was stirred and immediately transferred into a test tube. 5. the tube was centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 2 minutes and the supernatant was discarded. 6. the sediment in the tube was agitated by a glass rod until it became homogenous and then the tube was filled with saturated sodium chloride to the same level as before. 7. the contents of the tube were mixed by inverting it several times. A Pasteur pipette was filled while the stirring of the faeces and salt suspension was still going on. 8. The small sample was rapidly run into one chamber of a McMaster counting slide. After another stirring a second sample was withdrawn and run into the other chamber. 9. The slide was left for 5 minutes to allow all eggs and oocysts to float before microscopical examination. Under microscope all eggs and

28 oocysts were counted within the drawn squares on each chamber of the slide . The number of eggs and oocysts per gram of faeces was determined according to the following equation .

Eggs per gram(EPG)= number of eggs in the two chambers ×100 2 2.6.3 Sedimentation: For high recovery of trematode eggs the following sedimentation technique was peformed; 1. Five grams of faeces were mixed with sufficient volumes of normal saline. 2. After thorough disintegration, the suspension was passed through a tea strainer into a beaker and then into a conical flask. 3. To the filtrate more normal saline was added until it filled the flask. 4. The suspensions were allowed to settle and clarify the faecal mass. Most of the supernatant material was decanted carefully and the flask containing the sediment was refilled with normal saline. 5. The process was repeated several times until the supernatant become clear. 6. After discarding the supernatant fluid, and by using a pipette, few drops of the sediment were transferred to a glass slide. Then a cover slip was slid over it before microscopical examination.

29 CHAPTER THREE

RESULTS

3.1 Pasture status: During the period of study in dry season, the pasture areas were generally dry and the amount of available grass was poor except at the banks of the White Nile River, Nile islands and the canals. Some areas were greener than others but it was never all green.

3.2Microscopical examination

3.2.1Prevalence of parasites: 204 sheep and 205 goats were examined; 158(79.96%) of sheep and 167(81.95%) of goats were found to harbor one or more parasite species as shown in table (3.1) and figure (3.1). The parasites identified were Coccidia, Strongylids, Schistosoma, Moneizia, Fasciola, Paramphitomum, Trichuris and Strongyliodes. The prevalence rates of these parasite varied from one area to the other (Table 3.2 and figure 3.3, 3.4,3.5&3.6). In general infection with Eimeria, Strongylids, Schistosoma and Moniezia were the most prevalent ( Table (3.2). The prevalence for Moniezia was higher in sheep than in goats. Infection with Schistosoma were significantly higher in Omjar island than other areas(Fig:3.6).single and multiple infection can be seen in table(3.4)

30 3.2.2 Eggs and oocyst count: The results of quantitative examination of eggs using McMaster method are presented in Table (3.5).The total eggs count and number of eggs per animal for strongyles were highest in Algazeera area while coccidia oocyst counts were higher in all areas investigated for both animal species. However, the highest infection rate for Strongyles was seen in Rabak area, while that of Coccidia, Moniezia and Paramphistoms was in Kosti area. Liver flukes were more prevalent in Algazeera Aba. Eggs of some parasites detected can be seen in plates (3.1- 3.6).

Table(3.1): Number Of Goats And Sheep Infected In the Region

parasite Goat (205) Sheep(204) No. of Percentages No. of Percentages animals animals infected infected Coccidia 103 50.24% 84 41.17%

Strongyles 64 31.22% 50 24.50% /trichostrongyles

Schitosoma 55 26.83% 47 23.04%

Moneizia 32 15.60% 52 25.49%

Fasciola 14 6.83% 12 5.88%

Paramphitomum 6 2.92% 4 1.96%

Trichuris 6 2.92% 1 0.49%

Strongyliodes 2 0.97% 0 0.00%

Total number 205 81.95% 204 76.96%

examined

Table (3.2): Number of goats and sheep infected with various internal parasites in four region in White Nile State

parasites Aljazeera Kosti Rabak Omjar Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Strongyles 17(33.33 17(33.3 11(22 10(20 29(54.7 16(30.1 7(14 7(14% /trichostron %) 3%) %) %) %) 8%) %) ) gyles Coccidia 29(56.86 22(43.1 33(66 22(44 19(35.8 23(43.3 22(44 17(34 %) 3%) %) %) 4%) 9%) %) %) Trichuris 0.00(0.0 0(0.00% 3(6%) 0(0.00 2(3.77% 1(1.88% 1(2%) 0(0.00 0%) ) %) ) ) ) Moneizia 6(11.76 7(13.72 14(28 8(16% 6(11.32 10(18.8 6(12 27(54 %) %) %) ) %) 6%) %) %) Fasciola 8(15.68 4(7.84% 1(2%) 2(4%) 3(5.66% 5(5.66% 2(4%) 3(6%) %) ) ) ) Paramphito 1(1.96% 0(0.00% 2(4%) 3(6%) 1(1.88% 0(0.00) 2(4%) 1(2%) mum ) ) ) Schitosoma 9(17.64 12(23.5 6(12% 8(16% 6(11.32 8(15.09 34(68 19(38 %) 2%) ) ) %) %) %) %) Strongyliod 1(1.96% 0(0.00% 0(0.00 0(0.00 1(1.88% 0(0.00% 0(0.0 0(0.00 es ) ) %) %) ) ) 0) )%

Table(3.3): Prevalence of internal parasites

parasite No. of Percentages animal infected Strongyles 114 27.87% /trichostrongyles Coccidia 187 45.72%

Trichuris 7 1.71% Moneizia 84 20.53%

Fasciola 26 6.35% Paramphitomum 10 2.44% Schitosoma 102 24.93%

Strongyliodes 2 0.48%

Table(3.4): Single and multiple parasitic infections in sheep and goats

Location Goats Sheep Single Double Multi Single Double Multi infection infection infection infection infection infection Algazeera 22(43.13%) 15(29.41%) 6(11.76%) 29(56.86%) 6(40%) 6(40%) aba

Kosti 22(44%) 16(32%) 5(10%) 20(40%) 12(24%) 3(6%)

Rabak 23(43.39%) 16(30.18%) 4(7.54%) 21(36.63%) 15(28.3%) 3(5.66%)

Omjar 21(41.17%) 14(27.45%) 9(1764%) 21(42%) 16(32%) 8(16%)

60.00%

50.24% 50.00%

41.17% 40.00%

31.22% Goat 30.00% 26.83% Sheep 24.50% 25.49% 23.04%

20.00% 15.60%

10.00% 6.83%5.88% 2.92%1.96% 2.92% 0.49% 0.97%0.00% 0.00%

ia a s es ol es gyl neizia od occid o C ron itosoma M Fasci Trichuri st h Sc Strongyli aramphitomum P

Strongyles /tricho

Fig:(3.1) Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in all of the regions

50% 45.72% 45%

40%

35%

30% 27.87% 24.93% 25% 20.53% 20%

15%

10% 6.35% 5% 2.44% 1.71% 0.48% 0%

ia a la m s izi cid e io c n sc mu o to richuris Co Fa hi T gyliode M p n Schitosoma Stro Param

Strongyles /trichostrongyles

Fig:(3.2) Prevalence of internal parasites in all animals

60% 56.86%

50%

43.13%

40%

33.33%33.33% Goats 30% Sheep 23.52%

20% 17.64% 15.68% 13.72% 11.76% 10% 7.84%

1.96% 1.96% 0.00%0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0%

s a e a i l uris des cidia om o gy neiz mum ch oc tos ito i yli C i Mo Fasciola h Tr ch ng ostron S tro ramp S ich a /tr P yles

Strong

Fig: (3.3) Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in Aljazeera Aba

70% 66%

60%

50% 44%

40% Goats Sheep 30% 28%

22% 20% 20% 16% 16% 12% 10% 6% 6% 4% 4% 2% 0.00%0.00% 0.00% 0%

a es iola ccidi odes o asc C trongyl Moneizia F Trichuris chitosoma ongyli S tr ichos S Paramphitomum es /tr gyl tron S

Fig: (3.4) Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in Kosti

60.00% 54.70%

50.00%

43.39%

40.00% 35.84%

30.18% Goats 30.00% Sheep

18.86% 20.00% 15.09% 11.32% 11.32% 10.00% 5.66%5.66% 3.77% 1.88% 1.88% 1.88% 0 0.00% 0.00%

ia a ia la d o um i om gyles neiz occ os itom C Mo Fasci h Trichuris stron chit S ramp Strongyliodes richo a /t P yles

trong S

Fig; (3.5) Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in Rabak

80%

70% 68%

60% 54%

50% 44% Goats 40% 38% 34% Sheep

30%

20% 14%14% 12%

10% 6% 4% 4% 2% 2% 00.00%0 0%

a la is izia o es om e gyles n hur liod os tomum ic Coccidia Mo Fasci Tr stron chit ngy S tro S richo /t aramphis P yles

trong S

Fig:(3.6)Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in Omjar

Table (3.5): Average of Strongyids and coccidia eggs per grame ( EPG) of feaces

EPG of feaces Aljazeera Kosti Rabak Omjar Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Strongyles 19950 14450 7400 1750 10250 18100 2400 3100 /trichostrongyles range 0 - 5750 0-4700 0 - 3100 0 - 500 0 -1800 0-10000 0 - 1250 0 - 2000 Coccidia 41700 19050 44900 18450 31150 18150 16450 10900 range 0 - 9500 0-3500 0 - 1000 0 - 9200 0- 9900 0-10000 0 - 3400 0 - 5200

42 900

817.64 800

700

600

500 Goats

391.17 Sheep 400 373.52

300 283.33

200

100

0 Coccidia Strongyles /trichostrongyles

Fig:(3.7) Average eggs/ animal of Strongylids and coccidia in Algazeera Aba

43 1000

898 900

800

700

600

Goats 500 Sheep

400 369

300

200 148

100 35

0 Coccidia Strongyles /trichostrongyles

Fig:(3.8) Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia in Kosti

44 700

600 587.73

500

400 342.45 341.5 Goats Sheep 300

193.39 200

100

0 Coccidia Strongyles /trichostrongyles

Fig:(3..9) Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia in Rabak

45 350 322.54

300

250

218

200 Goats Sheep 150

100

62 47.05 50

0 Coccidia Strongyles /trichostrongyles

Fig:(3. 10) Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia in Omjar

46 3.3Questionnaires results

3.3.1Parasites problem: In this questionnaire, 79.62% of the owners stated that their animals suffer from high infection level with internal parasites, 12.96% indicated moderate infection level and 7.4% complained light infection. 77.4% of the owners know internal parasitic infection by clinical sign, while 22.6% of the owners do not care much about internal parasites. Only 5% of the owners examine their animals for parasites in veterinary clinics.

3.3.2Control of parasites: 85.19% of owners control internal parasites by use of anthhelmintic. Control of parasites by using grazing practices and management is not practiced (0.0%), while control by grazing practice and anthhelmintic treatment together constituted 14.81%.The drugs used in control of parasites are Albendazole, Tetramisole, Ivermectin, Antifasciola and a combination of drugs (antifascoil & anthelmintic). 55% of owners follow the treatment doses prescribed by the veterinarians, whereas 44.5% of them use random doses.

3.3.3Veterinary care: 62.25% of owners raising both sheep and goats practice regular treatment for their animals against internal parasites. 99.2% of owners raising sheep do treat for parasitic infection on regular level. On the other hand only 50% of those keeping goats treat their animals against internal parasites.

Table (3.6): Results of Questionnaires Survey

factors of questionnaire Percentage Parasites problem 1. Big (79.62%) 2. moderate (12.96%) 3. light (7.4%)

parasites clinical sign 1. Yes (77.4%) 2. No (22.6%)

Laboratory examination 1. Yes (5.55%) 2. No (94.55%)

Control of parasites 1. anthheminthic (85.19%) 2. grazing practice (0.00%) &management (14.81%) 3. both* type of drugs (6.8%) 1. Albendazole (2.88%) 2. Tetramisole (3.77%) 3. Ivermectine (16.75%) 4. Antifasciola (69.8%) 5. combination*

Dose as doctor guidance (55.5%) 1. Yes (44.5%)

48 2. No

Dose repeat (37%) 1. as doctor guidance (53.7%) 2. random (9.3%) 3. not repeat

Owners have sheep & goats (62.25%) 1. treat (37.75%) 2. no treat

Owners have sheep only (99.2%) 1. treat (0.8%) 2. no treat

Owners have goats only (50%) 1. treat (50%) 2. no treat

both* = anthheminthic and (grazing practical &mengement)

Combination* = antifasciola and anthhelmintic drug

CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION

The present study revealed that 339 out of 409 fecal samples examined were positive for endoparasites eggs. 77 %( 158) of Sheep; 81.95 %( 167) of goats were detected positive . Cases of single and multiple infections were observed. Generally prevalence rate of endoparasites is supposed to be low because the survey was conducted in the dry season when environmental conditions on pasture are not favourable for the development and survival of the larva stage the heminthes and oocyst of coccidia. The present findings disagree with Muhammad etal.(1999), Ijaz etal.(2008), Saiful Islam and Taimur (2008) in that parasitic infection seem to be very low during the dry months of the year. Strongylids and Eimeria infections are the most abundant. Fikru etal (2006) found similar finding in Ethiopia with variation in percentage. There was a high prevalence rate of coccidia in all areas, compared to other parasites, regardless of the animal species, because coccidiosis is not usually treated ( most drugs was anthehimitics). In general the prevalence rate of coccidia was higher in goats compared to sheep mainly in Algazeera aba, Kosti, and omjar. The present study is in agreement with Fikru etal.(2006) who reported prevalence of Eimeria species of 26.7% and 34.3% in sheep and goat respectively. Asif etal. (2008) repored that the prevalence of coccidia was slightly higher in goat (57.5%) compared to sheep (51.61%). Saiful Islam and Taimur (2008) found about

50 48% of goats and 31% of sheep examined were infected with Eimeria species. In Bangladesh Kanyari etal. (2009) reported, Coccidia infection in 35% of sheep and 48% of goats. On the other hand Borgsteede and Dercksen. (1996) found that 82% of goats were infected with Eimeria species while Kusiluka etal. (1996) reported 91% of goats and 93% of sheep were infected with coccidia. O’Callaghan etal. (1986) reported that 80% of sheep were positive for coccidia in Australia. This variation may be related to the difference in climatic conditions and management. The overall prevalence of Strongylids reported here is in agreement with the range of results obtained by Ghada (2000), Raza etal. (2007), Abo El Hadid and Lotfy (2007) and Ijaz etal. (2008). In Rabak the prevalence rate of strongylids was higher in goats compared to sheep. Most of the sheep and goats which were sampled were not owned by the same owners, but Sheep and goats owned by many people usually grazed in the same area. When goats and sheep belong to one owner, the veterinary care given to both species could be in the same level, but when only goats are found, the veterinary service may be very poor in most cases. Animals which are poorly managed are locally referred to as village animals, which are grazed without shepherd, of which 95% of them are goats. All village animals may attended by one shepherd with animals in pasture intermix. The relatively higher prevalence of Strongyles in Algzeera aba and Rabak may by related to some environmental conditions at pasture that favored such high infection. one of these conditions that animals being graze on remains of scheme’s crop and green grass near irrigation canals.

51 The Low prevalence rate of Strongylids in Omjar island despite the relatively favourable conditions may be related to routine Anthelmintic treatment .Contrary to that, Schistosoma infections in both sheep and goats were higher at Omjar due to prevailing suitable conditions like presence of canals and water packets which harbor the snail intermediate host. The high prevalence of Schistosoma in goats in Omjar may be due to prolonged exposure of goats to the infective stage of parasite, since most of the goats usually don't leave Omjar as they are used for daily milk production. In contrast sheep leave Omjar island during the rainy season and return by the dry season. Prevalence of Moniezia species was higher in sheep than in goats especially in Algazeera aba, Rabak and Omjar. The present finding agrees with Kanyari etal. (2009) who reported higher prevalence of Monieza in sheep compared to goats (21% and 16% respectively). Saiful Islam and Taimur (2008) also found that tapeworm infections were more frequent in sheep (24.26%) in comparison to goats (16.52%).This higher infection in sheep may by related to species resistance. The higher prevalence of Fasciola in goats Algazeera aba probably due to that goats usually graze near the river (Algasir) throughout the year where snails propagate. The infection by Fasciola in kosti, Rabak and Omjar areas was similar (2- 6%) in both goats and sheep. Higher infection rates with Fasciola species in goats compared to sheep was also reported by El Sayed (1997) in Egypt and Ijaz etal. (2008) in Pakistan. Higher fluke infection in sheep than in goats were reported by Okoli.etal. (2002) in Nigeria, Morsy etal. (2005) and Abo El Hadid and Lotfy (2007) in Egypt, Menkir etal.(2007) in Ethiopia and Rajat etal. (2009) in India.

52 However Assessment of fluke infection by faecal examination may be limited due to the fact that many animals may be infected with acute stages not associated with ovideposition (Rajat etal. 2009). Braun etal. (1995) and Kumar etal. (2002) compared the apparent prevalence of liver fluke infection, detected by examination of liver, faeces and bile and found that examination of liver or bile samples was more indicative than faecal examination. Moreover the high temperature during summers and lower rainfall hampers the survival and availability of the infective stages of the parasite, as well as of the snail intermediate snail host (Rajat etal., 2009). The prevalence rate of Paramphistomum was very low. this seem to be in agreement with other authors who reported very low prevalance (Khajuria and Kapoor, 2003; Hassan etal., 2005; Gicik etal., 2003; Tariq etal.,2008) Moreover the Paramphistomum egg output was low in almost all the examined animals (1-3 eggs), indicating low degree of pasture contamination and justifying the low prevalence of paramphistomosis reported. As paramphistomosis is a water snail borne infection, the low prevalence of paramphistomosis could be due to the low snail population. Sometime water bodies, the habitat of snails, dry up quickly due to frequent shortage of water( Tariq etal., 2008). The varairion in the prevalence of Paramphistomum. among animals of the two species was not significant. The lower prevalence rates of Strongyloides recorded in Sheep and goats as a whole, disagrees with most of the reports . A study performed in the same area (White Nile State) reported 7.8% the prevalence of Strongyloides (Ghada, 2000). Almalaik etal.(2008) reported that Strongyloides is one of most prevalent species in sheep and goats in Tulus locality in south Darfur State in western Sudan. Abebe and Esayas (2001) reported, in eastern part

53 of Ethiopia during the dry season a prevalence rate of 45.22 % for Strongyloides in sheep. The possible cause of this difference in the prevalence of infection could be due to different sampling procedure and variation in the climatic condition (Mazid etal. 2006). beside anthelmintic treatment. In this is study the overall prevalence of Trichuris was 0.4% and 2.92% in sheep and goats respectively. This result seems to agree with Kanyari etal. (2009) in Kenya who found that the prevalence of Trichuris species was 0% and 2% in sheep and goat respectively. Similar prevalence rate in goats was reported by (Ghada, 2000), while Almalaik etal. (2008) reported lighter prevalence in sheep in south Darfur state. However the latter author found higher infection rates with Trichuris globulosa in goats than sheep with general prevalence rate of 0.6%. Higher prevalence of Trichuris in goats compared to sheep was also reported by Asif etal. (2008) in Pakistan and Kanyari etal. (2009) In Kenya. The load of Coccidia (oocyst per gram) seem to be higher in goats than sheep, especially in Algazeera aba and Kosti; this is may be related to management. Strongylids egg count per gram (EPG) was low especially in Omjar regardless of species. Ghada (2000) performed a study in the same state and reported that EPG was very low in the dry season. This findings may influenced by many factors which are: in the dry season, larvae of nematodes are able to undergo a period of arrested development (hypobiosis) in the host (in the abomasal or intestinal mucosae) and following infection, larvae may become metabolically inactive for several months. Although the immune status of the host also has an influence on rates of hypobiosis, the greatest proportion of larvae usually become arrested

54 at times when conditions in the external environment are least favourable for development and survival of eggs and larvae (Michel et al., 1975; Ogunsusi & Eysker, 1979; Chiejina etal., 1988; El-Azazy, 1995; Eysker, 1997). This suspension of development helps some nematode parasites to survive the dry seasons. Resumption of development usually coincides with the onset of the rainy seasons, the most favourable period for larval development and transmission on pasture (Agyei etal., 1991; El-Azazy, 1995; Tembely, 1995). The stimuli for the onset of arrested development in tropical areas are linked to the dry conditions (Allonby and Urquhart, 1975; Vercruysse, 1985). However a variety of factors like age, sex , breed of the host, grazing habits, level of education, economic status of farmers, standard of management and anthelmintic used can influence the prevalence of helminthes in animal (Asanji and Williams, 1987;Pal and Qayyum, 1992;Niezen et al. 1996; Waller 1999; Valcarcel and Romero, 1999; Ouattara and Dorchies, 2001; Saiful-Islam et al., 2008). Result of questionnaire addressed to the owners indicated that most of the animals in the areas investigated suffer from parasitic infection. Owners suspect parasitic infection in animals by observable clinical signs, like diarrhorea, emaciation, and decreased productivity and treat them accordingly. They do not resort to proper clinical or laboratory examination. Most of the Owners use anthehilmintic mainly to control parasites whereas few of them use their own grazing practices and management beside anthehilmintics, however the higher stocking rate(number of animals per grazing area) result in more feces being deposited on the grazing area and thus more parasitic eggs and more pasture contamination.

55 Combination of drugs (drug for fasciola and drug for round worm) like tetramisole for round worm plus oxyclosanide for fasciola was most used in treating parasites, but the concentration of each component in this combination may be decreased and less efficient against target parasites. This may lead to increased resistance of parasites against such drugs. Moreover many owners do not abide by the treatment recommendations (dose, frequency of application), and this may also contribute to development of resistance. The results also indicated that sheep are usually well attended by owners more than goats, especially when the latter are kept alone. These goats receive less veterinary medical care and this may partially explain the higher prevalence of internal parasites in goats compared to sheep.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Survey of all parasitic diseases in sheep and goats in those areas. 2. Because rotational grazing is difficult apply in traditional pasture mass treatment under veterinary supervision must be use before animals inter new pasture. 3. Optimized anthelmintic usage to preserve anthelmintic efficacy and prevent resistance, include the use of the most suitable drugs, correct dosage and possible combination of drugs 4. extension services, which includes, goats must have more attention, sign of parasites and the relationship between parasites and productivity.

REFERENCE

Abakar, A.D.(1996).coccidia and coccidosis of sheep in the Sudan. PhD. Thesis: University of Khartoum.

Abakar,A.D., Bashar, A.F and Ismail, A.A. (2001). The occurrence of entric coccidia of small ruminants in South Dardur, Sudan. Sudan journal of veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, 40(1, 2): 147-152.

Abebe, W and Esayas. G. (2001). Survey of ovine and caprine gastro-intestinal helminthosis in eastern part of Ethiopia during the dry season of the year. Revue Médicale Vétérinaire, 152(5):379-384.

Abo El Hadid. S. M. and Lotfy . H. S. (2007). Some studies on enteric parasites of sheep in Beni-Suef Governorate. Veterinary Medical Journal . 17(1):11- 18.

Agyei, A. D., Sapong, D. and Probert, A. J. (1991). Periparturient rise in faecal nematode egg counts in west African dwarf sheep in southern Ghana in the absence of arrested strongyle larvae. Veterinary Parasitology 39: 79-88.

Ahmed, M., and Ansari . J. A. (1989). Effect of haemonchosis on hematology and non-specific phosphomonoesterase activities in sheep and goats. Helminthologia 26: 295-302.

Ahmed, E.A and El Malik, K.H.(1997).prevalence of nematodes parasitism in desert sheep brought to Khartoum State. Sudan journal of Veterinary Science and Animal husbandry 36:44-49.

Albers, G. A. A., Gray, G. D., Jambre, L. F., Barget, I. A., and Baker. J. S. F. (1990). The effect of Haemonchus contortus infection on hemotological parameters in young Merino sheep and its significance for productivity. Animal Production. 50: 99-109.

58 Allonby, E. W. and Urquhart, G. M., (1975). The epidemiology and pathogenic significance of haemonchosis in a merino flock in east Africa. Veterinary Parasitology ,1: 129-143.

Almalaik A.H.A., Bashar A.E. and Abakar. A.D. (2008). Prevalence and Dnymanics of some Gastrointestinal parasites of sheep and Goats in Tulus Area Based on post-mortem examination. Asian journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 3(6): 390-399.

Anon. (1994). Diseases of Domestic Animals Caused by Flukes: Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Control of Fasciola, Paramphistome, Dicrocoelium, Eurytrema and Shistosome Infections of Ruminants in Developing Countries. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Report. Rome, Italy.

Anon. (2000a).Annual report: Animal resources Administration, Red Sea State.

Anon. (2000b).Annual report: Port Sudan veterinary research laboratory, Red Sea State.

Anon. (2001).Annual report: Port Sudan veterinary research laboratory, Red Sea State.

Anon, (2003). Annual report: Animal resources Administration, White Nile state.

Anon. (2008). Annual report : Animal resources Administration, White Nile state.

Anonymous. (1994). Diseases of domestic animals caused by flukes. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome.

Asanji, M. F. and Williams. M. O. (1987). Variables affecting population dynamics of gastrointestinal helminth parasites of small farm ruminants in Sierra Leone. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production. Africa. 35: 308- 313.

Asif, M., Azeem. S., Asif, S., and Nazir, S., (2008). Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Sheep and Goats in and around Rawalpindi and Islamabad, Pakistan Journal of Veterinary Animal Science, 1: 14-17

59 Assoku, R. K.,(1981). Studies of parasitic helminths of sheep and goats in Ghana.Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 29: 1-10.

Atta El Mannan, A.M.,(1983). investigation on gastrointestinal parasites in sheep and goats in Sinnar District (Sudan). Sudan Journal of veterinary research 5:69- 73.

Bath, G.F., Malan, F.S. and Van Wyk, J.A., (1996). The "FAMACHA©" Ovine anaemia Guide to assist with the control of haemonchosis. In : Proc. 7th annual Congress of the Livestock Health and Production Group of the South African Veterinary Association. Port Elizabeth, South Africa.

Battelli,G.and Poglayen,G., (1980).Eimeria alhsata from domestic sheep in Italy. Journal of Protozoology, 27(2): 151-152.

Barutzki, D.,Marqardt, S. and Gothe, R., (1990). Eiemeria infection of sheep in northwest Germany. Veterinary Parasitology, 37:79-82.

Borgsteede, F.H.M and Dercksen, D.P., (1996). Coccidial and helminth infections in goats kept indoors in the Netherlands. Veterinary Parasitology 61: 321-326.

Braun, U., Wolfensberger, R. and Hertzberg, H., (1995). Diagnosis of liver flukes in cows- a comparison of the findings in the liver, in the feces and in the bile. Schweizer Archiv fur Tierheilkunde, 137: 438– 444.

Catchpole,J., Norton, C.C. and Joyner,L.P., (1975).The Occurrence of Eimeria weybridegensis and other species of coccidia in lamps in England and Wales. British Veterinary Journal, 131:392-401.

Cecilia, K .,(2006). A Comparative Study of Urban and Rural Dairy Management Systems in Sudan. PhD Thesis Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Degree project 2006:56 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and ISSN 1652- 8697 Animal Sciences.

Chiejina, S. N., Fakae, B. B. and Eze, B. O., (1988). Arrested development of gastrointestinal trichostrongylids in goats in Nigeria. Veterinary Parasitology 28: 103- 113.

60 Christensen, N. O., Mutani, A. and Frandsen, F., (1983). A review of the biology and transmission ecology of African bovine species of the genus Schistosoma, Zeitschrift Fur Parasitenkunde, 69: 551-570.

Connan, R. M., (1976). Effect of lactation on the immune response to gastrointestinal nematodes. The Veterinary Record, 99: 476-477.

Cringoli, G, V., Veneziano, S., Pennacchio, L., Mezzino, M., Santaniello, M., Schioppi, V., Fedele and Rinaldi, L., (2007a). Economic efficacy of anthelmintic treatments in dairy sheep naturally infected by gastrointestinal strongyles, Parassitologia 49: 201–207.

Cringoli , G, V., Veneziano, L., Rinaldi, C., Sauvè, R., Rubino, V., Fedele and Cabaret J.,(2007b). Resistance of trichostrongyles to benzimidazoles in Italy: a first report in a goat farm with multiple and repeated introductions, Parasitology Research, 101: 577–581.

Cringoli, G. V., Veneziano, F., Jackson, J., Vercruysse, A.W., Greer, V., Fedele, L., Mezzino and Rinaldi, L., (2008). Effects of strategic anthelmintic treatments on the milk production of dairy sheep naturally infected by gastrointestinal strongyles and Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Veterinary Parasitology, 156: 340–345.

Debela, E., (2002). Epidemiology of gastro-intestinal helminthiasis of Rift Valley goats under traditional husbandry system in Adami Tulu district, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Science, 25: 35- 44.

Devendra and Burns, M., (1970). Goat production in the tropics. Common wealth agricultural bureaux, Farnham royal bucks. England.

Donald, A.D., (1968). Ecology of the free living stages of nematode parasites of sheep. Australian Veterinary Journal, 44: 139–144.

Eisia, A.M and Ibrahim, A.M., (1970). Nilverm and fenozin against naturally acquired gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep in the Sudan. Sudan journal of Veterinary Science and Animal husbandry, 11: 41-54.

El-Azazy, O. M., (1995). Seasonal changes and inhibited development of the abomasal nematodes of sheep and goats in Saudi Arabia. Veterinary Parasitology, 58: 91-98.

El Badawi, E.S., Eisia, A.M., Ibrahim, A.M., Slepnev, N.K. and El Gezuli, A.Y., (1978). Incidence of helminth parasites in ruminants slaughtered in western provinces of the Sudan. Sudan journal of journal of Veterinary Science and Animal husbandry, 19: 58-65.

El Khawad, S. E., Slepnov, N.K. and Eisia, A. M.,(1976). A survey of helmith parasites of cattle, sheep and goats in southern region of the Sudan. Sudan journal of journal of Veterinary Science and Animal husbandry, 17: 86-90.

Elkhawad, S. E., Eisia, A. M., Abubakar, M.I., Slepnov, N.K and Ali, Y.E.,(1978). incidence of helminthes parasites in ruminants slaughtered in Western provinces of the Sudan. Sudan Journal of journal of Veterinary Science and Animal husbandry, 19: 58-65.

El-Sayed, H., (1997). Helminth parasites of sheep in Dakahlia Province-Egypt. Assuit Veterinary Medicine Journal, 38 : 48- 54.

ESGPIP.,(2007). Ethiopia Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program (ESGPIP) . technical bulletin no.3 control of internal parasites in sheep and goat. 2007, www.esgpip.info.

Eysker, M., (1997). Some aspects of inhibited development of trichostrongylids in ruminants. Veterinary Parasitology, 72: 265-283.

Fakae, B. B., (1990). The epidemiology of helminthosis in small ruminants under the Traditional husbandry system in eastern Nigeria. Veterinary Research and Communication, 14: 381-391.

FAO. July., (1985). Small ruminant production in the developing countries. http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/ah221e/AH221E13.htm#ch13

FAO. April., (2008). ProdSTAT livestoch primary and processed. http://faostat.fao.org/site/569/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=569

Fikru, R., Teshale, S., Reta, D. and Yosef, K.,(2006). Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Ruminants in Western Oromia, Ethiopia international Journal of Applied Research in Veterinary Medicine, 4(1): 51- 57.

62 Fritz, H. K., Bienz, K.A., and Zinkenagel, R.M.,(2001). Medical microbiology. Textbook authorized and updated translation of the 10th German edition published.

Fritsche, T., Kaufmann, J. and Pfister, K., (1993). Parasite spectrum and seasonal epidemiology of gastro-intestinal nematodes of small ruminants in The Gambia. Veterinary Parasitology, 49: 271-283.

Gadahi J. A., Arshed, M. J., Ali, Q., Javaid, S. B. and Shah, S. I., (2009). Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Sheep and Goat in and around Rawalpindi and Islamabad, Pakistan. Veterinary World, .2 (2): 51-53.

Gagoad, I.M.H. and Eisia, A.M., (1968). Incidence and intensity of helminth parasites of sheep in the Sudan. Part1. parasites of the abomasum. Sudan journal of Veterinary Science and Animal husbandry, 9: 344-354.

Gatongi, P.M., Scott, M.E., Ranjan, S., Gathuma, J.M., Munyua, W.K., Cheruiyot, H. and Prichard, R.K., (1997). Effects of three nematode anthelmintic treatment regimes on flock performance of sheep and goats under extensive management in semi-arid Kenya. Veterinary Parasitology, 68: 323 – 336.

Ghada, H.A., (2000). The prevalence of Gastro-intestinal helminthes in sheep from some localities of the Sudan. M.V.Sc., thesis, University of Khartoum.

Gicik, Y., Arsalan, M.O., Kara, M. and Kose, M., (2003). The prevalence of paramphistomiasis in sheep slaughtered in the Kars province, Turkey, Türkiye Parazitoloji Dergisi, 27: 260–261.

Gundi, S.G., (2004).application of anthelmintic resistance tests for gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep in the Sudan. PhD thesis. University of Khartoum

Hansen, J. and Perry, B., (1994). The Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Control of Helminth Parasites of Ruminants. A Handbook. 2nd ed. ILRAD (International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases), Nairobi, Kenya.

63 Hassan, S.S., Kaur, K. and Juyal, P.D., (2005). Epidemiology of paramphistomosis in domestic ruminants in different districts of Punjab and other adjoining areas, Journal of Veterinary Parasitology, 19: 43–46.

Ijaz, M., Khan, M. S., Avais, M., Ashraf, K., Ali M. M., And Saima.,(2008). Infection Rate And Chemotherapy Of Various Helminths In Goats In And Around Lahore. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 28(4): 167-170.

Jackson, F. and Coop, R. L., (2000). The development of anthelmintic resistance in sheep nematodes. Parasitology 120: 95-107.

Kanyari, P.W. N,, Kagira, J. M. and Mhoma, R. J., (2009). Prevalence and intensity of endoparasites in small ruminants kept by farmers in Kisumu Municipality, Kenya. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 21 (11): 202.

Kaplan, R. M., (2004). Drug resistance in nematodes of veterinary importance. a status report. Trends in Parasitology, 20: 477-481.

Kassai, T., (1999). Veterinary Helminthology. Butterworth-Heinemann, Reed Educational And Professional Publishing Ltd., Oxford, USA.

Khajuria, J.K. and Kapoor, P.R., (2003). Prevalence of parasites in sheep and goats at Kathua-Jammu, Journal of Veterinary Parasitology, 17: 121–126.

Kumar, V., Banerjee, P.S., Hira Ram, Rajat, G., Yadav, C.L., (2002). Faecal examination vis-à-vis bile examination for the diagnosis of bubaline fasciolosis. Journal of Veterinary Parasitology, 16: 185–186.

Kusiluka, L.J.M., Kambarage, D.M., Matthewman, R.W., Harrison, L.J.S., Daborn, C.J., (1996). Coccidiosis of small ruminants in Tanzania. Small Ruminant Research, 21: 127-131

Lughano, K. and Dominic, K., (1996). diseases of small ruminants in sub-saharan Africa. Handbook. VETAID, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine. Department of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health Sokoine University of AgricultureMorogoro, Tanzania.

Maingi, N., Gichanga, E.J. and Gichohi, V.M., (1993). Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths and coccidian parasites and frequency distribution

64 of some nematode genera of goats on some farms in four districts of Kenya. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa, 41: 285-290.

Maingi, N. and Munyua, W.K., (1994). The prevalence of infection with Eimeria species in sheep in Nyandarua District of Kenya. Veterinary Reseach Communication, 18:19-25.

Margaret, W., Sloss, B.B., Russel, L. and Kemp A.B., (1989). Veterinary clinical Parasitology. 5th Edition.

Mazid, M., Bhattacharjee, J., Begum, N., and Rahman, M. H.,(2006). Helminth Parasites Of The Digestive System Of Sheep In Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 4 (2): 117–122.

Menkir, M., Sissay, Arvid, U., Peter. J., Waller.,(2007). Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 39:521– 531.

Michel, J. F., Lancaster, M. B. and Hong, C., (1975). Arrested development of Ostertagia ostertagi and Cooperia oncophora. Effect of temperature at the freeliving third stage. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 85: 133-138.

Miller, E. and Waller, P. J., (2004). Novel approaches to control of parasites. workshop. Veterinary Parasitolology, 125: 59-68.

Morsy, T. A.,Salem, H. S., Haridy, F. M., Rifaat, M. M., Abo-Zenadah, N. Y. and Adel El-Kadi, M., (2005). Farm animals' fascioliasis in Ezbet El-Bakly (Tamyia Center) Al-Fayoum Governorate. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 35 (3): 825-832.

Muhammed, S., Anwar, U., Zafar, M.N., and Abulqudoos., (1999). some Epidemiological aspect of gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep. International journal of Agriculture and Biology, 4(1): 306-308

Nari, A., Salles, J., Castell, D. and Hansen, J.W., (1997). Control of gastrointestinal nematodes in farming systems of Uruguay. In: Hansen, J.W., Waller P.J. (Eds.), Proceedings of Biological Control Workshop. FAO Technical Series Report No. 141: 89 – 94

65 Nginyi, J. M., Duncan, J. L., Mellor, D. J., Stear, M. J., Wanyangu, S. W., Bain, R. K. and Gatongi, P. M., (2001). Epidemiology of parasitic gastrointestinal nematode infections of ruminants on smallholder farms in central Kenya. Research in Veterinary Science, 70: 33-39.

Ng'ang'a, C. J., Kanyari, P. W., Maingi, N. and Munyua, W. K., (2006). The effect of weather on the occurrence and magnitude of periparturient rise in trichostronglyid nematode egg output in Dorper ewes in a semi-arid area of Kajiado District of Kenya. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 38: 389-395.

Niezen, J.H., Charleston, W.A.G., Hodgson, J., Mc Kay, A.D. and Leathwick, D.M., (1996). Controlling internal parasites in grazing ruminants without recourse to anthelmintics; approaches, experiences, prospects, International Journal of Parasitology, 26: 983–992.

O`Callaghan, M.G., O`donoghue, P.J. and moore, E., (1986). Coccidian in sheep in South Australia. Veterinary Parasitology, 24:176-183.

O'Connor, L.J., Walkden-Brown, S.W., and Kahn, L.P., (2006). Ecology of the freeliving stages of major trichostrongylid parasites of sheep. Veterinary Parasitology, 142: 1-15.

Okoli, I., Joy, R., Chidi, G. and Uduak, E.,(2002). Prevalence of Fasciolosis and Oesophagostomosis among slaughter Animals in Imo State, Nigeria and their correlation with Emaciation diagnosed at Ante-Mortem. Tropical Veterinarian., 20(3): 139-148

Ogunsusi, R.A. and Eysker, M., (1979). Inhibited development of trichostrongylids of sheep in northern Nigeria. Research in Veterinary Science. 26: 108-110.

Osman, H.M., Osman, A.Y., Mohamed, Z.A., Gasmir, G.S., Omer, F.A. and Shommein ,A.M.,(1990).An Acute outbreak of coccidian in a sheep farm in the Sudan. Sudan journal of veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, 29(1):35-39.

Ouattara, L. and Dorchies, P., (2001). Gastro-intestinal helminthes of sheep and goats in sub humid and sahelian areas of Burkina Faso. Revue-de- Medecine-Veterinaire, 152: 165-170.

Over, H.J., Jansen, J. and von Olm, P.W., (1992). Distribution and impact of helminth diseases of livestock in developing countries. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 96. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Rome, Italy, p. 221.

Pal, R. A. and Qayyum, M., (1992). Breed, age and sexwise distribution of gastro-intestinal helminthes of sheep and goats in and around Rawalpindi region. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 12: 60-63.

Pandey, V. S., Ndao, M. and Kumar, V., (1994). Seasonal prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes in communal land goats from the highveld of Zimbabwe. Veterinary Parasitology, 51: 241-248.

Perry, B.D. and Randolph, T.F., (1999). Improving the assessment of the economic impact of parasitic diseases and of their control in production animals. Veterinary Parasitology, 84: 145–168.

Perry, B.D., Randolph, T.F., McDermott, J.J., Sones, K.R. and Thornton, P.K., (2002). Investing in animal health research to alleviate poverty. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya.

Rajat, G., Yadav, C. L., Kumar, R. R., Banerjee, P. S., Vatsya, S. and Godara, R., (2009). The epidemiology of fasciolosis in ruminants in different geo-climatic regions of north India. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 41:1695–1700.

Raza, M. A. Z., Iqbal, A., Jabbar and Yaseen, M.,(2007).Point prevalence of gastrointestinal helminthiasis in ruminants in southern Punjab, Pakistan Journal Helminthology, 81: 323-328.

Raza, m. A., Murtaza, S., Bachaya h, A. and Hussain, A., (2009). Prevalence of paramphistomum cervi in ruminants slaughtered in District muzaffar garh. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 29(4): 111 – 115.

Rinaldi L, V., Veneziano and Cringoli, G., (2007a). Dairy goat production and the importance of gastrointestinal strongyle parasitism, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 101: 745–746.

67 Rinaldi, L., Calabria, G., Carbone, S., Carrella, A. and Cringoli, G., (2007b). Crenosoma vulpis in dog: first case report in Italy and use of the FLOTAC technique for copromicroscopic diagnosis, Parasitology Reseach, 101 : 1681–1684.

Saiful-Islam, K. B. M., and Taimur, M. J. F. A.,(2008). Helminthic and protozoan internal parasitic infections in free ranging small ruminants of Bangladesh. Slovenian Veterinary Research, 45(2): 67-72.

Sangster, N. C., (1999). Anthelmintic resistance: past, present and future. International Journal for Parasitology, 29: 115-24.

Semuguruka, W. D., (1992). Intestinal lesions associated with transmucosal migration of eggs in calves and hamsters infected with Schistosoma bovis. A light and electron microscopic study. PhD thesis, Department of Pharmacology and Pathobiology, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Sissay, M. M., (2007). Helminth Parasites of Sheep and Goats in Eastern Ethiopia. PhD,thesis Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala.

Soulsby, E. J. L., (1982). Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated animals, 7th Edition. The English Language Book Society and Ballière Tindall, London.

Soulsby, E.J.L., (1986). Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated animals 7th Edition. Bailliere, Tindall and Cassell, London.

Sulaiman, S.M. and Ibrahim, S.M.,(1985). Schistosoma mansoni (Gezira) infection in Biomphalaria pheifferi snails from Gezira and Jabal Marra Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 88: 91-103.

Tariq, K.A., Chishti, M.Z., Ahmad, F. and Shawl, A.S., (2008). The epidemiology of paramphistomosis of sheep (Ovis aries L.) in the north west temperate Himalayan region of India. Veterinary Reseach Communication, 32:383–391.

Tembely, S., (1995). The effect f genotype, lactation and season on the periparturient rise in faecal egg counts in Ethiopian highland ewes Preliminary observations. Pp. 351-363. In: Gray, G. D., Uilenberg, G. and

68 Jacobsen, L. L. (Eds.), Parasitology Research in Africa. Proceedings of an IFS (International Foundation for Science) workshop, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, 351-363.

Tembely, S., Lahlou-kassi, A., Rege, J. E., Sovani, S., Diedhiou, M. L. and Baker, R. L., (1997). The epidemiology of nematode infections in sheep in a cool tropical environment. Veterinary Parasitology, 70: 129-141.

Tembely, S., (1998). Development and survival of infective larvae of nematode parasites of sheep on pasture in a cool tropical environment. Veterinary Parasitology, 79: 81-87.

Tilahun, G., (1995). Epidemiology of helminth parasites of small ruminants in midlowland Ethiopia. In: Gray, G. D., Uilenberg, G. and Jacobsen, L. L. (Eds.), Parasitology Research in Africa. Proceedings of an IFS (International Foundation for Science) workshop, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, 255-269.

Thienpont, D., Rochette, F. and Vanparijis, O.F.J., (1986). Diagnosing Helminthiasis By Coprological Examination 2nd Edition, Janssen Foundation, Belgium.

Torgerson, P. and Claxton, J., (1999). Epidemiology and control. In: Fasciolosis (ed.Dalton, J. P.). CAB International. Publishing, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

Torina, A., Ferrantelli, V., Sparagano, O.A., Reale, S., Vitale, F. and Caracappa, S., (2004). Climatic conditions and gastro-intestinal nematode egg production: observations in breeding sheep and goats. Annals of New York Academy of Science 1026, 203-209.

Urquhart, G. M., Armour, J., Duncan, J. L., Dunn, A. M. and Jennings, F. W., (1996).Veterinary Parasitology, 2nd ed. Blackwell Science, United Kingdom.

Valcarcel, F. and Romero, C.G., (1999). Prevalence and seasonal pattern of caprine trichostrongyles in a dry area of Central Spain. Journal Veterinary Medicine, 46: 673-680.

69 Van Wyk, J. A., (1985). The epidemiology and control of gastro-intestinal nematode infestation of sheep and cattle in South Africa. The historic role of Onderstepoort and a short discussion of present research priorities. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research, 52: 215-219.

Van Wyk J.A and Bath, G.F.,(2002). The FAMACHA system for managing haemonchosis in sheep and goats by clinically identifying individual animals for treatment, Veterinary Research, 33: 509–529.

Van Wyk J.A., Hoste, H., Kaplan, R.M. and Besier, R.B., (2006).Targeted selective treatment for worm management—how do we sell rational programs to farmers?, Vetetrinary Parasitology, 139: 336–346.

Vercruysse, J., (1983). A survey of seasonal changes in nematode faecal egg count levels of sheep and goats in Senegal. Veterinary Parasitology, 13: 239- 244.

Vercruysse, J., (1985). The seasonal prevalence of inhibited development of Haemonchus contortus in sheep in Senegal. Veterinary Parasitology, 17: 159-163.

Waller, P.J., (1999). International approaches to the concept of integrated control of nematode parasites of livestock, International Journal for Parasitology, 29: 155–164

Waller, P.J., (2006). From discovery to development: current industry perspectives for the development of novel methods of helminth control in livestock. Veterinary Parasitology, 139: 1-14.

William, S.H. and Hunter, P.J., (1968). The distribution of Bulinus and Biomphalaria in Khartoum and blue Nile provinces, Sudan, Bull World Health Organ, 39: 948-954.

Zajac, A. M., Herd, R. P. and McClure, K. E., (1988). Trichostrongylid parasite populations in pregnant or lactating and unmated Florida Native and Dorset/Rambouillet ewes. International Journal for Parasitology, 18: 981- 985

Zajac, A., and Gipson, T., (2000). Multiple anthelmintic resistance in goat herd. Veterinary Parasitology, 87: 163-172.

Zajac, A. M., (2006). Gastro-intestinal nematodes of small ruminants: life cycle, anthelmintics, and diagnosis. Veterinary Clinics, Food Animal Practice, 22: 529- 541.

71 ﺑﺴﻢ اﷲ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ اﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ

Appendix

Questionnaire form

1 Owner name……………………………………………………… 2 Location…………………………………………………………... …………………………………………………………………………. 3 animal species

Sheep Goats two species

4 are internal parasite making problem?

Big moderate light

5 How do you know that your animals are suffering from parasites? ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………

6 Do you examine you animals for parasites periodically?

Yes No

7 To control parasites in your animals do you use? Anthelmintics grazing practice management

both

8 type of drugs ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………

9 Do you use dose as doctor guidance?

Yes No

1. Do you repeat dose? as doctor 's guidance

Random not repeated