Notes

Introduction

1. Businessweek, June 26, 1989. 2. Businessweek, July 17,1989. 3. Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places, pp. 11, 27. 4. Japan 1989: An International Comparison. 5. Ibid. 6. See Eugene Kaplan, Japan: The Government-Business Relationship for the most detailed account of this thesis. See Marvin Wolf, The Japanese Conspiracy, for a highly polemical version. 7. For the best account see Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosovsky, Japan: The New Economic Giant. • 8. Akio Morita and Shintaro Ishihara, The Japan That Can Say No, xeroxed copy. 9. Ibid., pp. 8-14, 19-26,52-60. The growing emotionalism with which Japanese respond to foreign criticism of Japanese neomercantilism is vividly reflected in the chapters by Ishihara, who makes a range of unfounded and/or highly irresponsible assertions such as "the roots of the US - Japan friction lie in the soil of racial prejudice", "Americans behave more like mad dogs than watchdogs", "the only reason why they could use the atomic bomb on Japan was because of their racial attitude toward Japan", "the US Congress is too hysterical to trust", or "Americans suggest the possible physical occupation of Japan in case Japan engages in semiconductor trade with the Soviet Union". Ibid., pp. 11, 12, 18, 52, 65. 10. Japan 1989. 11. Economist, April 29, 1989. 12. See William Nester, The Foundations 0/ Japanese Power, 1990. 13. Chalmers Johnson, The Industrial Policy Debate, p.5. 14. Yamamura, 1989. 15. Mordechai E., Keirinin, "How Closed is Japan's Market?: Additional Evidence", World Economy, vol.11, no. 4, July 1989, p.539. 16. Economist, September 6, 1989. 17. Robert Lawrence, "Does Japan. Import too Little: Closed Minds or Markets", Brookings Papers in Economic Activity, No. 2, Washing­ ton, 1987. 18. Keirinin, op. cit., pp. 537-538. 19. Japan 1989. 20. Economist, August 12, 1989. 21. New York Times, November 20, 1989. 22. Japan Economic Journal, November 11, 1989. 23. Japan Economic Journal, November 11, 1989. 24. Japan Economic Journal, November 11, 1989. 25. Japan Economic Journal, October 8, 1989.

255 256 Notes

26. See William Nester, Japan's Growing Power, 1989. 27. Japan 1989.

1 Neoclassical versus Neomercantilist Economics:

1. Freedom House Survey 0/ Political Democracies, 1989. 2. Adam Smith, Wealth 0/ Nations, 1776. 3. Scott and Lodge, p. 73. 4. Ibid., p. 74. 5. Ibid., p. 94. 6. Ibid., p. 94. 7. Freidrich List quoted in John Spanier, Games Nation's Play. 8. Ibid., p. 355. 9. Kanemitsu. 10. Scott and Lodge, op. cit., p. 96. 11.. Patrick, p. xiii. 12. Chalmers Johnson, ed. The Industrial Policy Debate, 1984, p. 3. 13. Leipzinger, 1988, p. 123. 14. Scott and Lodge, op. cit., pp. 71-72. 15. Chalmers Johnson, MITl and Japan's Economic Miracle, pp. 17-18. 16. Chalmers Johnson, The Institutional Foundations 0/ Japanese Indust­ rial Policy, in Barfield and Schambra, eds The Politic o/lndustrial Policy, American Institute for Public Policy Research Washington, DC 1986, p. 201. 17. Johnson, op. cit., 1982, p. 17. 18. Scott and Lodge, op. cit., p. 72. 19. Zysman 1983, pp. 55-95. 20. Okimoto, in Patrick, op. cit., p.40. 21. Quoted in Scott and Lodge, op. cit., p. l33. 22. Ibid., p. 72. 23. Johnson, op. cit., 1984, p. 3. 24. Fleteher Forum. 25. Scott and Lodge, op. cit., pp. 80-95.

2 Japanese Neomercantilism

1. World Herald, August 16, 1989. 2. Hugh Patrick, "The Future of the Japanese Economy," Journal 0/ Japanese Studies, Summer 1977, p.239. 3. Chen, 1979, pp. 183-84. 4. Friedman, The Misunderstood Miracle, pp. 6, 8. 5. US New and World Report, June 5, 1989. 6. Ronald Dore, Flexible Rigidities, p. 5. 7. Ibid., p. 1. 8. Akio Morita and Shintaro Ishihara, The Japan That Can Say No, xeroxed copy, p. 64. 9. Omaha World Herald, August 6, 1989. One might think that the Notes 257

members of anational culture which has evolved for over 1,500 years might be a little more secure about their national identity. For an in-depth discussion of the interrelated problems of Japanese identity, culture, and nationalism, see William Nester, The Foundations of Japanese Culture, chapter 13. 10. John Henderson, Foreign Enterprise in Japan: Laws and Policies p. 98. 11. J. A. A. Stockwin, Dynamic and Immobi/ist Politics in Japan. 12. Takashi Inoguchi and Tomoaki Iwai, "Zoku Giin" No Kenkyu, Tokyo Nihon Keizai Shinbunsha, 1987. 13. Seizaburo Sato and Matsuzaki Tetsuhisa, Jiminto Seiken, Tokyo: Chuo Koronsha, 1986. 14. Allinson, p. 327. 15. Daniel Okimoto, p. 145. 16. Japan 1989. 17. Ibid. 18. Okimoto, op. eit., p. 230. 19. Chalmers Johnson, MIT1 and Japan's Economic Miracle, p. 12. 20. Kent Calder's 1988 study of amakudari revealed that while most bureauerats parachuted into the top 500 corporations, many moved into medium-sized, less established firms. These bureauerats serve as a seed-bed of expertise and influence for firms that normally cannot attract the top college graduates. Industrial Group firms, on the other hand, increasingly do not need to employ large numbers of ex­ bureauerats because they have already established powerful ties with policymakers. The result may not be quite the "equalization" of political and economic power between the industrial groups and other Japanese firms that Calder asserts, but clearly the imbalance is less unequal. The most notable effect of the scattering of influential ex­ bureauerats across Japan's economic spectrum is to enable declining industrial sectors to prevent extensive restructuring and the emergence of free markets demanded by foreign countries. Kent Calder, "Elites in an Equalizing Role: Ex-Bureaucrats as Coordinators and Inter­ mediaries in the Japanese Government-Bus Relationship," Compara­ tive Politics, vol. 21, no. 4, July 1989. 21. Japan Economic Journal, June 17, 1989. 22. Okimoto, op. cit., p. 90. 23. Ibid., p. 140. 24. Japan Economic Journal, June 17, 1989. 25. See Friedman, chapter 4 for an excellent discussion. 26. Japan 1989. 27. Okimoto, op. cit., pp. 187, 191. 28. Ibid., p. 19. 29. Johnson, op. cit., p. 10. 30. Quoted in OECD Annual Report, Paris, 1972. 31. Quoted in Scott and Lodge, op. cit., pp. 95, 138. 32. White and Wade, 1988, pp. 5-7. 33. Hayden in Okimoto, p. 91. 34. Hamada 248 Yamamura. 35. Johnson, op. cit., p. 29. 258 Notes

36. Ibid., p. 17. 37. Ibid., p. 247. 38. Henderson in Saxonhouse, pp. 131, 132. 40. Johnson, op. cit., p. 65. 41. Henderson, 138, 139 Saxonhouse. 42. White and Wade, 1988: pp. 7-8. 43. Bobrow and Chan, 1986: p.51. 44. New York Times, November 24, 1989. 45. Japan Economic Journal, August 19, 1989. 46. Henderson in Saxonhouse, op. cit., p. 135. 47. Friedman, op. cit., p. 73. 48. Okimoto, op. cit., p. 65. 49. New York Times, November 24, 1989. 50. New York Times, November 2, 1989. 51. See William Nester, The Foundations of Japanese Power, 1990. 52. Johnson, op. cit., p. 36. 53. Ibid., p. 48. 54. Henderson, op. eit., pp. 131,133.

3 For their Money and Votes:

1. Alvin Toffter's, The Third Wave, provides the most thorough account of these changes. 2. Economist, February 20, 1988. 3. Hillman, p. 43. 4. Consumer survey favoring protection. 5. Hall, History of Japan. 6. Selling into prostitution. 7. Castle, p. 153. 8. George, p. 421. 9. Donnely. 10. George, op. cit., p. 411. 11. Hrebrenaur, Baerwald. 12. Consumer group fronting farmers. 13. Castle, op. cit., pp. 136, 321. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid., p. 103. 17. Hillman, op. cit., pp. 47-50. 18. Castle, op. cit., p. 630. 19. Ibid., pp. 64-67. 20. Ibid., p. 248. 21. Hillman, op. cit., p. 52. 22. Castle, op. cit., p. 70. 23. Ibid., p. 75. 24. Japan Economic Journal, April 16, 1988; July 2, 1988. 25. Japan Economic Journal, December 17, 1988. 26. Far Eastern Economic Review, April 7, 1988. Notes 259

27. Japan Economic Journal, December 17, 1988. 28. Ibid. 29. International Herald Tribune, May 13, 1989. 30. Japan Economic Journal, December 10, 1988. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33. Economist, October 22, 1988. 34. Japan Economic Journal, February 27, 1988. 35. Japan Economic Journal, October 15, 1988. 36. Economist, October 22, 1988. 37. Japan Economic Journal, December 10, 1988. 38. Japan Economic Journal, October 15, 1988. 39. Ibid. 40. Economist, February 27, 1988. 41. Economist, August 20, 1988. 42. Economist, April 30, 1988. 43. Laumer, p. 261. 44. Economist, August 13, 1988. 45. Economist, January 28, 1989. 46. Laumer, op. cit., p. 257 in Puget. 47. Woronoff. 48. Japan Economic Journal, March 12, 1988. 49. Economist, January 28, 1989. 50. Douglas, p. 108. 51. Laumer, op. cit., p. 265. 52. Economist, January 28, 1989. 53. Ishida, p. 323. 54. Economist, January 28, 1989. 55. Ishida, op. cit., pp. 323-340. 56. Ibid., p. 326. 57. Businessweek, May 8, 1989. 58. Japan Economic Journal, May 17, 1989. 59. Japan Economic Journal, June 10, 1989. 60. Ibid. 61. Economist, December 17, 1988. 62. Businessweek, March 14, 1988. 63. Japan Economic Journal, March 12, 1988. 64. Economist, January 28, 1989. 65. Economist, January 31, 1987. 66. Japan Economic Journal, March 12, 1988. 67. Ibid. 68. Economist, April 29, 1989. 69. Japan Economic Journal, January 9, 1988; February 13, 1988. 70. Far Eastern Economic Review, March 24, 1988. 71. Japan Times, November 16, 1987. 72. Far Eastern Economic Review, January 7, 1988. 73. Economist, April 29, 1989. 74. Economist, April 29, 1989. 75. Japan Economic Journal, January 30, 1988. 260 Notes

76. Los Angeles Times, April 3, 1988. 77. Japan Economic Journal, February 13, 1988. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. Japan Economic Journal, January 23, 1988. 81. Ibid. 82. Japan Economic Journal, June 10, 1989; Economist, April 29, 1989. 83. Economist, April 29, 1989.

4 Heavy Industry Giants

1. Ueno, p. 162. 2. Imai, p. 207. 3. Ibid., p. 210. 4. Ibid., p. 225. 5. Kawahito, 1981, p. 237. 6. Ibid., p. 240. 7. Ibid., p. 236. 8. Ibid., pp. 222-34. 9. Ibid., p. 240. 10. Kawahito, 1980, p. 1039. 11. Ibid., pp. 1046-47. 12. Babeoek, p. 56. 13. Far Eastern Economic Review, Oetober 13, 1988. 14. Babeoek, op. eit., p. 56. 15. Japan Economic Journal, Oetober 28, 1989. 16. Economist, August 19, 1989. 17. Economist, August 19, 1989. 18. Japan Economic Journal, June 24, 1989. 19. Economist, August 19, 1989. 20. Japan Economic Journal, Oetober 28, 1989. 21. Ibid. 22. Japan Economic Journal, August 19, 1989. 23. Friedman, The Misunderstood Mirac/e, p.33. 24. Ibid., p. 68. 25. Unless otherwise indieated, all the essential information comes from Friedman. 26. Ibid., p. 58. 27. Ibid., p. 72. 28. Ibid., p. 88. 29. Sarathy, pp. 133, 136. 30. Helen V. Milner and David B. Yoffie, "Between Free Trade and Protectionism: Strategie Trade Poliey and a Theory of Corporate Trade Demands", International Organization, vol. 43, no. 2, Spring 1989, pp. 266-268. 31. Sarathy, op. eit., pp. 140-141. 32. Ibid., p. 141. 33. Ibid., p. 153. Notes 261

34. Chang, p. 64. 35. Cusumana, p. 7. 36. Chang, ap. eit., p. 10. 37. Ibid., pp. 16-17. 38. Cusumana, ap. eit., p. 7. 39. Chang, ap. eit., 49. 40. Uena, ap. eit., pp. 148-49. 41. Chang, ap. eit., p. 41. 42. Ibid., p. 43. 43. Uena, ap. eit., p. 151. 44. Cusumana, ap. eit., p. 7. 45. Ibid., p. 20. 46. Chang, ap. eit., p. 57. 47. Cusumana, ap. eit., p. 8. 48. Uena, ap. eit., p. 156. 49. Ibid., p. 173. 50. Chang, ap. eit., p. 53. 51. Cusumana, ap. eit., p. 11. 52. Uena, ap. eit., pp. 141-43. 53. Ibid., p. 162. 54. Japan Economic Journal, June 17, 1989. 55. Uena, p. 190. 56. Ibid., p. 167. 57. Japan Times, June 18, 1988. 58. Japan Economic Journal, Deeember 9, 1989. 59. New York Times, Oetaber 12, 1989. 60. Chang, ap. eit., p. 81. 61. Ibid., p. 77. 62. Paseale, p. 223. 63. Ibid., p. 233. 64. Ibid., p. 231. 65. Ibid., p. 232. 66. Ibid., pp. 256-57. 67. Ibid., p. 230. 68. Ibid., p. 247. 69. International Herald Tribune, June 22, 1988. 70. Uena, pp. 161-162. 71. Japan Economic Journal, Deeember 9, 1989. 72. Japan Economic Journal, Deeember 9, 1989. 73. Dunn, pp. 242-243. 74. Chang, p. 102. 75. Ibid., p. 243. 76. Lachmann, ap. eit., p. 1Ol. 77. Ibid., pp. 109, 114. 78. Dunn, ap. eit., p. 226. 79. Far Eastern Economic Review, Oetaber 15, 1988. 80. Dunn, ap. eit., p. 248. 81. Ibid., p. 241. 82. Japan Economic Journal, August 26, 1989. 262 Notes

83. Fukushima, p. 23. 84. Dunn, op. eit., p. 244. 85. New York Times, February 6, 1990. 86. Economist, February 11, 1989. 87. Businessweek, August 14, 1989. 88. International Herald Tribune, June 8, 1988. 89. Businessweek, July 24, 1989. 90. Ibid. 91. New York Times, February 6, 1990. 92. Robert Cole and Donald Deskins. 93. Ibid., p. 15. 94. Ibid., p. 17. 95. Economist, February 11, 1989. 96. Economist, November 18, 1989.

5 Fueling Industrial Superpower

1. David Bobrow, and Robert T. Knudrle, "How Middle Powers Can Manage Resouree Weakness", World Politics, vol. 39, no. 4, July 1987, p.545. 2. Hayden Lesbril, "The Political Economy of Substitution Policy; Japan's Response to Lower Oil Prices", Pacific Affairs, vol. 61, no. 2, Summer 1988, p.4S. 3. Riehard Samuels, p. 10. 4. Ibid., p. 286. 5. Unless otherwise noted an the statistieal information contained in the seetion on Japan's eleetrie industry has been obtained from Samuels. 6. Unless otherwise noted an the statistical information eontained in the seetion on Japan's coal industry has been obtained from Samuels. 7. Ibid., p. 143. 8. Ibid. 9. Unless otherwise noted an the statistical information contained in the seetion on Japan's nuclear industry has been obtained from Samuels. 10. Yujiro Eguchi, "Japanese Energy Policy", International Affairs, vol. 56, no. 2, April 1980, p.270. 11. Yuki Tanaka. "Nuclear Power Plant Gypsies in High Teeh Society", Bulletin 0/ Concerned Asia Scholars, vol. 18, no. 1, 1986, p. 3. 12. Shigeko Fukai, "Japan's Energy Poliey", Current History, April 1988, p.183. 13. New York Times, February 27, 1990. 14. Tanaka, op. eit., pp. 3-22. 15. Riehard Samuels, "Consuming for Production: Japanese National Security, Nuclear Fuel Procurement, and the Domestie Economy", International Organization, vol. 43, no. 4, Autumn 1989, p. 628. 16. Ibid., p. 630. 17. Ibid., p. 631. 18. Unless otherwise noted an the statistical information contained in the section on alternative energies have been obtained from Samuels. Notes 263

19. Fukai, op. eit., p. 183. 20. Ironically, just as oil poliey marks one of Japan's few industrial poliey failures, it represents one of the few industrial poliey sueeesses for either Britain or Franee whieh did sueeeed in developing anational champion. 21. Unless otherwise noted all the statistieal information eontained in the seetion on Japan's oil industry eame from Samuels. 22. Herbert Goodman, "Japan and the World Energy Problem", in Daniel Okimoto, ed., Japan's Economy: Coping with Change in the International Environment, p. 47. 23. Ibid., pp. 45-47. 24. Fukai, op. eit., p. 170. 25. Goodman, op. eit., p. 48. 26. Ibid., p. 49. 27. Ibid., pp. 49-50. 28. Waga Gaikyo no Kinkyo, 1957. 29. Vernon, p. 96. 30. Goodman, op. eit., p. 25. 31. Lesbril, p. 47. 32. Fukai, op. eit., p. 171. 33. Lesbril, op. eit., p. 51. 34. Bobrow, op. eit., p. 554. 35. Ibid., p. 555. 36. Ibid., p. 555. 37. Terutomo Ozawa, "Japan's New Resouree Diplomaey: Government Baeked Group Investment", Journal ofWorld Trade Law, vol. 14, no. 1, January February 1980, p. 4. 38. Ibid., p. 5. 39. Goodman, op. eit., p. 60. 40. Ibid., pp. 60-61. 41. Eguehi, op. eit., p. 273. 42. "Japan Special Report", Middle East Economic Development (MMED), Deeember 1988, p. 25. 43. Goodman, op. eit., p. 59. 44. Eguehi, op. eit., p. 265. 45. Fukai, op. eit., p. 172. 46. MEED, op. eit., p. 3. 47. Goodman, op. eit., pp. 54-55. 48. Samuel, op. eit., p. 215. 49. Japan Economic Journal, May 21,1988. 50. MEED, op. eit., p. 24. 51. Bobrow, op. eit., pp. 548-549 52. Lesbril, op. eit., p. 45. 53. Samuel, op. eit., p. 217. 54. Vernon, op. eit., pp. 39, 52. 55. Ibid., p. 103. 56. Dani Rodrik, "Managing Resouree Dependeney: The Uni ted States and Japan in the Markets for Copper, Iron Ore, and Bauxite", World Development, vol. 10, no. 7, 1982, pp. 541-557. 264 Notes

57. Ibid., p. 542. 58. Vernon, op. cit., p. 99. 59. Rodrik, op. cit., p. 550. 60. Vernon, op. eit., p. 102; Rodrik, op. eit., p.552. 61. Vernon, op. cit., p. 100. 62. Rodrik, op. cit., p. 550. 63. Vernon, op. cit., p. 99. 64. Rodrik, op. eit., p. 548. 65. Hayashi Moritaka. "Japan and Deep Seabed Mining", Ocean De­ velopment and International Law, vol. 17, no. 4, 1986, pp. 351-363. 66. Fukai, op. eit., p. 172. 67. Samuels, op. eit., p. 224.

6 From Technological "Catch-22" to "Leap-frog":

1. Daniel Okimoto, p. 39 in Hugh Patrick, ed., Japan's High Techno­ logy Industries: Lessons and Limitations ollndustrial Policy, Univer­ sity of Washington Press, Seattle, 1986. 2. Kozo Yamamura, in Patrick. 3. Daniel Okimoto, p. 101 in Daniel Okimoto, Takuo Sugano, and Franklin B. Weinstein, eds., Competitive Edge: The Semiconductor Industry in the US and Japan, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1984. 4. Ibid., p. 102. 5. FrankIin Weinstein, p. 55 in Okimoto et al. 6. International Herald Tribune, June 26, 1989. 7. Okimoto, pp. 119-120, op. eit., in Okimoto et al. 8. Leslie S. Hiraoka, "A History of Assimilation: Japan's Technology Trade", Speaking 01 Japan, vol. 7, no. 71, November 1986, p. 12. 9. Ibid., p. 12; Economist, December 2, 1989. 10. Ibid., p. 13. 11. Japan Economic Journal, November 19, 1988. 12. Okimoto, p. 53, op. eit., in Patrick. 13. US News and World Report, July 10, 1989. 14. Okimoto, op. eit., in Patrick, p.35. 15. Weinstein, op. eit., in Okimoto et. al., p.37. 16. Economist, May 28, 1989. 17. Teruo Doi, "The Role of Intellectual Property law in Bilateral Licensing Transactions between Japan and the United States", in Law and Trade Issues 01 the Japanese Economy, p. 159. 18. Economist, April 1, 1989. 19. Businessweek, (Japanese money to universities). 20. Independent, May 26, 1989. 21. Japan Science Technology Agency, White Paper, 1983. 22. OECD, Science and Technology Indicators, Paris 1982. 23. US News and World Report, July 10, 1989; Economist, December 2, 1989. Notes 265

24. Arthur Wineberg, "The Japanese Patent System: A Non-Tariff Barrier to Foreign Businesses?" , Journal 01 World Trade, vol. 22, no. 1, Fall 1988, p. 12. 25. Earl H. Kinmouth, "Japanese Patents: Olympic Gold or Public Relations Brass", Pacific Affairs, p.4. 26. Doi, op. cit., p. 159. 27. Wineberg, op. cit., p. 11. 28. Japan Economic Journal, September 24, 1988. 29. Kinmouth, op. cit., p. 176. 30. Wineberg, op. cit., p. 11. 31. David S. Guttman "Protecting Intellectual Property: An American Viewpoint", Speaking 01 Japan, vol. 5, no. 41, p. 18, May 1984. 32. Far Eastern Economic Review, November 17, 1988. 33. Japan Economic Journal, October 22, 1988. 34. Economist, April 1, 1989. 35. Japan Economic Journal, December 9, 1989. 36. Japan Economic Journal, November 19, 1988. 37. Anchordoguy, p. 512. 38. Ibid., p. 514. 39. Ibid., 513. 40. Ibid., pp. 521, 523. 41. Okimoto, op. cit., in Patrick, p. 84. 42. Archodoguy, op. cit., pp. 520,521. 43. Ibid., p. 527. 44. Ibid., p. 524. 45. Okimoto, op. cit., in Patrick, p. 54. 46. Far Eastern Economic Review, December 22, 1988. 47. Far Eastern Economic Review, June 1,1989. 48. Japan Economic Journal, April 3, 1989. 49. Japan Economic Journal, June 3, 1989. 50. Time, March 28, 1989. 51. Far Eastern Economic Review, June 1, 1989. 52. Archordoguy, op. cit., p. 516. 53. Ibid., p. 522. 54. Ibid., p. 532. 55. Ibid., p. 93. 56. Economist, February 18, 1989. 57. Far Eastern Economic Review, August 18, 1988. 58. Businessweek, July 10, 1989. 59. Weinstein, op. cit., in Okimoto et. al., p. 71. 60. Okimoto, op. cit., in Okimoto et. al., pp. 185-186. 61. Economist, March 18, 1989. 62. Los Angeles Times, March 14, 1986. 63. Economist, June 11, 1988. 64. Businessweek, July 4, 1988. 65. Ibid. 66. Far Eastern Economic Review, August 18, 1988. 67. Far Eastern Economic Review, November 17, 1988. 68. Economist, March 18, 1989. 266 Notes

69. Quoted in Economist, December 2, 1989. 70. Far Eastern Economic Review, April 6, 1989. 71. Economist, December 2, 1989. 72. Kent E. Calder, "The Rise of Japan's Military-Industrial Complex", Asia Pacific Community, no. 17, p.29, Summer 1982. 73. Ron and Joanne Matthews, Ron and Joanne Bartlett, "The Stirrings of Japan's Military Slumber", World Today, p.80, May 1988. 74. Calder, op. cit., p. 31. 75. Ibid., pp. 31-32. 76. New York Times, November 11, 1989. 77. Japan Economic Journal, January 27, 1990. 78. New York Times, April 15, 1990. 79. Far Eastern Economic Review, April 6, 1989; August 25, 1988. 80. New York Times, December 14, 1989. 81. Inagaki Takeshi. "Rocket Readiness", Japan Quarterly, April-June 1988, pp. 146-51. 82. Far Eastern Economic Review, March 9, 1989. 83. Economist, June 17, 1989. 84. Far Eastern Economic Review, April 6, 1989. 85. Ibid. 86. Calder, op. cit., p. 35. 87. Far Eastern Economic Review, April 28, 1988. 88. Businessweek, April 6, 1987. 89. Businessweek, September 19, 1988. 90. Ibid. 91. Far Eastern Economic Review, April 6, 1989. 92. Economist, May 13, 1989. 93. Ibid. 94. Businessweek, April 13, 1988. 95. International Herald Tribune, March 22, 1989. 96. US News and World Report, July 10, 1989. 97. International Herald Tribune, March 22, 1989. 98. Ibid. 99. Japan Economic Journal, March 11, 1989. 100. Ibid. 101. Kinmouth, op. cit., p. 190. 102. Ibid., p. 186. 103. Justin Bloom. "A New Era for US-Japan Technical Relations? Problems and Prospects", Journal of Northeast Asian Studies, Sum­ mer 1987, p. 17. 104. Clyde Prestowitz, Trading Places: How We Lost to the Japanese, pp. 11, 27. 105. Prestowitz, op. eit., p. 21. 106. Ferguson, 123. 107. Ferguson, 136. 108. Time, January 16, 1989. 109. International Herald Tribune, March 4/5, 1989. 110. Japan Economic Journal, January 12, 1989. 111. Sony Corporation head, Mr. Morita, continually attacks Western Notes 267

firms with this charge. Perhaps he would be less inclined to do so if he were eonfronted with the reality that the reason why almost 70% of his eorporation 's produetion is sold in foreign markets is beeause as a postwar entrepreneur he is alloeated a smaller share of Japan's eartelized market than the older firms. Meanwhle Sony benefits enormously when MITI forees firms like TI to seil it teehnology. 112. International Herald Tribune, April 20, 1989; Economist, Deeember 2, 1989. 113. International Herald Tribune, March 4/5,1989. 114. Little 1983, pp. 35-39. 115. Okimoto, op. eit., in Okimoto et. al., p. 198.

7 Banker to the World:

1. See Businessweek,June26, 1989;Wright, "TheSeeondWave";Saburo Okita, "Japan 's Quiet Strength" , Foreign Policy, no. 75, Summer 1989. 2. Wright, op. eit., ehapter 1. 3. MeRae, p. 5. 4. James Horne in Stoekwin, p. 173. 5. Horne, Japan's Financial Markets, pp. 192-219. 6. Ibid., pp. 201-207. 7. Ibid., p. 209. 8. Ibid., p. 209. 9. Brown in Pugel, pp. 122, 124. 10. Horne, op. eit., p. 211. 11. Ibid., p. 161. 12. Horne in Stoekwin, op. eit., p. 187. 13. Horne, op. eit., p. 26. 14. Crum in MeCraw, p. 266. 15. Economist, Deeember 10, 1988. 16. Ibid. 17. Ibid. 18. Economist, June 25, 1988. 19. Ibid. 20. Far Eastern Economic Review, April 20, 1989. 21. Economist, April 6, 1989. 22. Economist, Deeember 10, 1988. 23. Wright, op. eit., p. 22. 24. Ibid., p. 81. 25. Horne, op. eit., p. 219. 26. 26. 27. 24. 28. See William Nester, Japan's Growing Power over East Asia and the World Economy. 29. 27 30. Horne, op. eit., p. 16. 31. 1. 32. 29, Nester, op. eit. 268 Notes

33. Guttman, 1259. 34. Horne in Stoekwin, op. eit., p. 180. 35. 34. 36. Wright, op. eit., p. 83. 37. Henderson in Saxonhouse, pp. 146, 131, 133. 38. Ibid., p. 132. 39. Horne in Stoekwin, op. eit., p. 185. 40. Kashiwagi, p. 19. 41. Wright, op. eit., p. 80. 42. Businessweek, June 13, 1989. 43. Hayden in Okimoto, p. 94. 44. Far Eastern Economic Review, Deeember 17, 1987. 45. Far Eastern Economic Review, July 28, 1988. 46. Horne, op. eit., pp. 88-89. 47. Ibid., p. 95. 48. Economist, July 9, 1988. 49. Ibid. 50. Ibid. 51. Ibid. 52. Businessweek, June 13, 1988. 53. Economist, July 9, 1989. 54. Far Eastern Economic Review, Deeember 15, 1988. 55. Japan Economic Journal, Oetober 15, 1988; Far Eastern Economic Review, Deeember 15, 1988. 56. Japan Economic Journal, April 30, 1988; Far Eastern Economic Review, May 5, 1988. 57. Businessweek, June 13, 1989. 58. Economist, February 4, 1989. 59. Far Eastern Economic Review, April 20, 1989. 60. Economist, Deeember 10, 1988. 61. International Herald Tribune, June 2,1988. 62. Japan Economic Journal, April 30, 1988. 63. Far Eastern Review, Deeember 15, 1988. 64. Economist, April 30, 1988; Economist, Deeember 10,1988. 65. Economist, August 27, 1988. 66. Far Eastern Economic Review, Deeember 22, 1988; Economist, Deeember 10,1988. 67. Far Eastern Economic Review, Deeember 15, 1988. 68. Ibid.; Far Eastern Economic Review, June 2,1988. 69. Businessweek, June 13, 1989. 70. Japan Economic Journal, Oetober 15, 1988; Japan Economic Journal, May 14, 1989. 71. Japan Economic Journal, Oetober 15, 1988. 72. Businessweek, June 3,1989. 73. Japan Economic Journal, November 26, 1988. 74. Hayden in Okimoto, op. eit., p. 104. 75. Times (London), November 27,1988. 76. Ibid., Japan Economic Journal, January 14, 1989. 77. Businessweek, July 25, 1988. Notes 269

78. Far Eastern Economic Review, December 15, 1988. 79. Wright, op. cit. 80. Guttman, op. cit., p. 1265. 81. Economist, March 5, 1988. 82. Economist, November 5, 1988. 83. Economist, February 20, 1988. 84. Los Angeles Times, April 5, 1988. 85. Economist, August 20, 1988. 86. Far Eastern Economic Review, March 23, 1989. 87. Economist, March 5, 1988. 88. Japan Economic Journal, February 11, 1989; Far Eastern Economic Review, April 6, 1989. 89. Japan Economic Journal, February 18, 1989. 90. New York Times, April 23, 1990. 91. Japan Economic Journal, February 18, 1989. 92. Economist, April 1, 1989. 93. Far Eastern Economic Review, December 17, 1987. 94. Ibid. Bibliography

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Aerospace 188-194 Democratic Socialist Party 6, 52 Agriculture 5, 6, 44-62 Diet 29, 46, 49, 52, 56, 92, Agricultural Basic Law 48, 54 213 Agricultural Land Law 55 Distribution System 5, 6, 44, Australia 86 62-9, 108-10 Automobiles 6, 22, 39, 43, 65-6, Department Store Law 63-4 99-118 Large Scale Retailers Law 64, Automobile Industry laws 68 101-19 Temporary Measures to Adjust Japan Automobile Association Retailing Commerce 64 108-9 Bank of Japan 34,101,210,211, East Asia 1, 116 213,223 Economic Planning Agency 25, Biotechnology 5, 88 33,41,132 Brezhnev, Leonid Electronics 65, 88 Brazil 79, 86 High Definition Television Britain 1,3,8,10,13,15,16,17, 196-9 22,28,62,113,116,132,137,169 Microelectronics 5, 88 Bush, George 2,61, 161-2 Superconductors 194-6 Energy 119-53 Canada 1,86 Alternative 135-7, 157-9 Chamber of Commerce 31 Coal 126-131, 157-9 China 1, 13, 15, 86 Electricity 124-6, 157-9 Clean Government Party 6, 52 Nuclear 131-5, 157-9 Computers 5,44, 176-83,200-5 Oil 137-53, 157-9 Fifth Generation Computer 5, European Community 1,3,17, 164, 180 37,46,84, 112-18, 123-4 Supercomputers 40, 182-3 Construction 5,6,44,69-76 Fair Trade Commission 7,30, 73, Dango 70-1 80,84, 142 Federation of Construction Farm Lobby 48, 50-2 Contractors 71 Central Union of Agricultural Consumers 40, 46-7, 48, 52-3, Co-operatives 50-1, 62 60-1,68 Japan Federation of Farmers Corporations 2, 3, 5, 7-8 Unions 52 Keiretsu 6,29,30,31,33,80, National Chamber of 83,89 Agriculture 50-1, 62 Trading Firms 6 National Farm Co-operative Insurance Firms 6 Bank 50-1, 62 Research and Development 10 National Farmers Alliance 52 Small and Medium Sized 30, National Federation of Farmers 71-5 48, 50-2 Strategy 39-40 Federation of Economic Zaibatsu 90-2 Organizations 29, 37-8, 133, Corporatism 41-2 136, 158

294 Index 295

Financial Industry 2, 29 Constitution 10 Banking 2,29,207,212, Cost of Living 7,53-5,58,63 213-18,227-55 Employment 4,55-6,65,69, Capital Markets 230-9 83 Securities 207, 217, 227-55 Defense Policy 9-10 Stock Markets 245-8 Economic Growth 2,5,54,58, Yen 239-45 141 Fiscal Investment and Loan Foreign Aid 2, 148-51 Program 213, 223 Foreign Investments (in Japan) Ford 100-2, 107-8 8 Ford, Gerald 1 Foreign Investments (Japanese) Foreign Exchange Control Law 8 35-6, 141, 164,222, 226-7 Foreign Policy 7, 119-59 Foreign Investment Law 35, 141, Industrial Policy 3, 4, 6-7, 164,223, 226 17-23,25-42,43-77,79-99, France 1, 3, 8, 10, 22, 23, 46, 100-18, 119-59, 161-206, 113, 116, 132, 169 207-54 FSX Fighter 161-2, 163, 189 Macroeconomic Policy 20, 34, 167,208,219-30 General Agreement on Trade and Opposition Parties 6,40, 41, Tariffs 59,61,74,187,223 42, 43, 48, 52, 53 Kennedy Round 57 Patent Policy 39, 171-4, 196 Tokyo Round 58 Per Capita Income 2, 53-4, Uruguay Round 61 244 General Motors 100-2, 107-8 Power 2-11,22,37-8,119-23, Gorbachev, Mikhail 1 162,170,171-6,200,207-8, 249-54 HamiIton, Alexander 13 Productivity 4, 55-6 High Technology 2,5,16,161-206 Public Corporations 124, Honda 29, 66, 104-18 211-14 Hong Kong 23 Ruling Triad 27-8, 40-2 Hungary 1, 2, 15 Savings Rate 2,219-24 Trade Policy 3,4,7-11,16, IBM 30, 63, 88, 174-6, 177-9, 19-23,25-42, 43-5, 46-77, 182-3, 202-3 79-99,119-59,210-16,207-54 India 133 Window Guidance 34,212 Ishihara, Shintaro 4 Japan Communist Party 6, 52 Israel 144 Japan Defense Agency 189 Italy 1, 113, 121 Japan Development Bank 34,82, 83, 94, 95, 104, 129, 166, 212, Japan 223 Amakudari 41-2,50,70-1,96, Japan Export-Import Bank 166, 210-11 212,223 Administrative Guidance 36, Japan Socialist Party 6, 52 80,82, 110-12, 142, 164-5 Cartel Policy 4, 6-7, 8, 26, 29, Katayama, Tetsuo 129 30,50-5,58-61,64-7,68, Koito Manufacturing Corporation 69-77,80-2,92-9,100-18, 9,30,66 164-5, 167-8, 177,223,250-1 Korean War 9, 103 296 Index

Labor Unions 31,40,41, 127, Ministry of Transportation 70-1, 130-1 83 Liberal Democratic Party 4,5, Mitsubishi Group 69-70,80, 105, 27,29,40-2,43-5,46,48-51, 133 52,63,69,70-1,76,213 Mitsui Group 80, 130, 133 Comprehensive Far Policy Mitterand, Francois 1 Research Committee 48-50 Morita, Akio 4, 26 Executive Committee 49 Policy Affairs Research Council Nakasone, Yasuhiro 71,132 42 Neoclassical Economic Policy 4, Policy Tribes 42 13-23,25-42,44,77,102-3,115, Rice Price Council 49-50 119-22,158-9,176-7 List, Friedrich 16 Neomercantilist Economic Policy 4, 14-23, 25-42, 44, 77, 102-3, Machine Tools 6, 38, 89-99 115, 119-22, 158-9, 176-7 Japan Machine Tool Builders Netherlands 13 Association 93, 94-9 New Materials 88, 194-6 Machine Tool Laws 92, 94-6 Nippon Keizai Shimbun Surveys Mass Media 48 9,61,189 Middle East 137, 141-53 Nippon Telephone and Telegraph Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, 165, 196-9 and Fisheries 48, 50, 52, 59 Nippon Steel 80-1, 86-9 Ministry of Commerce and Nissan 66,101-18 Industry 91-2, 100-2, 123, Nixon, Richard 53, 57 127-8, 139-41 Nomura Securities 87 Ministry of Construction 70, 71, North America 1, 46 74,75,76 Ministry of Education 165-6, 174, Organization of Economic 189 Co-operation and Development Ministry of Finance 34, 41, 50, 28,41,107,124,143,223 54, 66, 110-12, 125, 136, 142, Organization of Petroleum 164, 165, 167, 208-55 Exporting Countries 49, 57-8, Ministry of Foreign Affairs 71 85, 110, 112, 127, 145-8 Ministry of Health and Welfare 218,228 Pickens, T. Boone 9, 30, 66 Ministry of International Trade and Poland 1,2 Industry 17,21,30,31-5,38-9, Postal Savings System 51,225-6 41-2,50,63-4,66-7,79-84, 87,88,90-9,103-18,123-59, Raw Materials 83, 153-9 163-5,174,176-83,212,222-4 Reagan, Ronald 13, 59, 74-6, 98, Agency fOT Industrial Science 114-18,187,195,208 and Technology 136 Recruit Scandal 29, 42, 44 Industrial Structure Council 41 Research and Development 10, Small and Medium Sized 54,55,98, 164, 167-71, 195 Agency 31,63,70 Ricardo, David 16, 33 Ministry of Labor 87 Robots 2, 5, 98 Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications 165, 189, Science and Technology Agency 197,213,228 123, 132-5, 165, 193, 195 Index 297

Semiconduetors 2, 16, 20, 88, Textiles 39 183-8 Toyo Kogyo 110-12 Shipbuilding 5, 6, 25, 43, Toyota 9,30,65-6,101-18 83 Turkey 28 Smith, Adam 13-14,15,33 Sony 4, 9, 29, 30 United Nations 13 South Asia 1 United States 1,2,9, 13,28,37, South Korea 22, 26, 68, 79, 86, 62-3,65,81,83,86,89,97,99, 89 132 Soviet Union 1, 134 Oeeupation (Japan) Poliey 9, South Afriea 134 47-8, 93, 102-3, 125-6, 128-9, Spain 28, 121 140, 209, 220-3 Steel 5, 6, 16, 20, 22, 43, 79-89 Trade Poliey 3,8,9-10, 16, 19, Iron and Steel Federation 80, 20-1,22,23,45,50,53,56,57-61, 82 66-7, 72-7, 83-5, 97-9, Sumitomo Group 69-70, 80, 88, 112-18,132-5,144-5,161-2, 110-12,133 167-76, 161-206,207-54 Supreme Court 62 Switzerland 98, 121 West Germany 1,2,3,8, 10,22, 28, 62, 65, 98, 99, 113, 116, 121, Takeshita 70, 74 169 Taiwan 98 Teleeommunieations 196-9 Yugoslavia 15