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Local Resource Enhancement and Sex-Biased Breastfeeding in A Volume 46, Number 3, June 2005 F 471 tors affecting fluctuations of female sexual activity at menstru- symons, donald. 1979. The evolution of human sexuality. ation. Psychology of Women Quarterly 5:670–80. Oxford: Oxford University Press. hedricks, cynthia, linda piccinino, j. richard thiessen, d. 1997. False estrus in human females: Sexual ma- u d ry, a n d t o m t . k . c h i m b i r a . 1987. Peak coital rate nipulation without conception. Perceptual and Motor Skills coincides with onset of luteinizing hormone surge. Fertility 84:385–86. and Sterility 48:234–38. tooby, john, and irven de vore. 1987. “The recon- heistermann, michael, thomas ziegler, carel p. struction of hominid behavioral evolution through strategic van schaik, kristin launhardt, paul winkler, modeling,” in Primate models of hominid behavior. Edited by and j. keith hodges. 2001. Loss of oestrus, concealed W. Kinzey, pp. 183–237. Albany: SUNY Press. ovulation, and paternity confusion in free-ranging Hanuman turke, paul. 1984. Effects of ovulatory concealment and syn- langurs. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 268 chrony on protohominid mating systems and parental roles. (1484):2445–51. Ethnology and Sociobiology 5:33–44. hill, elizabeth m. 1988. The menstrual cycle and compo- ———. 1988. “Concealed ovulation, menstrual synchrony, and nents of human female sexual behavior. Journal of Social and paternal investment,” in Biosocial perspectives on the family. Biological Structures 11:443–55. Edited by E. E. Filsinger, pp. 119–36. Newbury Park: Sage. hosmer, david, and stanley lemeshow. 2000. 2d udry, j. richard, and naomi morris. 1968. Distribu- edition. Applied logistic regression. New York: Wiley. tion of coitus in the menstrual cycle. Nature 220:593–96. hrdy, sarah b. 1981. The woman that never evolved. Cam- ———. 1970. Effect of contraceptive pills on the distribution of bridge: Harvard University Press. sexual activity in the menstrual cycle. Nature 227:502–3. hrdy, sarah b., and p. l. whitten. 1987. “Patterning ———. 1977. Distribution of events in human menstrual cycle. of sexual activity,” in Primate societies. Edited by Barbara Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 51:419–25. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham, and T. T. ———. 1978. Pheromonal influences on human sexual behavior: Struhsaker, pp. 370–84. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. An experimental search. Journal of Biosocial Science 10:147–57. james, william h. 1971. The distribution of coitus within washburn, sherwood, and chet lancaster. 1968. the human intermenstrum. Journal of Biosocial Science 3: “The evolution of hunting,” in Man the hunter. Edited by 159–71. Richard Lee, pp. 293–303. Chicago: Aldine. lovejoy, owen. 1981. The origin of man. Science 211: wood, james w. 1994. Dynamics of human reproduction: 341–50. Biology, biometry, demography. Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine de mc cance, r. a., m. c. luff, and e. e. widdow- Gruyter. son. 1937. Physical and emotional periodicity in women. Journal of Hygiene 37:571–611. matteo, s., and e. f. rissman. 1984. Increased sexual activity during the midcycle portion of the human menstrual cycle. Hormones and Behavior 18:249–55. morris, naomi, j. richard udry, and louis un- derwood. 1977. A study of the relationship between coitus Local Resource Enhancement and and the luteinizing hormone surge. Fertility and Sterility 28: 440–42. Sex-biased Breastfeeding in a pawłowski, bogusław. 1999. Loss of oestrus and con- 1 cealed ovulation in human evolution: The case against the sex- Caribbean Community ual selection hypothesis. current anthropology 40:257–75. persky, h., n. charney, h. i. lief, c. p. o’brien, w. r. miller, and d. strauss. 1978. The relationship robert j. quinlan, marsha b. quinlan, and of plasma estradiol level to sexual behavior in young women. mark v. flinn Psychosomatic Medicine 40:523–35. pilbeam, david. 1980. “Major trends in human evolution,” Department of Anthropology, Ball State University, in Current argument on early man. Edited by L. K. Konigsson, Muncie, IN 47306-0435, U.S.A. ([email protected]). pp. 261–85. Oxford: Pergamon. (M. Quinlan and R. Quinlan)/Department of slob, a. k., c. m. bax, w. c. hop, d. l. rowland, Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO and j. j. van der werff ten bosch. 1996. Sexual ar- 65211, U.S.A. (Flinn). 17 xi 04 ousability and the menstrual cycle. Psychoneuroendocrinology 21:545–58. small, meredith. 1988. Female primate sexual behavior [Supplementary material appears in the electronic edition of this and conception: Are there really sperm to spare? current an- issue on the journal’s web page (http://www.journals.uchicago. thropology 29:81–100. edu/CA/home.html).] ———. 1996. “Revealed” ovulation in human? Journal of Human Evolution 30:483–88. soltis, joseph. 2002. Do primate females gain non-procrea- tive benefits by mating with multiple males? Theoretical and Parents often treat sons and daughters differently. Boys empirical considerations. Evolutionary Anthropolgoy 11:187–97. are favored in some societies (Messer 1997), but in others spitz, c., a. gold, and d. adams. 1975. Cognitive and hormonal factors affecting coital frequency. Archives of Sexual ᭧ 2005 by The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Re- Behavior 4:249–63. search. All rights reserved 0011-3204/2005/4603-0005$10.00 steklis, horst, and catherine whiteman. 1989. Loss of estrus in human evolution: Too many answers, too few 1. We thank the people of Bwa Mawego for their good-natured tol- questions. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:417–34. erance of our presence in their community. D. Shillingford, R. Na- strassman, beverly. 1981. Sexual selection, paternal care, siiro, P. Rickets, Sister D. James, and the Dominica Ministry of and concealed ovulation in humans. Ethology and Sociobiology Health provided valuable assistance. Research was supported by 2:31–40. grants from the National Science Foundation (BNS 8920569, SBR ———. 1999. Comment on: Loss of oestrus and concealed ovula- 9205373, and SBR 0136023), the University of Missouri Research tion in human evolution, by Bogusław Pawłowski. current Board (to MVF), and the Earthwatch Center for Field Research (to anthropology 40:268. MVF, MBQ, and RJQ). 472 F current anthropology table 1 Studies Showing Sex-biased Breastfeeding Sex Bias Country/Culture PI Hypothesis Reference Female Switzerland – Bouvier and Rougemont (1998) Female Hungary, Gypsy TW∗/LRE∗ Bereczkei and Dunbar (1997, 2002) Female Kenya, Mukogodo TW∗ Cronk (2000) Female U.S., Hutterites TW/LRE∗ Margulis, Altmann, and Ober (1993) Female Dominica TW Quinlan, Quinlan and Flinn (2003) Female Australia – Scott et al. (1999) Female United Kingdom – Whitehead, Paul, and Ahmed (1986) Female Norway – Pande, Unwin, and Haheim (1997) Male Northern Thailand – Jackson et al. (1992) Male India – Nath and Goswami (1997), Rao and Kanade (1992) Male Bangladesh – Brown et al. (1982) Male Egypt – Ahmed (1990) Depends on father’s status Poland TW∗ Koziel and Ulijaszek (2001) note: PI, parental investment; TW, Trivers-Willard; LRE, Local resource enhancement. Results consistent with the hypothesis are indicated by ∗. girls receive preferential treatment including better med- al. 2002, Pollock 1994, Vestergaard et al. 1999) and may ical care and more frequent breastfeeding (Cronk 2000). have long-term fitness consequences. Cross-culturally, breastfeeding is a major component of For mothers, lactation entails energetic and opportu- early parental care that directly affects child health. Here nity costs and suppresses fertility (Valeggia and Ellison we examine female-biased breastfeeding in Bwa Ma- 2001, Tracer 1996, Vitzthum 1994). The energetics of wego, a horticultural community in the Commonwealth human lactation requires 670 kcal/day during exclusive of Dominica, and test hypotheses from parental invest- breastfeeding (Dewey 1997), which may be 50%ofa ment theory about the reasons for such bias (reviewed woman’s total energy budget in undernourished popu- in Clutton-Brock and Godfray 1991). Multiple linear re- lations (Valeggia and Ellison 2001:86). Increased energy gression suggests that sex differences in children’s time demand may tax household production and delay future allocation to productive activity account for female-bi- reproduction through reduced fecundity among under- ased breastfeeding in this community. Ethnographic data nourished mothers (Jasienska 2001). Opportunity costs from Bwa Mawego suggest that female-biased maternal may also be substantial (Quinlan, Quinlan, and Flinn care results from male socioeconomic marginality and 2003). Nursing can interfere with work that benefits its effects on sex-specific risks of parental investment. other children or kin and direct maternal care for older Breastfeeding is a primary mechanism among mam- offspring. Finally, length and frequency of breastfeeding mals for provisioning dependent offspring and is a key sessions are associated with postpartum fecundity, pos- component of parental investment—care benefiting one sibly through effects on gonadotrophin-releasing hor- offspring at a cost to parents’ ability to invest in other mone (Vitzthum 1997). Such “structural” costs of breast- components of fitness (Clutton-Brock 1991:9).2 Compo- feeding (associated with nursing-session length, nents of fitness include well-being of existing offspring, frequency, and age at weaning) should be expressed in parents’ future reproduction, and “indirect fitness” future reproduction or “residual reproductive value.” through aid to kin (see Hamilton 1964, Beatty 1992). In general, the
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