KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION KO Contents

Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4

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Official Quarterly Journal of the International Society for Knowledge Organization ISSN 0943 – 7444 International Journal devoted to Concept Theory, Classification, Indexing and Knowledge Representation

Contents

Introduction Tennis, Joseph T. Two Axes of Domains for Hjørland, Birger, and Jenna Hartel. Introduction Domain Analysis...... 191 to a Special Issue on Domain Analysis...... 125 Zins, Chaim, and David Guttman. Domain Analysis of Social Work: An Example of an Integrated Methodological Approach...... 196

Articles Albrechtsen, Hanne, and Annelise Mark Pejtersen. Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design Ørom, Anders. Knowledge Organization in the of Classification Schemes ...... 213 Domain of Art Studies – History, Transition and Hartel, Jenna. The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library Conceptual Changes...... 128 and Information Science: Hobby Domains...... 228 Abrahamsen, Knut Tore. Indexing of Musical Genres: An Epistemological Perspective ...... 144

Sundin, Olof. Towards an Understanding of Afterword Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information: An Analysis of the Nursing Knowledge Domain...... 170 Hjørland, Birger, and Jenna Hartel. Ontological, Gazan, Rich. Metadata as a Realm of Translation: Epistemological and Sociological Dimensions of Merging Knowledge Domains in the Design of an Domains ...... 239 Environmental Information System ...... 182

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Contents page

Ørom, Anders. (2003). Knowledge Organization in the courses. The classical music subdomain and the popular Domain of Art Studies – History, Transition and Con- music subdomain are introduced and related to libraries. ceptual Changes. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 128- The article further investigates the concept of “paradigm” 143. 38 refs. in relation to musicology. It demonstrates how two different paradigms influence the way music is defined, de- ABSTRACT: The article is an analysis of some aspects of scribed, classified and indexed and how they are part of a knowledge organization in the domain of the arts, espe- historical context. The fourth part of the article focuses on cially visual art. The analysis indicates that different so- the concept of genre and the analysis of music and the rela- cially and historically embedded discourses on art, includ- tion between analytical methods and values/paradigms. In ing pre-paradigmatic studies and scholarly paradigms, per- addition, this part focuses on the actors that are responsi- vade knowledge organization in the art institution at three ble for the verbalization of genres in music. The fifth part levels, respectively: 1. Art exhibitions, 2. Primary and terti- examines indexing of musical genres with a view to their ary document types (printed, audio-visual, and multimedia function as subject access points in databases. The unsatis- documents), and 3. Classification systems, bibliographies, factory state of today’s practice as well as the need of a and thesauri. The article presents three paradigms in art better theoretical foundation of the concept of genre is scholarship (iconographic, stylistic and materialistic) and documented. The unsatisfactory differentiation in the or- analyzes in which way, and to what extent, these paradigms ganising of popular music is exemplified by Danish and are integrated in the taxonomies of the LCC, DDC, UDC, Norwegian libraries, including the DK5 system and the and Soviet BBK classification systems. The paper also ad- Indeksering af musik guidelines. Finally, arguments are put dresses the relationship among paradigms, principles for forward for developing an anthropological paradigm in re- exhibiting works of art, ways of conceptualising and orga- lation to organizing music in libraries. nizing the content in documents on art history, and LIS knowledge organization systems. It is concluded that the UDC, in particular, is well suited for representation of knowledge produced in the contexts of pre-paradigmatic, Sundin, Olof. (2003). Towards an Understanding of Sym- iconological, and stylistic studies. But documents by the bolic Aspects of Professional Information: An Analysis so-called “New” art scholars drawing on interdisciplinary of the Nursing Knowledge Domain. Knowledge Organi- studies and representing “new” approaches and paradigms zation, 30(3/4). 170-181. 50 refs. break with the taxonomies on art in the “classical” hierarchical, universal classification systems. A step towards a ABSTRACT: The aim of this article is to contribute to the solution of problems caused by this break is a polyhierar- development of the domain analytical approach by using chical thesaurus such as the Art & Architecture Thesaurus. tools from the theory of professions. This is accomplished by showing how the symbolic values of professional information can create, sustain, and alter professional interests, power relations, and occupational identities. By taking Abrahamsen, Knut Tore. (2003). Indexing of Musical this approach, the importance of considering the issues of Genres. An Epistemological Perspective. Knowledge Or- power and knowledge use as a social practice is highlighted ganization, 30(3/4). 144-169. 58 refs. – two themes that only to a certain extent have been attended to within domain analysis. The aim is accomplished ABSTRACT: This article sets out to investigate genre as a through a study of nursing literature that reveals how pro- basic criterion in subject indexing of music in libraries and fessional information is regarded within the Swedish nurs- bibliographical databases. The concept of genre is exam- ing profession. These are analyzed in relation to changes ined in relation to epistemology and to different values and and development within the profession’s applied knowl- views in both musicology and libraries. The point of depar- edge domain over time. It is argued that the knowledge ture is to regard music as a domain of actors, institutions domain of nursing has shifted from a primarily practical and processes. A comprehensive definition of this domain orientation towards an increasingly theoretical orientation. is suggested, which includes several subdomains and dis- Its previous subordination to medical expertise has been Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4

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replaced by an aspiration towards professional autonomy. Zins, Chaim and David Guttman. (2003). Domain Analy- This shift is seen as a result of a professional strategy sis of Social Work: An Example of an Integrated Meth- where the specialist literature, libraries and databases of the odological Approach. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). occupational community play an important symbolic role. 196-212. 41 refs.

ABSTRACT: This study exemplifies an integrated methodological approach to domain analysis. The study ana- Gazan, Rich. (2003). Metadata as a Realm of Translation: lyzes the field of social work. It is aimed at developing a Merging Knowledge Domains in the Design of an Envi- systematic, comprehensive, and scientifically valid knowl- ronmental Information System. Knowledge Organization, edge map, and its applicability as an efficient tool to ade- 30(3/4). 182-190. 26 refs. quately represent knowledge in the field. The map is composed of seven parts: foundation (meta-knowledge), social ABSTRACT: Bringing together document collections in worker, environment, organization, area of practice, merged information resources is becoming more common, method, and client. The study followed a qualitative four- but presents the problem of integrating content and meta- phase research methodology. The first phase was a phe- data that have been created in different knowledge do- nomenological analysis of the basic characteristics of social mains, using different classification schemes. This paper work as a social service. The analysis resulted in a seven- describes how a multidisciplinary team attempted to inte- facet subject classification. In the second phase the con- grate metadata structures from several different collections ceptual skeleton was elaborated, and adjusted to the field in the development of an environmental information sys- of social work by a grounded-theory methodology. The tem. The results of this qualitative study suggest that data used for grounding the model were 14 social work re- though designers and users from diverse backgrounds sources. The model was tested in the third phase by classi- could conceptualize and articulate the potential new fying 200 terms randomly selected from the Dictionary of knowledge the merged system might reveal, the perceived Social Work (Barker, 1999). Finally, in the fourth phase we informational value of different access points varied with classified 197 papers published in two leading journals, So- disciplinary membership, and the compromises forced by cial Work and Social Service Review, in three successive this merged collection created barriers and missed oppor- years, 1997, 1998, and 1999. This exemplary study has im- tunities for the creation of new knowledge. However, peo- plications for domain analysis. The paper discusses these ple with a variety of backgrounds were able to contribute implications. to negotiations about metadata decisions, suggesting that this may be a key realm of translation between diverse individuals in future collaborative environments. Conse- quences for domain-specific knowledge organization, and Albrechtsen, Hanne and Annelise Mark Pejtersen. (2003). for a translation and integration role for those in the field Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design of of information science, are discussed. Classification Schemes. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 213-227. 52 refs.

ABSTRACT: Work centered design of classification Tennis, Joseph T.. (2003). Two Axes of Domains for Do- schemes is an emerging area of research which poses par- main Analysis. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 191-195. ticular challenges to domain analysis and scheme construc- 18 refs. tion. A key challenge in work centered design of classification schemes is the evolving semantics of work. This article ABSTRACT: This paper adds two analytical devices to introduces a work centered approach to the design of clas- domain analysis, claiming that for domain analysis to work sification schemes, based on the framework of cognitive cumulatively transferable definitions of domains must be work analysis. We launch collaborative task situations as a written. To establish this definition the author provides new unit of analysis for capturing evolving semantic struc- two axes to consider: Areas of Modulation and Degrees of tures in work domains. An example case from a cognitive Specialization. These axes may serve as analytical devices work analysis of three national film research archives illus- for the domain analyst to delineate what is being studied trates the application of the framework for identifying ac- and what is not being studied in a domain analysis. tors’ needs for a classification scheme to support collabo- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4

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rative knowledge integration. It is concluded that a main tionships are, for example, forms of philosophical realism contribution of the new approach is support for empirical and social constructivism. In this paper these concepts and analysis and overall design of classification schemes that theories are introduced, and their implications for knowl- can serve as material interfaces for actors’ negotiations and edge organization outlined, with illustrations drawn from integration of knowledge perspectives during collaborative this special issue of Knowledge Organization. work.

Hartel, Jenna. (2003). The Serious Leisure Frontier in Li- brary and Information Science: Hobby Domains. Knowl- edge Organization, 30(3/4). 228-238. 45 refs.

ABSTRACT: The library and information studies (LIS) field conducts a minority of research into leisure realms while favoring scholarly and professional contexts as subjects. Such is the case despite compelling evidence of the desirability and profundity of leisure in human life. This article introduces one popular form of leisure, hobbies, as a potentially provocative topic for LIS scholarship. To facilitate research on information within hobbies, the article discusses two conceptual devices. Serious leisure (Stebbins, 1982) describes essential characteristics of leisure, establishes that some types are information-rich, and provides a framework to study leisure systematically. The collectivist theory of domain analysis (Hjørland and Albrechtsen, 1995) orients research to the hobby milieu and its objective information forms, recasting them as “hobby domains.” As an example of the application of both devices, a case study is reviewed of the information resources in the hobby of cooking. The article closes with a call to action and suggested research program for the study of hobbies in LIS.

Hjørland, Birger, and Jenna Hartel. (2003). Afterword: Ontological, Epistemological and Sociological Dimen- sions of Domains. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 239- 245. 30 refs.

ABSTRACT: Domains are basically constituted of three kinds of theories and concepts: (1) ontological theories and concepts about the objects of human activity; (2) epistemological theories and concepts about knowledge and the ways to obtain knowledge, implying methodological principles about the ways objects are investigated; and (3)

sociological concepts about the groups of people con-

cerned with the objects. There are complicated relations

between these elements. Basic theories about those rela- This contents page may be reproduced without charge. Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4

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The more scientific data is generated in the impetuous Thus, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION is meant to present times, the more ordering energy needs to be expended be a programme for the improvement of classification meth- to control these data in a retrievable fashion. With the abun- ods and processes, a forum for discussion for all those inter- dance of knowledge now available the questions of new solu- ested in the organization of knowledge on a universal or a tions to the ordering problem and thus of improved classifica- subject-field scale, using concept-analytical and/or concept- tion systems, methods and procedures have acquired unfore- synthetical approaches as well as numerical procedures and seen significance. For many years now they have been the fo- comprising also the intellectual and automatic compilation cus of interest of information scientists the world over. and use of classification systems and thesauri in all fields of Until recently, the special literature relevant to classifica- knowledge, with special attention being given to the problems tion was published in piecemeal fashion, scattered over the of terminology. numerous technical journals serving the experts of the various KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION publishes original fields such as articles, reports on conferences and similar communications, the Newsletters of the International Society for Knowledge Organization (ISKO News) and the Committee on Classifi- philosophy and science of science cation Research of the International Federation for Informa- science policy and science organization tion and Documentation (FID/CR News) as well as book re- mathematics, statistics and computer science views, letters to the editor, and an extensive annotated bibliog- library and information science raphy of recent classification and indexing literature, covering archivistics and museology some 500 items in each issue. journalism and communication science KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION should therefore be industrial products and commodity science available at every university and research library of every coun- terminology, lexicography and linguistics try, at every information center, at colleges and schools of library and information science, in the hands of everybody interested in the fields mentioned above and thus also at every Beginning in 1974, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION office for updating information on any topic related to the (formerly INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION) has problems of order in our information-flooded times. been serving as a common platform for the discussion of both KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION was founded in theoretical background questions and practical application 1973 by an international group of scholars with a consulting problems in many areas of concern. In each issue experts from board of editors representing the world’s regions, the special many countries comment on questions of an adequate struc- classification fields, and the subject areas involved. From turing and construction of ordering systems and on the prob- 1974-1980 it was published by K.G. Saur Verlag, München. lems of their use in opening the information contents of new Back issues of 1978-1992 are available from ERGON-Verlag, literature, of data collections and survey, of tabular works and too. of other objects of scientific interest. Their contributions have As of 1989, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION has be- been concerned with come the official organ of the INTERNATIONAL SOCI- ETY FOR KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION (ISKO) and is included for every ISKO-member, personal or institu- (1) clarifying the theoretical foundations (general ordering tional in the membership fee (US $ 55/US $ 110). theory/science, theoretical bases of classification, data Rates: From 2001 on for 4 issues/ann. (including indexes) analysis and reduction) € 98,- (forwarding costs included). Membership rates see (2) describing practical operations connected with index- above. ing/classification, as well as applications of classification ERGON-Verlag, Grombühlstr. 7, GER-97080 Würzburg; systems and thesauri, manual and machine indexing Phone: +49 (931) 280084; FAX +49 (931) 282872; E-mail: (3) tracing the history of classification knowledge and [email protected]; http://www.ergon-verlag.de methodology The contents of this journal are indexed and abstracted in Refera- (4) discussing questions of education and training in classi- tivnyi Zhurnal Informatika and in the following online databases: fication Information Science Abstracts, INSPEC, Library and Information (5) concerning themselves with the problems of terminol- Science Abstracts (LISA), Library Literature, PASCAL, Sociologi- ogy in general and with respect to special fields. cal Abstracts, and Web Science & Social Sciences Citation Index. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 125 B. Hjørland, J. Hartel: Introduction to a Special Issue of Knowledge Organization

Introduction to a Special Issue of Knowledge Organization

Birger Hjørland and Jenna Hartel

It is with very great pleasure that we introduce this of human experience unex- special issue of Knowledge Organization on Domain plored. Secondly, that there is Analysis (DA). Domain analysis is an approach to a lack of case studies illustrat- information science (IS) that emphasizes the social, ing the methods of domain historical, and cultural dimensions of information. It analytic empirical research. asserts that collective fields of knowledge, or “do- Importantly, this special col- mains,” form the unit of analysis of information sci- lection marks progress by ad- ence (IS). DA, elsewhere referred to as a sociocogni- dressing both issues. In the ar- tive (Hjørland, 2002b; Jacob & Shaw, 1998) or col- ticles that follow, domains are lectivist (Talja et al, 2004) approach, is one of the perceived to be hobbies, pro- major metatheoretical perspectives available to IS fessions, and realms of popu- scholars to orient their thinking and research. DA’s lar culture. Further, other pa- focus on domains stands in contrast to the alterna- pers serve as models of differ- tive metatheories of cognitivism and information ent ways to execute domain systems, which direct attention to psychological analytic scholarship, whether processes and technological processes, respectively. through traditional empirical The first comprehensive international formulation methods, or historical and phi- of DA as an explicit point of view was Hjørland and losophical techniques. Albrechtsen (1995). However, a concern for infor- Eleven authors have con- mation in the context of a community can be traced tributed to this special issue, and their backgrounds back to American library historian and visionary reflect the diversity of interest in DA. Contributors Jesse Shera, and is visible a century ago in the earliest come from North America, Europe, and the Middle practices of special librarians and European docu- East. Academics from leading research universities mentalists. More recently, Hjørland (1998) produced are represented. One writer is newly retired, several a domain analytic study of the field of psychology; are in their heyday as scholars, and some are doctoral Jacob and Shaw (1998) made an important interpre- students just entering this field. This range of per- tation and historical review of DA; while Hjørland spectives enriches the collection. (2002a) offered a seminal formulation of eleven ap- The first two papers in this issue are invited papers proaches to the study of domains, receiving the and are, in our opinion, very important. Anders Ørom ASLIB 2003 Award. Fjordback Søndergaard; Ander- was a senior lecturer at the Royal School of Library sen and Hjørland (2003) suggested an approach and Information Science in Denmark, Aalborg based on an updated version of the UNISIST-model Branch. He retired from this position on March 1, of scientific communication. In fall 2003, under the 2004, and this paper is his last contribution in this po- conference theme of “Humanizing Information sition. We are grateful that he took the time to com- Technology” DA was featured in a keynote address plete “Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art at the annual meeting of the American Society for Studies – History, Transition and Conceptual Changes” Information Science and Technology (Hjørland, in spite of many other duties. Versions of the paper 2004). These publications and events are evidence of have previously been presented at a Ph.D-course in growth in representation of the DA view. knowledge organization and related versions have To date, informal criticism of domain analysis has been published in Danish and Spanish. In many re- followed two tracks. Firstly, that DA assumes its spects, it represents a model of how a domain could, communities to be academic in nature, leaving much or should, be investigated from the DA point of view. 126 Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 B. Hjørland, J. Hartel: Introduction to a Special Issue of Knowledge Organization

It uncovers the main theoretical influences that have studies, but focuses on work groups rather than lit- affected the representation of art in systems of eratures. It claims that deep semantic structures rele- knowledge organization such as LCC, DDC, UDC vant to classification evolve dynamically in work and the Art & Architecture Thesaurus, and it pro- groups. Its empirical method is different from Zins vides a deep basis for evaluating such systems. & Guttmann’s. Future research must further un- Knut Tore Abrahamsen’s “Indexing of Musical cover the relative strengths and weaknesses of litera- Genres. An Epistemological Perspective” is a modified tures versus people in the construction of knowledge version of a thesis written at the Royal School of Li- organizing systems. brary and Information Science in Copenhagen. As a Jenna Hartel’s: “The Serious Leisure Frontier in thesis it is a major achievement which successfully Library and Information Science: Hobby Domains” combines knowledge of music, epistemology, and expands DA to the field of “everyday information knowledge organization. This paper may also be seen use” and demonstrates that most of the approaches as an example of how domains can be analyzed and suggested by Hjørland (2002a) may also be relevant how knowledge organization may be improved in to this field. practice. We would like to thank Sanna Talja of the Finally, Birger Hjørland & Jenna Hartel’s “After- University of Tampere, among other people, for in- word: Some Basic Issues Related to the Notion of a put on this piece. Domain” suggests that the notions of ontology, epis- And now to the rest of the issue: temology, and sociology may be three fundamental Olof Sundin’s “Towards an Understanding of Sym- dimensions of domains and that these perspectives bolic Aspects of Professional Information: an Analysis may clarify what domains are and the dynamics of of the Nursing Knowledge Domain” contributes to their development. DA by introducing a deeper understanding of the While this special issue marks great progress, and notion of professions and by uncovering how in the zenith of DA to date, the approach remains some domains, “symbolic” functions of information emergent and there is still much work to be done. may be more important than instrumental functions. We see the need for ongoing domain analytic re- Rich Gazan’s: “Metadata as a Realm of Translation: search along two paths. Remarkably, to our knowl- Merging Knowledge Domains in the Design of an En- edge no domain has been thoroughly studied in the vironmental Information System” demonstrates the domain analytic view. The first order, then, is rigor- problems of merging data collections in interdisci- ous application of DA to multiple domains. Second, plinary fields, when the perceived informational theoretical and methodological gaps presently exist; value of different access points varies with discipli- these are opportunities for creative inventors to con- nary membership. This is important for the design of tribute original extensions to the approach. We systems of metadata. warmly invite all readers to seriously engage with Joe Tennis’: “Two Axes of Domains for Domain these articles, whether as critics, spectators, or par- Analysis” suggests that the notion of domain is un- ticipants in the domain analytic project. derdeveloped in DA. Tennis states, “Hjørland has provided a hammer, but where are the nails?” In ad- References dition he raises a question concerning the degree of specialization within a domain. He resolves these is- Fjordback Søndergaard, T.; Andersen, J. & Hjørland, sues by proposing two new “axes” to DA. B. (2003). Documents and the communication of Chaim Zins & David Guttmann’s: “Domain scientific and scholarly information. Revising and Analysis of Social Work: An Example of an Integrated updating the UNISIST model. Journal of Docu- Methodological Approach” represents an empirical ap- mentation, 59(3), 278-320. proach to the construction of knowledge maps based Jacob, E.K., & Shaw, D. (1998). Sociocognitive per- on representative samples of the literature on social spectives on representation. In M. E. Williams work. In a way, this paper is the most traditional or (Ed.), Annual Review of Information Science and straightforward approach to knowledge organization Technology, vol. 33 (pp. 131-185). Medford, NJ: in the issue: It suggests a concrete classification based Information Today for the American Society for on scientific norms of representation and objectivity. Information Science. Hanne Albrechtsen & Annelise Mark Pejtersen’s: Hjørland, B. (1998). The classification of psychology: “Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design A case study in the classification of a knowledge of Classification Schemes” is also based on empirical field. Knowledge Organization, 24(4), 162-201. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 127 B. Hjørland, J. Hartel: Introduction to a Special Issue of Knowledge Organization

Hjørland, B. (2002a). Domain analysis in informa- formation Science and Technology. Vol. 30, No. 3, tion science. Eleven approaches – traditional as http://www.asis.org/Bulletin/Feb-04/hjorland.html well as innovative. Journal of Documentation, Hjørland, B. & Albrechtsen, H. (1995). Toward a 58(4), 422-462. new horizon in information science: Domain Hjørland, B. (2002b). Epistemology and the Socio- analysis. Journal of the American Society for In- Cognitive Perspective in Information Science. formation Science, 1995, 46(6), 400-425. Journal of the American Society for Information Talja, S.; Tuominen, K. & Savolainen, R. (2004). Science and Technology, 53(4), 257-270. “Isms” in information science: Constructivism, Hjørland, B. (2004). Domain Analysis: A Socio- collectivism and constructionism. Paper to appear Cognitive Orientation for Information Science in Journal of Documentation. Research. Bulletin of the American Society for In-

128 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies – History, Transition and Conceptual Changes

Anders Ørom

Danmarks Biblioteksskole, Sohngaardsholmsvej 2, DK 9000 Aalborg, E-mail: [email protected]

Anders Ørom is an associate professor at the Danish Royal School of Library and Information Sci- ence, Department of Cultural and Media Studies. Among his teaching and research interests are the history of European, Cuban and Mexican libraries in a cultural context, the epistemological foundation of information science, as well as subject literature and knowledge organization in the humanities, primarily in the field of visual media.

Ørom, Anders. (2003). Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies – History, Transi- tion and Conceptual Changes. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 128-143. 38 refs.

ABSTRACT: The article is an analysis of some aspects of knowledge organization in the domain of the arts, especially visual art. The analysis indicates that different socially and historically embedded discourses on art, including pre-paradigmatic studies and scholarly paradigms, pervade knowledge organization in the art institution at three levels, respectively: 1. Art exhibitions, 2. Primary and tertiary document types (printed, audio-visual, and multimedia documents), and 3. Classification systems, bibliographies, and thesauri. The article presents three paradigms in art scholarship (iconographic, stylistic and materialistic) and analyzes in which way, and to what extent, these paradigms are integrated in the taxonomies of the LCC, DDC, UDC, and So- viet BBK classification systems. The paper also addresses the relationship among paradigms, principles for exhibiting works of art, ways of conceptualising and organizing the content in documents on art history, and LIS knowledge organization systems. It is concluded that the UDC, in particular, is well suited for representation of knowledge produced in the contexts of pre- paradigmatic, iconological, and stylistic studies. But documents by the so-called “New” art scholars drawing on interdisciplinary studies and representing “new” approaches and paradigms break with the taxonomies on art in the “classical” hierarchical, universal classification systems. A step towards a solution of problems caused by this break is a polyhierarchical thesaurus such as the Art & Architecture Thesaurus.

1. Introduction demonstrate the ways in which the discourses and paradigms – or approaches – pervade knowledge or- This article analyzes aspects of knowledge organiza- ganization in the art institution, the history of the art tion in the domain of visual art with special emphasis institution is sketched. Three paradigms in art schol- on painting. The article starts with a brief review of arship (the iconographic, the stylistic and the materi- relevant literature. Next, three levels of knowledge alist) are discussed. Then, the classes on art in three organization in art institutions are presented: 1. Art universal classification systems (DDC, LCC, and the exhibitions, 2. Primary and tertiary document types Soviet BBK) are analyzed. To conclude, the article (printed, audio-visual, and multimedia documents), explores the difficulties in knowledge representation and 3. Classification systems, bibliographies, caused by the “new” art history. This alternative thesauri, (and other secondary document types). A paradigm can be shown to conflict with the ”"natu- basic assumption is that historically determined dis- ral” way of understanding and conceptualising art courses on art and paradigms in art scholarship per- represented in art exhibition practice, art scholarship, vade all three levels of knowledge organization, and Library and Information Science (LIS) knowl- though there are differences from level to level. To edge organization. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 129 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

2. Knowledge organization and the domain of art heavily dependent on Dewey’s general division studies of knowledge as reflected in his entire scheme; and the LC schemes for specific types of art This brief review of literature on knowledge organiza- such as printmaking, following the general tion in the domain of art studies, focuses on analysis scheme for Art which in turn is similar to the of classification systems for literature and other ma- schemes for other disciplines. (Clarke 1976, 3) terials on art in an historical and scholarly context. The emphasis excludes the growing literature on The core problem identified is that the overall struc- knowledge representation and organization of im- ture of LCC and DDC as reflected in the construc- ages. Special attention is paid to analysis and reflection of respectively the classes N and 700 in some tions on historical factors influencing the conceptions aspects “contradict” the conceptual structures in the of the classification systems and the conceptual struc- art domain. In the context of literature on art history tures in the scholarly domain, versus general classifi- there is no general contradiction between classifiers cation theory and universal classification systems. and art scholars due to the historical character of the Related to the latter, of interest is the influence of (classical) art studies: scholarly paradigms in the domain on the conceptual structures of classification systems. The review covers Art historical research, like all historical re- only the last three decades and takes the special issue search, is based on the coordinates of geogra- of ARLIS/NA: Library Classification Systems and phy and chronology (space and time). These the Visual Arts as a starting point (Bostick & Mandel coordinates underlie the concept of “style” and 1975, Clarke 1976, Schimansky, 1976). determine the contexts of works of art. The Analysis of the relationship between knowledge classification scheme usually chooses either ge- organization and art studies in the 1970s focused ography or chronology as an initial structure foremost on the needs of users within their profes- and modifies it with the other coordinate. (Bos- sional contexts as art scholars, creative artists or oth- tick & Mandel 1976, 2) ers. The research aimed to enhance the knowledge organization systems. Bostick and Mandel underline On the other hand, Bostick and Mandel find the di- that the classification systems depend on the concep- vision by medium in the LCCS problematic because tions and practices of the scholars and the users in the users in general are interested in the works of an the domain: artist regardless of whether the works are in different media or not. Such works on individual authors, pe- Art research is characterized by an abundance riods, and styles or artistic movements are separated of methodologies, and our classification sys- by the classification schemes. This division, accord- tems can only be as systematic as our authors ing to media, is also seen as problematic in the sepa- and our readers. (Bostick & Mandel 1976, 1) ration of Decorative Arts from Fine Arts because some historical movements (such as Rococo and Art This means that the classification system for litera- Nouveau) have found their expressions in the Deco- ture on the arts is understood in a domain context. rative Arts. The classification system is influenced by the publi- In the context of this article it is interesting that cations and their use within the domain. Clarke also Bostick & Mandel point to the specific needs of a expresses the importance of art scholarship for clas- scholar of Iconography whose interests cross the sification. In dealing with universal classification sys- special subjects section. (Bostick & Mandel, 3). Ico- tems she calls attention to a basic problem, namely a nography (or the iconographic paradigm) is one of kind of contradiction between the classifiers and the the classical paradigms in the domain (cf. 6.1). The art scholars: two authors express that a user who is a scholar in Iconography has needs specific to the paradigm to The two library schemes mentioned above which he belongs. Schimansky (1976) emphasises a (LCC and DDC) were not specifically devel- typical feature in art scholarship and in the humani- oped by art historians but by classifiers, and ties in general: the development of new concepts that they especially reflect the schemes for other change the scholarly framework. Analysing the Met- disciplines in their respective systems. There- ropolitan Museum of Art Library Classification Sys- fore, the Art classification scheme in DDC is tems she writes: 130 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

New art terms make it imperative to replace the Ferrari points to the historical origin of universal outdated terms in the classification, and recent classifications systems and the four alternate classifi- art movements and techniques require the en- cation systems for art and design libraries in his ex- larging of some sections. (Schimansky 1976, 5) planation of some features: Medium versus history/ ethnicity. In the 1980s there was little focus on these problems. An article of Molholt and Petersen (1993) refers to One must keep in mind that art movements the special issue of ARLIS/NA and has its main fo- such as “Renaissance” and “Rococo” were cus on the Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT) as terms being used for the first time in the late- a bridging mechanism between the manifestations of nineteenth century academe. Hence for early visual arts and the different organizations (museums, classification systems such as DDC, LCC, and libraries) that serve the viewers of art. To some ex- the first of the three alternate classifications sy- tent this article represents a shift in focus from the stems discussed here (the Toledo Museum of organization of documents on art to the representa- Art Library Classification system), the focus tion and organization of images in electronic image was on medium. (Ferrari 1999, 91) bases. However, the article also treats the construction of this thesaurus and its hermeneutic horizon. Ferrari explains historically why the main division of The AAT “represents a view of the world, an aggre- the classes on art in the DDC and the LCC is by gate view of experts, but a view nonetheless.” (Mol- media and not by time (movements, style). Ferrari holt & Petersen 1993, 31). From the experience that and Molholt and Petersen (1993) are used as a start- there has been no need for changing the original ing point to present general and universal systems of structure of the AAT during a decade they conclude: knowledge organization as products or “reflections” “This may suggest that there is a commonly agreed of historically developed concepts and conceptual way, for purposes of description, to talk/think about structures. Concepts from different historical peri- visual art, a pathway if you will.” (Molholt & Peter- ods – and different points of view - are woven to- sen 1993, 32). The implicit idea seems to be that the gether in classification schemes and other systems of different groups of art scholars who have contrib- knowledge organization. In this sense classification uted to the thesaurus have an integrated common schemes are products of “bricolage” processes in conception of the scholarly domain of art studies. which they have been marked by certain worldviews, Among many other aspects of art librarianship conceptions from different stages in the history of Wyngaard (1993) deals with classification. She ana- the art institution and different scholarly or scientific lyzes some differences and similarities between the paradigms. The term “bricolage” is one of the key DDC and the LCC at a general level. One aspect concepts in the French anthropologist Claude Lévi- analyzed is the implicit concept of art as it can be Strauss’ “The Savage Mind” (La Pensée Sauvage). seen in the main classes 700 and N. DDC distin- “Bricolage” is the work of the mythical artist – of the guishes between Useful Arts (600) and Fine Arts “bricoleur” whose (700). LCC includes the majority of the visual arts in class N while it “excludes” aesthetics from this class. materials are (…) the debris of culture, the lan- Another aspect is the criteria for the major divisions. guage and the traditions of the tribe, the myths Both classification systems describe the class paint- and beliefs of that tribe, the outer world and all ing by subject (of the painting such as portrait), time it contains, but all of this is available only in its period, technique, style, nationality, and a combina- preconstrained’ state. (Lévi-Strauss, 1969, 511) tion of these. (Wyngaard 1993, 9-10). Her analysis does not go into further detail. “Bricolage” is generally defined in anthropology and Roberto Ferrari (1999) analyzes and compares the sociology as: “a composite construction made out of DDC and the LCC systems mutually and with four bits and pieces’ (similar to a collage), this term is alternate classification systems developed by special used to describe how texts are made out of bits and art and design libraries. The analysis treats the func- pieces of culture, history, language, and others texts tional and pragmatic aspects of the use of these clas- ….”2 In this meaning classification systems are prod- sification systems in art libraries. That both the ucts of a “bricolage” process. Their apparently logical DDC and the LCC are too general for special art li- taxonomies “hide” that they are products of such braries has caused the need for alternate systems. processes. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 131 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

According to Pauline Rafferty, and relevant to the the art institution is treated rather briefly, partly as a problem stated by Clarke, the worldview inherent in historical sketch, partly as a description of art exhibi- general and universal classification systems can be tions as a level of knowledge organization. analyzed at the level of the main classes and the gen- This analysis of knowledge organization in the eral principles. Rafferty writes: context of the scholarly domain of art studies takes as a starting point, Hjørland (2002). Hjørland states Method, order and objectivity, which carry with that domain analysis should always include three or them the connotations of “science,” are four of eleven approaches. Of the eleven approaches, achieved in the general library classification this article concentrates on a) historical studies of scheme through the rational structures and the domain (the historical study of categories, con- conventions of Main Classes which assert cepts, contexts and knowledge organization), b) forms of logical taxonomy, and through artifi- analysis of discourses, symbol systems and “technical cially constructed symbols which bear with language,” and to a lesser extent c) document and them connotations of algebraic languages. genre analysis (histories of art) and d) some index- These taxonomies are the product of rational, ing. A special emphasis is put on the incongruity be- and often pragmatic and functionalist world- tween the “traditional” and the “new” art history. views. (Rafferty 2001, 181) 4. Knowledge organization at three “levels” in the In this analysis, there is a difference between the art institution worldviews and paradigms that are “reflected” in the universal classification systems and the taxonomies Exhibitions of works of art are integrating parts of as described by Rafferty, above. In fact there is a kind the art institution. When works of art are presented of a contradiction between the “bricolage” of world- and situated in contexts, they become a kind of views and paradigms on the one side and the rational knowledge organization which takes place as an in- worldviews structuring the formal side of the taxon- stitutional practice. This will be called the institu- omy on the other side. The apparently logical tax- tional level of knowledge organization. There are onomies are constructed on the basis of rather het- two other levels in the scholarly domain of art: pres- erogeneous conceptual structures that are results of a entation of the subject matter in publications on art “bricolage” processes. and the level of knowledge organization as it is normally understood in LIS. 3. The art institution and the scholarly domain of art studies The three levels are “articulated” as follows. – Art exhibitions: the works of art are exhibited in The points of departure and the perspectives of this museums, in art galleries, in virtual museums, and article can briefly be sketched as follows: in pictorial databases according to specific criteria When dealing with art, there is a difference be- or codes. tween the art institution and the scholarly domain of – Document types (printed, audio-visual, and mul- art studies/art history. The concept of the art institu- timedia documents): the content of the docu- tion has two components. One is the whole range of ments is arranged according to (rather) specific persons (artists, art critics, art historians etc.), their patterns for presentation and understanding. activities (creating art, organizing expositions etc.), (Primary and tertiary document types). and the special institutions in which these activities – Classification systems, bibliographies, and thes- are taking place (academies of art, art museums, art auri (and other secondary document types). At editorials etc.). Further, there are the (historically de- this level, both the works of art (cf. Iconclass) and termined and competing) social and aesthetic values the documents are organized. underlying and governing these activities. The scholarly domain of art studies is an integrat- This article concentrates on exhibitions in, or ar- ing part of the art institution. Hence, this domain ranged by, art museums. Other types of exhibitions should be analyzed both in the context of the art in- (such as sales exhibitions) are created according to stitution and as a scholarly domain. This analysis of other criteria than those based on art scholarship. In knowledge organization dealing with art draws on general the physical and virtual exhibitions of the both of these interrelated contexts. The context of permanent collections in the art museums are ar- 132 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

ranged in more traditional ways. Much experimenta- the genius and the achievement of the individual. tion with the organization and presentation of art The basic narrative structure in these “vite” is the works has taken place in the field of temporary exhi- story of the artist’s life (as indicated in the title) re- bitions. lated to the artist’s works of art. Today the most One general assumption is that historically deter- common document types in the art domain treat in- mined discourses on art pervade all three levels of dividual artists (biographies, monographs). Accord- knowledge organization. New discourses are first ing to the idea of the cycle, the Renaissance was a re- seen in exhibition practices of temporary exhibitions vival of the antiquity and a new peak in the history of and in primary document types. Later, these dis- culture. In other words, Vasari saw the High Renais- courses penetrate the tertiary documents and the sance as superior to Antiquity. This conception of knowledge representation systems. Though there has the Renaissance as the period of highest excellence is been a profound theoretical discussion and a radical still found in standard books on art history and in change in art scholarship during the last three dec- some classification schemes where it is “reflected” in ades, most popular documents on art are still con- the vast hierarchy of subdivisions. ceived according to the “natural” understanding of In 1664 the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculp- art with focus on the individual artist treated in a ture in Paris became a centralised institution that de- biographical and stylistic context. This “natural” un- veloped a doctrine for the theory and practice of derstanding of the art is the combined product of painting. A central element in this doctrine was the pre-paradigmatic ideas from the Renaissance and the hierarchy of motives. The most valuable motive was stylistic paradigm. the human being, i.e. biblical and mythological mo- The social and institutional practices of exhibiting tives. In a descending fashion came the portrait, the works of art, the codes of presentation in different landscape, living animals, and finally still life. This documents types, and the classification systems are taxonomy, (in fact an axiology), as well as a number mutually interrelated and marked by social values, of conceptual distinctions can be traced in the “bri- worldviews, scholarly paradigms and pre-paradigms. colages” of today’s classification schemes. Among Some examples are given in 6.1-6.2 and 6.4. those conceptual distinctions deriving from pre- paradigmatic studies of art are drawing versus colour, the different styles and schools of painting (later de- Art exhibitions veloped by the stylistic paradigm), the idea of connoisseurship, and Roger de Piles’ system for valua- tion of paintings consisting of four categories: composition, design, colouring and expression. Document types Classification systems The history of knowledge organization from the Renaissance and onwards shows how the arts and the study of art have been conceived in a universal Social values – worldviews – scholarly paradigms knowledge context. In “The Advancement of Learn- ing” (1605) Francis Bacon was not especially aware 5. A brief historical sketch of some aspects of the of the visual arts. Bacon’s atlas of human learning is art institution and of some conceptions of art based on the division of man’s understanding: relevant to knowledge organization The parts of human learning have reference to Though the modern concept of art was defined by the three parts of man’s understanding, which Baumgarten and Kant during the Enlightenment, it is the seat of learning: history to his memory, is relevant to go back to the Renaissance in order to poesy to his imagination, and philosophy to his trace some conceptions and document types that are reason. (Bacon 1965, 69) still important today. It is generally agreed that one of the pioneers of art history and art criticism is In the sections on history, the history of visual art Giorgio Vasari whose “Lives of the Painters” (Le vite, (in the modern sense) is not mentioned. Some art 1943-49) introduces a new era. In “Lives of the forms, music and architecture, are categorized under Painters” there are two basic conceptions: the bio- mixed mathematics. And in his treatment of “poesy” graphical treatment of the individual artist and the Bacon writes that “Poesy is a part of learning in idea of the cycle of cultural ages. Vasari focused on measure of words…” (Bacon 1965, 82). Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 133 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

It is well known that d’Alembert based his system Diderot,” the second part is an analysis of “the pro- of human knowledge in the “Preliminary discourse gress of the mind” from the Renaissance to d’Alem- to the encyclopaedia of Diderot” (originally pub- bert’s age, the Enlightenment, and this means that lished 1751) on a revised version of Bacon’s atlas. the idea of the cycle was substituted by the notion of With Locke’s theory of knowledge as the foundation, evolution. d’Alembert revised the order of the three parts of In the years following the revolution in 1789, human learning. Philosophical notions are “formed France occupied a key position in the development by the combination of primitive ideas.” (d’Alembert of modern museums. The intension was to save and 1995, 36). Poetry is another kind of “reflective communicate the “monuments” of the arts, and to knowledge”: affirm the power of science and reason. When the Louvre opened as an art museum for the people in It consists of the ideas which we create for our- 1793 the exhibition was organized according to selves by imagining and putting together beings chronology and geography – instead of aesthetic similar to those which are the object of our di- principles. These new principles of organization were rect ideas. (d’Alembert 1995, 37) expressions of the ideas of evolution and nationalism. The aim was to give the visitors an image of the From d’Alembert’s point of view, poetry presupposes progressive grandeur of the culture and especially of a more advanced mental operation than philosophy. the national culture. These principles have since been This is the reason why d’Alembert revises Bacon’s the most influential in museum exhibitions, histori- order of the faculties of human understanding and cal treatments of the arts and in classification sys- the system of human knowledge: history, philosophy, tems. and poetry. Concerning the arts, there is a radical dif- At the end of the Enlightenment some of the ference between Bacon and d’Alembert. D’Alem- main principles relevant to knowledge organization bert’s category of poetry brings together literary in the art institution were the ideas that art forms be- kinds/genres, music, architecture, painting, sculpture, long to categories, the division of art forms accord- and engraving. The subdivision of this category is ing to epistemological principles, and the concepts of based on whether the form of art “speaks” to the evolution and nationalism. Melvil Dewey used these senses, to the imagination, or to both. principles in the first edition of his Classification and Subject Index. Dewey incorporates new art forms Painting and Sculpture ought to be placed at the (Landscape Gardening, Photography and Amuse- head of that knowledge which consists of imita- ments) but the basic division corresponds with tion, because it is in those arts above all that d’Alembert’s. Dewey placed Literature in a separate imitation best approximates the objects repre- class following Fine Arts but this was in accordance sented and speaks most directly to the senses. with the principles used by d’Alembert. Dewey uses Architecture, that art which is born of necessity divisions in historical epochs (ancient and oriental, and perfected by luxury, can be added to those medieval and modern) and in national schools of two. …Poetry, which comes after Painting and painting (Flemish and Dutch schools, French, Ital- Sculpture, and which imitates merely by means ian), and Literature is basically divided according to of words disposed according to a harmony nations and languages. Besides these principles inher- agreeable to the ear, speaks to the imagination ited from the Enlightenment some earlier principles rather than to the senses. …Finally, music, and concepts are used by Dewey [i.e. Color (752), which speaks simultaneously to the imagination Portrait (757), Landscape (758) and Biography of and to the senses, holds the last place in the or- fine arts (927)]. In other words: Dewey’s epoch der of imitation –…(d’Alembert 1995, 37-38) making “Classification and Subject Index” is constructed as a “bricolage” system on the basis of con- D’Alembert’s analysis and subdivision of the cate- cepts and categories belonging to different historical gory of poetry is essential to the categorization of epochs. the arts in modern classification systems from Dewey and onwards. 6. Paradigms in art history and art scholarship Vasari’s Renaissance conception of the historical cycle was radically changed in the Enlightenment. In The first edition of Dewey’s Classification and Sub- the “Preliminary discourse to the encyclopaedia of ject Index was marked foremost by pre-paradigmatic 134 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

studies of the arts and of the philosophical theory of ism. Instead, it wishes to draw attention to how knowledge organization including Bacon and many artists represented address the same sub- d’Alembert (Muñiz, 2003). jects – subjects which are all associated with The “traditional” art history paradigms were de- modern life and existence. (The avant-garde, veloped from the late nineteenth century to the six- 2002, 7) ties of the twentieth century. These paradigms can analytically be divided in two main traditions. In this exhibition, as well as in “Symbolism in Dan- ish and European painting 1870-1910,” works of art 6.1 Cultural history and the iconographic paradigm are presented in a cultural context and interpreted in the exhibition catalogues and guides. The thematic The first paradigm is developed within the tradition principle is overriding. In “Symbolism in Danish and of cultural history going back to the Swiss historian European painting 1870-1910” there are five themes: Jacob Burckhardt (1818-97). Burckhardt aimed at Beauty and Death, The Greatness of Man and Na- describing the panorama of a whole age and “within ture, Silence till Death, Eros and Melancholy, and this panorama he set the visual arts at or near the The Prophets of Beauty. The painter’s nationality, centre of the defining characteristics of an age.” the art form, and the date of the exhibited works are (Fernie, 1995, 14). The originally German scholar subordinated to the themes. “The avant-garde” and Erwin Panofsky created his iconographical paradigm “Symbolism in Danish and European painting 1870- in the tradition of cultural history. The iconographic 1910” are, in a way, the iconographical paradigm put analysis (which included a stylistic analysis) aims at into exhibition practice. the interpretation of the intrinsic and symbolical In the monograph by Læssøe (2000) the main meaning of images. The interpretation of this intrin- structure of the presentation is historical but each of sic meaning is based on the study of contemporary the seven chapters contains iconographic interpreta- philosophy and literature. For instance, Poussin’s tions of works by individual artists. These interpreta- painting “Et in Arcadio ego” is interpreted as an ex- tions draw on literary, philosophical, pictorial, bio- pression of the idea of death around 1640. The focus graphical, and historical sources. To a certain extent, of this iconographic paradigm is allegorical and sym- Læssøe represents the iconographical paradigm but bolic in meaning. Panofsky studied the Renaissance he goes one step beyond it because the historical re- and the Baroque period. Works of art from these pe- ception of the works of art is an essential aspect of riods have a privileged status for the scholars belong- the analysis. The important point is that the themes ing to this paradigm. In general, the art-historical and the interpretations of the works are the organiz- tradition for cultural history (E.H. Gombrich) and ing principles. iconography focuses on high culture. Classification systems, bibliographies, and thes- The research object of the iconographic paradigm auri usually lack themes and iconographic interpreta- is the meaning of the works of art. In general, the tions at the higher levels in the taxonomies. Before meaning is interpreted in the cultural context of the making a brief analysis of this aspect, the concep- work- it means the intertextuality of the works of art tions of art and some general characteristics of the includes other cultural expressions. art classes are presented within the Library of Con- gress Classification System (LCC) and the Dewey 6.1.1 The iconographical paradigm and the three Decimal Classification System (DDC). “levels” of knowledge organization Class N in the LCC covers the visual arts with the exclusion of some decorative art forms (i.e. ceramics Some recent exhibitions at Statens Museum for and photography) and with the exclusion of some Kunst (The Danish National Gallery) have been or- aspects of primitive art and folk art. It means that the ganized according to themes. This is the case in the underlying understanding of art in the LCC is closer temporary exhibition “The avant-garde in Danish to the “traditional paradigms” than the DDC. In the and European Art 1909-1919.” The “Introduction” class “visual arts,” the LCC has almost no features states: that can be related to the iconographical paradigm. In the class ND-painting, the main divisions are This exhibition does not aim to go into the General, History, Study and teaching, General specifics on how the works belong under the Works, Special Subjects, Techniques and materials, headings of Futurism, Cubism, or Expression- Examination and conservation of painting, Water- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 135 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

color painting, Mural painting, and Illumination of method of the stylistic paradigm in art history and manuscripts and books. The subclass Special subjects the object was the works of art belonging to high (1288-1460) is divided according to the late Renais- culture. The object of the stylistic paradigm is the sance hierarchy of motives: Human figure, Portraits, formal aspect of the work of art (style, composition, Landscape Painting, Marine painting, Animals, Birds, way of painting and the like). The aim of stylistic Sports, Hunting, Fishing, Still life, Flowers, Fruit, analysis is to describe, categorize, compare, and sys- Trees, and Other subjects. The point of view of this tematize these stylistic features in order to determine subdivision is “positivistic” without marked linguis- a sequence of historical styles. It means that the tic references to the terminology of the iconographi- overriding principle in knowledge organization – cal paradigm. whether in art exhibitions, art histories or systems of Class 700 (The arts. Fine and decorative arts) in knowledge organization – is the historical sequence DDC does not conceive of the arts in accordance of styles. As a consequence of the focus on styles, with the “traditional” paradigms in art history; the the intertextuality is limited to works of art, i.e. the class is not limited to a body of works that is consid- history of art is conceived of as an autonomous his- ered to be of great cultural importance and aesthetic tory. The meaning of the works of art is beyond the value. Instead, the class comprises a wide range of horizon of this paradigm. The way works of art are fine and decorative arts. The understanding underly- analyzed and organized in taxonomies is similar to ing the class does not distinguish between art and Linné’s principles in “Systema Naturae” in which the craft. forms of nature in the animal kingdom, the vegetable In class 700 the DDC has incorporated the termi- kingdom, and the mineral kingdom are analyzed sys- nology of the iconographical paradigm in some sub- tematically and grouped in families, species, and so classes. This is apparent in 704.9 Iconography and on (Paludan-Müller). collections of writings, and in the classes 753-758 Specific subjects (Iconography) comprising Abstrac- 6.2.1 The stylistic paradigm and the three “levels” of tion, symbolism, allegory, mythology, legend, and knowledge organization Religion and religious symbolism. At a lower level the terminology of the iconographical paradigm The traditional way of organizing exhibitions in art forms an integral part of the “bricolage” of the museums follows the principles of the Louvre exhi- DDC. bition in 1793 as developed by the stylistic paradigm. Though UDC will not be fully analyzed, it is The works of art are presented in a historical se- noted that class 7.04 covers “Subjects for artistic rep- quence where style follows style generally within a resentation. Iconography. Iconology”. The subdivi- regional or national context. The exhibition of the sion of this class combines terminology from the permanent collection at the Danish National Gallery, iconographic paradigm with categories of motives Statens Museum for Kunst, is an example of this. (subjects). Janson (1995) treats the history of art in line with the principles of the stylistic paradigm. Focusing on 6.2 The stylistic paradigm Western art, Janson traces the roots of Western art back to prehistoric times and follows the evolution The stylistic paradigm was established around 1870 of the art forms in ancient Egypt, ancient Near East, and later developed by Heinrich Wölfflin (1864- classical Greece and so on. The chapters covering the 1945). This presentation treats the stylistic paradigm period from 1050 to around 1900 have stylistic terms as an “Idealtypus” in Max Weber’s sense. It means in the titles and some of the structural principles are that the presentation cultivates the typical features of divisions in art forms and nation or regions. the paradigms without discussion as to what extent scholarly works belonging to the paradigm, deal with Romanesque art interpretations of the works of art. Architecture Wölfflin “considered that laws governed the ways Sculpture in which forms changed through time …," (Fernie, Painting 1995, 15). Based on stylistic characteristics (for in- Gothic art stance linear versus painterly and plane versus reces- Architecture sion) Wölfflin grouped works into related categories. Sculpture The analysis of style became the basic and defining Painting 136 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

…. treatment in general in painting) is divided according The Baroque in France and England to centuries, nations, and geographical areas like it is The Rococo in the LCC. But the difference between these two France classification systems is that the DDC uses the ter- England minology of the stylistic paradigm as a part of the Germany and Austria taxonomic structure, while the LCC uses these terms Italy in the alphabetical subdivisions of the basic taxon- … omy based on centuries. Using the19th century as an Neoclassicism and Romanticism example this can be illustrated as follows: DDC class … 759.01 has the heading: 19th century, 1800-1900. The Painting description reads: Sculpture

Architecture Including classical revival, romanticism, natu- Decorative arts ralism, impressionism, luminism, pleinairism, Photography neo-impressionism, pointillism, divisionism, postimpressionism. (Dewey, 1971, 296) (Janson 1995, 306-387, 588-617, 638-701) In the LCC the class ND 190-192 covers the paint- The chapters on the twentieth century do not use the ing of the 19th century, and ND 192.A-Z the special stylistic terms but use names of historical periods aspects and movements of the century. For instance, (Before World War I, Between the Wars, Since World Impressionist painting and Romantic painting. In the War II) as subdivisions under the main division in art LCC the principle of subdivision – or the taxonomy forms (painting, sculpture, architecture, photogra- at the level analyzed – is alphabetic (though this phy). The individual chapters are subdivided in styles principle is not consequently used, an exception is and “isms.” Some structural elements in the part medieval painting). On the contrary, the DDC uses treating twentieth century paintings before World the taxonomy of the stylistic paradigm, i.e. the his- War illustrate this. torical sequence of styles in the same way as Janson’s “History of Art.” In the LCC, the subclass on the history of art Expressionism: The Fauves Matisse (ND 49-813) is based on a combination of terms Rouault from general history (ancient, medieval, and modern German Expressionism with some subdivisions such as Early Christian and Die Brücke Renaissance) and centuries. Heckel In class 7: “The arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Nolde Sport” the UDC has subdivisions (7.03) in which the Kokoschka terminology of the stylistic paradigm is consequently Kandinsky used for the artistic periods, phases, schools, styles, … and influences from the medieval period to the Abstraction “Transition between Expressionism and abstract art.” … (Universal Decimal Classification, 1993, 853). This Analytic cubism means that the UDC is based more on the stylistic Synthetic cubism paradigm than either the DDC or the LCC. ….

6.3 The “traditional” paradigms, LCC, and DDC (Janson 1995, 761-774) The conclusion concerning the influence of the The taxonomy in Janson (1995) combines historical iconographical and the stylistic paradigms on the periods, styles, “isms”, art forms, movements, indi- main classes of art, in the taxonomies of the two vidual artists, regions, and nations. classification systems, is that the paradigms are not In the DDC, the history of the arts (for instance integrated in the taxonomy of the LCC, while both in class 709: historical and geographic treatment in paradigms, to a certain degree, are integrated termi- general, and in class 759: historical and geographic nologically in the DDC. In the taxonomies of both Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 137 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

classification systems, crucial parts are based on pre- analysing the meaning and the function of art in the paradigmatic concepts and conceptions of art studies context of material, social, political, and ideological (as well as on document types, technical procedures, structures (at the time when the works of art were materials, and general geographical and historical di- created). This paradigm does not understand the visions). evolution of the art as being continuous. Changes in The opposite is the case with the UDC in which the power and class structure cause changes in, and essential parts of the taxonomy are based on the two ruptures with, the artistic tradition. “traditional” paradigms. This leads to the conclusion that the UDC taxonomy has a more scholarly foun- 6.4.1 The materialistic paradigm and the three dation than the DDC and the LLC. “levels” of knowledge organization These two “traditional” art history paradigms have been criticized during the last three decades for a The materialistic paradigm is not often used as a ba- number of reasons. Among these is that the continu- sis for organizing art exhibitions in the West. One of ity of art is taken for granted, (a continuity starting the reasons being that the social conception of art is in ancient Greece), including the visual use of classi- contrary to art understood as autonomous. An exhi- cal myths, continuing with the narratives and sym- bition at Randers Kunstmuseum (a provincial Danish bols of Christianity, leading to contemporary art. art museum) in the 1980s used a painting by the The two paradigms are also criticized for cultivating Danish artist Wenzel Tornøe as the focal point. This a canon of art, and for defining art as fine art or body painting ”Syerske” shows a sewing machinist sitting of works considered to be of great cultural impor- utterly tired and almost sleeping at her sewing ma- tance and aesthetic value. The body of fine art con- chine. The other images exhibited, and the text ac- sists of painting, drawing, and sculpture (plus archi- companying the exhibition, created a social and his- tecture and photography). Other characteristics of torical context in which the painting was interpreted the “traditional” paradigms are that they understand as a critique of the female working conditions the stylistic features and the meanings of works of around the year 1900. art and art history as fixed structures- in other Arnold Hauser’s “The Social History of Art” cov- words, they have an essentialist conception of art. ers the history of art forms including literary genres from prehistoric times to the film age. This concept 6.4 The materialistic paradigm of art is more comprehensive than the one used by Janson. Volume Two has the subtitle “Renaissance, A third paradigm or approach in art history is mate- Mannerism, Baroque” and volume Three has the sub- rialistic, which is generally known as the social his- title “Rococo, Classicism and Romanticism.” These tory of art. This paradigm was developed in the subtitles indicate that Hauser uses the terminology 1940s and 1950s by among others, Arnold Hauser of the "traditional" paradigms; however, Hauser’s (1892-1978). The materialistic paradigm is based on context is radically different from the contexts of the “the Marxist thesis that the economic base condi- iconographic and the stylistic paradigm. The charac- tions the cultural superstructure and that, as a result, ter of the context can be shown, with some excerpts, styles vary according to the character of the domi- from the contents of volume three. nant class." (Fernie, 1995, 18). Within this paradigm the social functions of art and the sociology of art The dissolution of courtly art are studied. In comparison with the two (main) “tra- … ditional” paradigms, the materialistic approach has The new wealth and the bourgeoisie had rather limited influence on art scholarship in The Voltarian ideal of culture general. The materialist paradigm draws on Karl Watteau Marx and Friedrich Engels’ writings on literature and … art, though the basic ideas have been interpreted dif- The new reading public ferently in Eastern and Western Europe until the be- The English monarchy and the liberal strata of ginning of the nineties. The works of art are consid- society ered as integrated elements in the historical and so- … cial context. This materialist conception of art is The new periodicals and the middle class reading diametrically opposed to the general Western idea of public autonomous art. The materialist paradigm aims at Literature in the service of politics 138 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

Defoe and Swift the DDC and in the LCC the underlying conception … of the art is the idea of an autonomous art sphere - The Industrial Revolution meaning, among other things, that the art does not The new ethic for labour have social or pedagogical functions. In the BBK the The ideology of freedom opposite is the case and the art is conceived of as a Individualism field of societal practice. … The main class Shch: Fine arts, art scholarship comprises (Shch 03-38): History of the art, Visual art, (Hauser 1968, vol. 3, 34-75) Architecture, Applied art, Sculpture, Painting, Graphic art, Artistic photography, Music and the per- In Hauser (1962), the art is understood in a context forming arts, Music, Dance, Theatre, Mass arrange- that combines changes in economic power, and class ments and popular festivals, Circus, ”Shows,” and Ar- structure; altering worldviews; new strata of the pub- tistic radio and television emissions. One feature that lic; the political use of art; and interpretations of in- distinguishes the BBK from the DDC and the LCC is dividual artists as exponents of (new) ideas, social the emphasis put on artistic mass manifestations. An- standpoints and artistic qualities. It is emphasized other feature is the aesthetic criterion applied to pho- that the art and the different art forms have social tography, radio, and television emissions. functions and that they have to be treated in a social Selected subclasses in Shch 10 visual art that are context because they are integrating parts of the so- presented in the figure below can illustrate the char- ciety. acter of the taxonomy:

In the Soviet universal classification system, BBK, (in the German translation, Bibliothekarisch-biblio- The Marxist-Leninist classical writing on visual art graphische Klassifikation), the art studies are placed The methodology of art studies in class Shch: Fine arts, art scholarship (Šč: Kunst. Partiality in art scholarship Kunstwissenschaft). The basic taxonomy of the BBK Critique on non-Marxist theories is based on the Marxist conception of nature, society, The history of art scholarship and art criticism and culture, including the thesis that the economic General art scholarship base conditions the cultural superstructure of the so- Art scholarship in the SSSR ciety. The organization of the scholarly research in the field of the visual art Artistic education The totality A: Marxism-Leninism Bibliography, works of reference of nature, Theory on the visual art society, and Preservation of works of art. Art museums and art culture collections The economic B: Science in general The general history of the visual art base Visual art in the“Urgesellschaft” S: Social sciences in general Visual art in the antiquity … The cultural Ch: Culture, scholarship, general Visual art in the 5th to the 18th century superstruc- education (Volksbildung) … ture … Sh: Philology, literary scholarship Early Renaissance … Shch: Fine arts, art scholarship High Renaissance … Y: Religion. Atheism … … Iu: Philosophy, psychology Visual art in the 19th century … Ia: Universal literature Visual art in the 20th century (from 1917)

(Bibliothekarisch-bibliographische Klassifikation: (Bibliothekarisch-bibliographische Klassifikation: Einführung, 1978, 31-42) Šč Kunst. Kunstwissenschaft 1968, 72-85)

While the main taxonomies in two North American The figure above shows the bias of the point of de- systems can be interpreted as expressions of philoso- parture. The standards of art scholarship are derived phical idealism, the BBK taxonomy is materialistic. In from the classical writings and the Marxist theory in Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 139 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

the domain. In addition, the methodological, institu- history and with the biased point of view in the BBK, tional, and historical aspects of art scholarship and the taxonomies on art in the “classical” classification art criticism are important. The periods used in the systems are out of key with the recent scholarship of classes on the general history of the visual arts are the “new” art history. When the object of art studies based on the development of the social formations is redefined interdisciplinarily and with more com- from the “Urgesellschaft” to the communist era, after plex content, the basic conceptual structures - de- the October Revolution. Terms from the “tradi- rived from pre-paradigmatic conceptions and, to tional” paradigms are logically not used. The terms some extent, from the “traditional” paradigms – are “Early Renaissance” and “High Renaissance” do not inadequate. Of course the problems can be handled have the same meanings as in the contexts of the by the use of faceted classification and refinement of “traditional” paradigms. Following the basic concep- subclasses, but the fundamental problems cannot be tion, there are no classes for individual artists. In solved in a (theoretically) satisfying way by the use short, the discourse of the BBK differs fundamen- of the “classical” classification systems. This is – of tally from the discourses of DDC and LCC. In the course – a part of the background for the develop- BBK the bias is evident to a “Western” eye. But it is ment of thesauri. more difficult for the same “Western” eye to notice the biases of, for instance, the DDC and the LCC 7.1 A brief sketch of some "new” art history approaches because their basic points of view seem “natural" - they are integrated parts of our intellectual and con- The “new” art history paradigms include approaches ceptual horizon. that are based on: – semiotics and theories of representation 7. Changes in the domain of art history and art – gender history with a feminist inclination scholarship – psychoanalysis – social history and the history of the art institution In the early 1970s, "new” art historians with different theoretic orientations started criticizing the "tradi- One of the basic ideas of the semiotic approach is tional” paradigms. Criticisms included: the narrow- that each reading of a text or a picture is a re-creating ness of the way in which art was defined and studied, of it, a construction of meaning in an ongoing proc- the focus on individual artists, the limited scope of ess. An example is “Reading Rembrandt” by Mieke methods (analysis of style or iconography), and the Bal (1991). Bal does not see Rembrandt as an indi- concentration on the canonical works of art. In some vidual painter but as an ongoing “semiotic construc- ways these ”new” art historians were inspired by the tion.” In our interpretation of paintings or etchings social history of art in their “new” art historical prac- by Rembrandt we are not able to “isolate” the work tice. In general, they conceive of art in a broader so- of art from all the interpretations. In other words the cial context including power structures and the rela- oeuvre of Rembrandt is inscribed in a textual uni- tions between artists and public. In this view, the verse of ongoing interpretations. In another mono- structures of meaning have changed. graph by Mieke Bal “Quoting Caravaggio,” she analyzes the “dialogue” between contemporary “neo- The “new” art history represents a dramatically Baroque” artists and Caravaggio. In this intertextual wider field of enquiry involving new method- “dialogue” new meanings are created. ologies, although “old” art history is still pur- The gender historical approach started with a cri- sued by some academics. The "new” art history tique of the exclusion of female artists from the can- employs an interdisciplinary approach which ons of art. In “The Obstacle Race: The Fortunes of embraces materials far beyond “traditional” art Women Painters and Their Work,” Germaine Greer historical sources, and so information has to be analyzed the social conditions of the women and the sought outside the art library ….(Korenic, functions and values of the art institution that gener- 1997, 12). ally caused the exclusion of female artist. This approach, based on psychoanalysis, aims at exploring From the librarian’s point of view the interdiscipli- the meaning of a picture as being different from what narity and the sources for art scholarship are impor- is consciously expressed or stated by the artist. The tant challenges; likewise, for knowledge organiza- object shifts from the individual artist to, for in- tion. With the decreasing importance of the “old” art stance, the cultural background. Another art scholar, 140 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

Norman Bryson, has interpreted some paintings by The facets of the AAT are organized to proceed Géricault in the context of the history of masculinity. from the most abstract concepts through the To a certain extent, these interpretations can be seen style or period of the work, the role of creators, as inspired by the materialistic paradigm and as a the processes and techniques used to fabricate continuation and refinement of Arnold Hauser’s works, the materials with which they are made, work. to the names of the objects themselves – the The “new” art history is inspired from develop- most concrete elements of the description. ments and theories in other domains such as history, Each facet contains one or more hierarchies literature, and philosophy. New ways of organizing which are arrangements of terms in broader and exhibitions in art museums and art galleries are narrower relationships. (Molholt & Petersen somehow related to the shift in orientation from the 1993, 32) "traditional” to the “new” art history. As previously mentioned, the "traditional” exhibitions are arranged The seven facets reflecting seven perspectives on the according to periods in the history of art, styles, ar- description of a work of art are: tistic movements, regions, and nations. The “new” ways of exhibiting works of art include, for instance, ASSOCIATED CONCEPTS FACET presentations of paintings belonging to different Hierarchy: Associated Concepts styles and epochs in order to create dialogues and inter-textual relations among these. Generally speak- PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES FACET ing, the works of art are removed from the “fixed” Hierarchies: Attributes and Properties, Condi- context of “traditional” art history and presented in tions and Effects, Design Elements, Color an “open” context where the meaning of the work is not given in advance, but is derived from the new ex- STYLES AND PERIODS FACET hibition context. Hierarchy: Styles and Periods The LCC has a subclass, 1158.A-Z, for Painting related to other subjects, including psychoanalysis AGENTS FACET and semiotics. In the DDC the class 701: “Philoso- Hierarchies: People, Organizations phy and theory” gathers “appreciative aspects” (psychology, theory etc.) and “inherent features” (com- ACTIVITIES FACET position, color, form, style etc.). The “appreciative” Hierarchies: Disciplines, Functions, Events, aspects can be expanded with new theories. Physical Activities, Processes and Techniques

8. Art & Architecture Thesaurus MATERIALS FACET Hierarchy: Materials The Art & Architecture Thesaurus is “a structured vocabulary of around 125,000 terms, scope notes, and OBJECTS FACET other information for describing fine art, architec- Hierarchies: Object Groupings and Systems, ture, decorative arts, archival materials and material Object Genres, Components culture.” ( Art & Architecture Thesaurus no date). The Art & Architecture Thesaurus covers far more (Art & Architecture Thesaurus: than the classes on art in the universal classification http://www.getty.edu/re- systems. Though this is evident - given the fact the search/conducting_research/vocabularies/aat/a art classes in the universal classification systems have bout.html#scope) the whole systems as contexts – it should be emphasized that the coverage seems to be in accordance The coverage of the “Associated Concepts facet” is with the interdisciplinary approaches of the “new” art described as follows: history, “which embraces materials far beyond “traditional” art historical sources.” (Korenic, 1997, 12). This facet contains abstract concepts and phe- The facets in the Art & Architecture Thesaurus nomena that relate to the study and execution are identified and organized “especially to reflect of a wide range of human thought and activity, how a work of art is described.” (Molholt & Petersen including architecture and art in all media, as 1993, 32). well as related disciplines. Also covered here are Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 141 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

theoretical and critical concerns, ideologies, at- sical” hierarchical classification systems. On the titudes, and social or cultural movements (e.g., other hand it should be emphasized that the Art & beauty, balance, connoisseurship, metaphor, Architecture Thesaurus is an eclectic work in which freedom, socialism). ( Art & Architecture The- the basic structure of facets and hierarchies is con- saurus no date) structed on the principles of rationality, order and objectivity in the same way as in (Western) universal The examples in brackets, given at the end of the de- classification systems. There are two problems with scription, point to the “bricolage” character of the this. The first is that both rationality and objectivity facet. In order to cover the wide range of historical are apparent. Neither the art institution as a social and contemporary concepts, the facets are heteroge- and cultural field, nor the scholarly domain of art neous. Balance is a concept going back to at least, studies is rational. The other problem is that the Roger de Piles’ “Balance de peintres” (1708); con- work of art is conceived of as an object that can be noisseurship is a concept developed in the Renais- put in different contexts without changing meaning. sance; while freedom and socialism are rather modern In other words, there seems to be a kind of an “addi- concepts. The interdisciplinary approaches to the tive” structural thinking in the thesaurus. And this study of art include: linguistics and related disci- “additive” structural conception is the reason why plines, museology, science, philosophy, women’s for instance, Bal’s specific theoretical approach is not studies, political science, communications, econom- adequately represented. ics, and ethnic studies. In other words, concepts from the humanities, the social sciences, and science are in- Conclusion tegrated in the thesaurus. One important aspect of this it that it is possible to include and emphasize the The aim of this article was to analyze some aspects of theoretical point of view and the scholarly paradigm knowledge organization in the domain of the arts, es- in the knowledge representation. This can be illus- pecially visual art. From this brief analysis some con- trated with the following example. Griselda Pollock’s clusions can be drawn. First, different socially and monograph “Differencing the canon: feminist desire historically embedded discourses on art, including and the writing of art histories” (1999) is represented pre-paradigmatic studies and scholarly paradigms with the terms: feminism and art, woman art histori- pervade knowledge organization in the art institution ans, psychology, psychoanalysis and feminism. The at three levels. These three levels are "articulated” re- last terms indicate in a way Griselda Pollock’s ap- spectively as: 1. Art exhibitions, 2. Primary and terti- proach or paradigm. She is one of the “new” art histo- ary document types (printed, audio-visual, and mul- rians like Mieke Bal. Bal’s monograph “Reading timedia documents), and 3. Classification systems, 'Rembrandt’”: beyond the word-image opposition” bibliographies, thesauri (and other secondary docu- (1991) is represented with the terms: Rembrandt ment types.) Concerning the general discourse in Harmenszoon van Rijn, 1606-1669 – Criticism and which art is understood, there is a marked (ideologi- interpretation, Woman in art, Ut pictora poesis (Aes- cal) difference between the Soviet BBK on the one thetics), Art and literature. The problem in this rep- hand, and the Western classification systems (DDC, resentation is that Bal’s specific theoretical approach LCC, and UDC) on the other. Though the universal is missing. The general conclusion so far is that the classification systems as such are constructed on the associated concepts facet in the Art & Architecture basis of (formal) rational and logical structures, the Thesaurus, is, to a certain degree, able to cope with analysis of the art classes show that the substantial the “new” art history-but only to a certain degree. “layers” “beneath” the rational structures are con- As a whole, the Art & Architecture Thesaurus is a structed as “bricolage” works. The systems analyzed, very comprehensive work of “bricolage” that joins including the sketched analysis of UDC, show that concepts from almost all historical phases of the there are significant differences among the four sys- study of art and architecture, concepts from interdis- tems, both regarding the understanding of art (which ciplinary studies of the domain and concepts from is a part of the discourse) and regarding the concepts both “traditional” and “new” art history. For exam- of the “bricolage” work. The LCC system is the one ple, the facet Styles and periods is based on the that to a lesser extent, includes concepts from the scholarship of the stylistic paradigm. The “polyhier- “traditional” paradigms, the iconographic and the sty- archical” structure of the Art & Architecture The- listic paradigms. In other words, it is a system in saurus is an advantage in comparison with the “clas- which scholarly conceptions are of minor importance 142 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

compared to general formal structures. The opposite References is the case with UDC in which substantial parts of the taxonomy are constructed on the basis of the Aagesen, D., Abildgaard, H., Zerland, M. & Warm- “traditional” paradigms. The DDC system can be ing, R. (2002). The avant-garde in Danish and placed in between. The taxonomy of the BBK is based European Art 1909-1919 : Exhibition Guide. Co- on the Marxist conception of art and has a less “bri- penhagen: Statens Museum for Kunst. colage” like structure, because the “deep” structure is Art & Architecture Thesaurus. (No date). [Online]. more rational as a result of an overriding theoretical Available: [www.getty.edu/research/tools/ construction. On the other hand, this “firm” con- vocabulary] [Accessed 24 September 2003]. struction creates “blindness” in the sense that non- (Also published as: Petersen, T. (1994). Art & ar- Marxist concepts tend to be excluded or negated. chitecture thesaurus. 2nd ed. New York : Oxford Simplified, it can be concluded that the UDC, in University Press. 5 vols.): particular, is well suited for representation of knowl- Bacon, F. (1605/1965). The Advancement of Learn- edge produced in the contexts of pre-paradigmatic, ing. London : Dent Everyman’s Library. (Origi- iconological, and stylistic studies. During the recent nally published 1605). three decades the so-called “new” art history or the Bal, M. (1991). Reading "Rembrandt"; beyond the “new” art scholarship, has developed interdisciplinary word-image opposition: the Northrop Frye lectures approaches, or paradigms, that break with both the in literary theory. New York: Cambridge Univer- general discourse on art and the “traditional” para- sity Press digms. This means that the “new” art history, by in- Bal, M. (1999). Quoting Caravaggio: contemporary troducing new contexts and new theoretical posi- art, preposterous history. Chicago and London: tions, breaks with the principles (and practice) of The University of Chicago Press. knowledge organization at the three levels. From a Bibliothekarisch-bibliographische Klassifikation: LIS knowledge organization point of view the chal- Einführung. (1978). Vol. 1. Berlin : Methodisches lenge is to be able to represent the documents pro- Zentrum für wissenschaftliche Bibliotheken. duced by the “new” art scholars in (theoretically) Bibliothekarisch-bibliographische Klassifikation: Šč adequate ways, in addition to the representation of Kunst. Kunstwissenschaft. (1968). Vol. 21. the whole historical corpus of documents on art. The Berlin : Methodisches Zentrum für wissenschaftliche central problem is that a hierarchical system based on Bibliotheken. a “traditional” discourse combined with concepts Bostick, C.H. & Mandel, C.(1976). Classification from the “traditional” paradigms is “conceptually and the Art Library User: Some Theoretical Con- closed.” At a pragmatic level a “polyhierarchical” siderations. ARLIS/NA Newletter4(4/5), 1-3. thesaurus such as the Art & Architecture Thesaurus, Clarke, S. (1976). Library Classification in the Arts. seems to be a step towards a solution of some prob- ARLIS/NA Newletter4(4/5), 3-4. lems raised by the approaches of the “new” art his- D’Alembert, J. Le Rond (1751/1995). Preliminary tory. Because the Art & Architecture Thesaurus is a discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot. Chicago more “open” and more expanded work of “bricolage” and London: The University of Chicago Press. than universal classification systems, it is easier to in- (Original appeared 1751). tegrate new aspects of art studies in the facet struc- Dewey, M. (1876). A Classification and subject Index ture. At a theoretical level however, the eclecticism for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pam- and the “additive” conception of conceptual relations phlets of a Library. Amherst, Mass. mean that the Art & Architecture Thesaurus has a Abridged Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative problematic epistemological foundation. Index. (1990). Edition 12. Albany, New York: Forest Press. Notes Fernie, E. (1995). Art history and its methods: A critical anthology. London: Phaidon Press. 1 The quotation is from Roger C. Poole’s Intro- Ferrari, R.C. (1999) the Art of Classification: Alter- duction. nate Classification Systems in Art Libraries. 2 http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/wyrick/debclass/ Cataloguing & Classification Quarterly, 28(2), 73- gloss.htm 98. Hansson, J. (1999). Klassifikation, bibliotek och sam- häll : En kritisk hermeneutisk studie av ”Klassifika- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 143 A. Ørom: Knowledge Organization in the Domain of Art Studies

tionssystem för svenska bibliotek” (Classification, (eds.). Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Library and Society : A Critical Hermeneutic Salamanca, p. 183-210. Study of ”The Swedish Classification System”). Nørgaard Larsen, P. (2000). Symbolism in Danish and Göteborg: Valfrid. European painting 1870-1910. Copenhagen: Stat- Hauser, A. (1968) The social history of art. Vol. 1-4. ens Museum for Kunst. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (English origi- Paludan-Müller, C. (no date) Museet i tiden : Erind- nal appeared 1951) ringsrum og verdensspejl: Museerne ved årtusind- Heidmann, A. (2003). Organiseringens kunst – en skiftet.. (The museum in the time: Space of mem- analyze af vidensorganization inden for kunstinsti- ory and mirror of the world at the turn of the tutionen. (The Art of Organizing – an Analysis of millennium). Available: [www.kulturnet.dk/ the Knowledge Organization within the Art In- homes/smn/mustid.htm] [Accessed 5 May 2003] stitution). Aalborg: Danmarks Biblioteksskole. Polster, J.F. (1976). The Crafts and Dewey’s Deci- (Unpublished thesis). mals. ARLIS/NA Newletter4(4/5), 8-11. Hjørland, B. (2002). Domain analysis and informa- Rafferty, P. (2001). The Representation of Knowl- tion science: Eleven approaches – traditional as edge in Library Classification Systems. Knowl- well as innovative. Journal of Documentation, edge Organization 28 (4), 180-191. 58(4) 422-462. San Segundo Manuel, R. (1996). Sistemas de organi- Hjørland, B. (2003). Fundamentals of Knowledge zación del conocimiento. Madrid: Universidad Organization. Tendencias de investigación en or- Carlos III de Madrid. Boletín Oficial del estado. ganización del conocimiento: Trends in Knowledge Schimansky,D.D. (1976). The Metropolitan Museum Organization Research/ José Antonio Frías, of Art Library Classification System: How it Críspulo Travieso (eds.). Salamanca: Ediciones works. ARLIS/NA Newletter4(4/5), 4-6. Universidad de Salamanca, 83-116. [Modified ver- SuperLCCS (1998). Gale’s Library of Congress sion to be published in Knowledge Organization Classification Schedules combined with Addi- 2003, 30(1)] tions and Changes Through 1998: Classification: Janson, H.W. (1995). History of Art. Fifth edition. Class N, Fine Arts. Washington: Library of Con- Revised and expanded by Anthony F. Janson. gress. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Universal Decimal Classification: International Me- Korenic, L. (1997). Inside The Discipline, outside dium Edition. Part 1. Systematic tables. (1993) the Paradigm: Keeping Track of the New Art London: BSi Standards. History. Art Libraries Journal 22 (3) 12-18. Vasari, G (1943-49). Le vite dei più eccellenti pittori, Lévi-Strauss, C. (1969). To te m i s m. With an introduc- scultori e architetti. I-IV. (Lives of the most Excel- tion by Roger C. Poole. Harmondswoth: Pen- lent Painters, Sculptors and Architects). Rome: guin. (French original appeared 1962) Rizzoli. (Italien original appeared 1550-68) Læssøe, R. Billedets liv : Syv kapitler om det moderne Wyngaard, S. (1993). Fine Arts. The Humanities and ikon. Fra Ingres til Bacon. (2000). (The life of the the Library. Nena Couch and Nancy Allen (eds.). image. Seven chapters on the modern icon. From Chicago and London: American Library associa- Ingres to Bacon.) Copenhagen: Multivers. tion, p. 1-44. Molholt, P. & Petersen, T. (1993). The Role of the Ørom, A. (2003a). Kunsten at organisere viden om „Art and Architecture Thesaurus“ in Communi- kunsten (The Art of Organizing Knowledge on cating about Visual Art. Knowledge Organization the Art). Aalborg: Biblioteksarbejde 65, 61-76. 20(1), 30-34. Ørom, A. (2003b). Paradigmas y visiones del mundo Muñiz, G. G. (2003). La clasificación de la filosofía: en la organización del conocimiento dentro del el sistema decimal de Dewey a la luz de los siste- campo del arte. Tendencias de investigación en or- mas de clasificación de F. Bacon y l’Encyclopedie. ganización del conocimiento: Trends in Knowledge Tendencias de investigación en organización del Organization Research/ José Antonio Frías, conocimiento: Trends in Knowledge Organization Críspulo Travieso (eds.). Salamanca: Ediciones Research/ José Antonio Frías, Críspulo Travieso Universidad de Salamanca, 233-241.

144 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

Knut Tore Abrahamsen

Åsengata 8 B, 0480 OSLO, NORGE, E-mail: [email protected]

Knut Tore Abrahamsen graduated as a librarian from Høgskolen i Oslo [Academy of Oslo] and has a Master degree in library and information science from the Royal School of Library and Information Sci- ence, Copenhagen. In addition, he has studied music for one year and has formerly been engaged in a local radio program and a magazine dedicated to experimental music.

Abrahamsen, Knut Tore. (2003). Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 144-169. 58 refs.

ABSTRACT: This article sets out to investigate genre as a basic criterion in subject indexing of music in libraries and bibliographical databases. The concept of genre is examined in relation to epistemology and to different values and views in both musicology and libraries. The point of departure is to regard music as a domain of actors, institutions and processes. A comprehensive definition of this domain is suggested, which includes several subdomains and discourses. The classical music subdomain and the popular music subdomain are introduced and related to libraries. The article further investigates the concept of “paradigm” in relation to musicology. It demonstrates how two different paradigms influence the way music is defined, described, classified and indexed and how they are part of a historical context. The fourth part of the article focuses on the concept of genre and the analysis of music and the relation between analytical methods and values/paradigms. In addition, this part focuses on the actors that are responsible for the verbalization of genres in music. The fifth part examines indexing of musical genres with a view to their function as subject access points in databases. The unsatisfactory state of today’s practice, as well as the need of a better theoretical foundation of the concept of genre, is documented. The unsatisfactory differentiation in the organising of popular music is exemplified by Danish and Norwegian libraries, including the DK5 system and the Indeksering af musik guidelines. Finally, arguments are put forward for developing an anthropological paradigm in relation to organizing music in libraries.

1. Introduction possible to obtain music that belongs to the particular musical style or genre that the listener may be Genre indexing of popular music is limited in most looking for, without needing to have prior knowl- phonographic library databases and needs to be im- edge of the name of the artist or album. proved because it causes limited accessibility of re- In practical indexing there seems to be more effort corded music for the users. This accessibility can be applied to indexing of one form of music compared increased if genre indications are used more actively to another, even though this is not recognized. Clas- as subject headings. This claim is associated with the sical music seems to be more differentiated compared view that central aspects of the differences between to popular music. This may be related to different the various kinds of music can be expressed in differ- worldviews and values, which influence what is re- entiated genre classifications. garded as more or less important. These worldviews There is an apparent lack of effort to more ac- and values may not just influence the choices of ob- tively divide the music into genres. While broader jects to be included in the library, but may also influ- categories of genres such as “rock,” “pop,” “jazz,” ence the way knowledge is defined, classified and or- etc, are often applied, a more genuine differentiated ganized, i.e.: the selection of genre categories. genre division would enable users to perform more This is where epistemology and paradigms become fruitful searches. Such a classification would make it significant. How have musicology and libraries di- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 145 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

vided the world? Which worldview underlies the di- tence for information specialists. The following quo- visions that have been made, and which topics have tation is central for the domain analytic approach: been stressed? Which considerations have been emphasized in the process? Which paradigms can we A central point in my approach [domain- find in musicology? What are the values that lay be- analytic] is the claim that tools, concepts, hind those? The issues raised by these questions will meaning, information structures, information be examined in this article. More concretely, some of needs, and relevance criteria are shaped in dis- the epistemological conditions that underlie the way course communities, for example, in scientific the genre has commonly been classified and defined disciplines, which are part of society’s division in musicology, as well as in libraries, will be investi- of labor. A discourse community being a com- gated. Throughout this article, emphasis has been munity in which an ordered and bounded placed at genre indexing connected to popular music. communication process takes place. (Hjørland, The relation between epistemology and indexing 2002b, p.258) is not a simple and straightforward cause and effect relationship. Mutual influences and often other fac- Two central elements in domain analysis are the epis- tors (e.g. pragmatic reasons such as available time) temological and sociological influences on informa- may contribute to the results. The aim of this paper tion in a field. is not to uncover or exemplify all the reasons behind Epistemology can be described as “…the theory how musical genres are classified, defined, divided of knowledge, the philosophical study of the nature, and constituted, but rather to draw attention to how origin and scope of knowledge” (Moser, 1997, epistemological and paradigmatic assumptions influ- p.197). According to Hjørland: “Epistemologies can ence the way musical genres are classified. be seen as the generalization and interpretation of One of the main goals of this article is to show a collected scientific experience. Therefore, theories of connection between the dominant paradigm in musi- epistemology are the most fundamental theories of cology and the genre categories of popular music that relevance, and any theoretical question in informa- have been used in musicology, as well as in libraries. tion science is, in the end, based on epistemological A further goal is to show how this is significant for assumptions” (2002a, p.438). Further: genre concepts as potential subject access points in databases. An aim of this article is to build a theoreti- Epistemological studies are studies that exam- cal framework that can work as the point of departure ine the explicit or implicit assumptions behind for defining and indexing musical genres and thus research traditions. Such assumptions are often improving access to music in libraries and databases. linked to ontological assumptions concerning The context of this article is the indexing of popular the object under study. They represent an music in public libraries in Denmark and Norway. analysis of the approaches or paradigms in research fields. (Hjørland, 2002a, p.438) 2 The music domain Sociology is the study of communities and societies. 2.1 Introduction to domain analysis, epistemological In domain analysis, this study is particularly related and sociological perspective to the different actors, institutions and communication channels in different domains. The domain ana- Domain analysis as a theoretical approach to Library lytic framework, and its emphasis on epistemology and Information Science (LIS) and Knowledge Or- and sociology, are the main points of departure in ganisation (KO) can be traced to Hjørland (1991, this article, as summarized in this quotation: 1993), who explicitly developed it as an alternative to the dominant cognitive view. According to Hjørland In domain analysis, we are less inclined to speak (2002b), a domain analysis should consider a field about mental models and more inclined to talk sharing common concepts, terms, and knowledge and about knowledge, (pre)understanding, theories, investigate the nature and structure of the knowledge paradigms, and epistemologies. We mainly see and communication at the chosen level of specializa- the individual person as influenced by different tion. In Hjørland (2002a), eleven approaches to do- theories, epistemologies, and paradigms, which main analysis are presented. Hjørland argues that are very often partly unconscious or neglected these approaches together, make a unique compe- by the individual. (Hjørland, 2002b, p.261) 146 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

An important method that is applied in this article producers of music (composers, musicians), the pro- from the starting point of domain analysis and the ducers of knowledge about music (scholars, musi- epistemological and sociological perspective is the cologist, sociologists, music critics) and the interme- analysis of discourses. According to Talja (2001): diaries (journalists, librarians, teachers). Actors are also the users of music and of knowledge about mu- In the discourse analytical approach, the view- sic (music audience, readers, listeners). Some of point is on social practices. This viewpoint does these actors are more influential and greater con- not deny the fact that individuals are active, cre- tributors to parts, or the whole of, the music domain. ate meanings, and thus have the power to change Different kinds of writers of music (historians, jour- the world. It is emphasized that meanings are nalists, music critics etc.) have much influence on the created in “communicatings,” between individu- verbalisation of music, on how music is understood als, not inside individuals. (Talja, 2001, p.29). and how the domain is perceived.

This illustrates that the analysis of discourses is over- Institutions, disciplines and discourses lapping with the project of domain analysis.1 The actors are often members of different institu- 2.2 Music understood as a domain tions and discourses, which again are part of broader communities. Examples of such institutions are con- In the UNISIST model of scientific communication, servatories, universities and music academies. Exam- Fjordback Søndergaard, Andersen & Hjørland ples of micro-level discourses are concert audiences (2003) suggested that the mapping of actors, institu- and listeners of a specific musical genre. Macro-level tions, types of documents, and communication discourses may be found in sub-cultures, social channels is one way to analyze a domain from the classes and societies ranging from small to large. Sci- perspective of library and information science. From entific disciplines such as anthropology, musicology, this point of departure, the overall domain of music psychology and sociology are also parts of this broad will be treated as everything that can be connected understanding of the domain. Such disciplines tend to, or defined as music. Music may, of course, also be to focus on different aspects of music and to be in- regarded as something belonging to other domains fluenced by different academic influences and views. such as education (teaching music), philosophy According to Dogan (2001), the specialities in and (thinking about music in philosophical ways), busi- between disciplines are generally more important ness (selling music), information science (organizing discursive units than the disciplines themselves, be- and retrieving music), etc. cause no one can master the whole field of any disci- Neither musicology2 nor other parts of the domain pline. Among all the disciplines concerned with mu- of music are unified or homogenous fields. Music sic, musicology is in many respects central. may also be understood as sets of related discourses and domains. We might, for example, see the dis- Classical Music and Popular Music as Sub-domains courses on music as influenced by disciplinary borders (e.g. discourses inside musicology or sociology Contemporary musicology can be characterised by or more interdisciplinary discourses). Certain views the lack of unity rather than by some shared charac- and paradigms (e.g. materialistic views, stylistic and teristics concerning its object of study, its values and semiotic views) may cross such disciplinary borders. its goals (see e.g., Nettl, 2001). It consists of special- All domains/discourses may of course be partly over- ized sub-disciplines that are more or less independ- lapping, the concrete degree of the overlap being an ent from each other: empirical question. With this comprehensive definition in mind, a general structure will now be outlined The three sub-disciplines of modern musical re- of the elements which should be taken into consid- search (historical musicology, ethnomusicology eration in organizing and mapping the field of music. and music theory) constitute distinct subcul- tures, each with its own professional organiza- Actors tion to insure the perpetuation of its own distinctive social structure. (Shelemay, 1996 ren- In music, a set of actors contributes to, or is loosely dered in Korsyn, 2003, p.6) connected to, the domain. Examples of actors are the Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 147 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

Among the set of several possible ways of classifying researchers, and this research has focused more on subdomains and discourses in music, we might con- external circumstances such as music significance for sider classical music (with weight on European art- youth cultures. Research on popular music has fo- music as the main object of study) and popular music cused on sociological and cultural issues as well as on (which regards classical music, ethno-music and its historical evolution (Middleton, 1990). Analysis popular music as being of equal worth of study, al- of historical evolution is based on the content and though it has chosen to concentrate on the study of structure of the music, with more weight given on the last named kind) as two important subdomains. whole genre groups in preference to single works Many research and educational institutions (Nettl (Bjørnberg, 1991). This is partly due to the fact that 2001) treat research in classical music and popular popular music generally is simpler in its construction music as two different subdomains. This has, in turn, than classical music. This, however, is not a valid ar- led to the tendency to the application of different re- gument for ignoring content and structure in the search methods and philosophies. In other words: analysis of popular music. Firstly, there exists much they have a tendency to support different paradigms. popular music that is at least as complex in structure The classical subdomain has had a tendency to sup- as much of the classical music (cf., note 5). Secondly, port “the traditional paradigm” while the popular complexity can be in “appearance” or “sound” rather subdomain has had a tendency to support “the cul- than structure or syntax. ture historic/new musicology paradigm”. (These There may be other reasons behind the typical dif- paradigms are characterized later on in this article). ference in the analysis of popular music and classical There is also research that does not follow any of music. One of the reasons is obviously connected to those tendencies, but this is of minor importance for what Björnberg (1991) writes in his Analyse af po- the understanding of why popular music has been pulærmusik [Analysis of popular music]: analyzed and valued the way it actually has, and, consequently, the way popular music has been classified The field of popular music has long in wide into different genres. range been neglected inside musicology. This is It is beyond the scope of this paper to thoroughly perhaps especially the case with popular- investigate and discuss different definitions of con- musical phenomenon’s music analytic aspects, cepts like classical music3 and popular music. How- despite that the study of such aspects consti- ever, something must be said about those concepts tutes the special area of musicology. An impor- and their treatment here. The concept of classical tant explanation of this circumstance is that music is used instead of the terms art-music, serious aesthetic and/or ideological considerations has music or “composition music” which are terms that influenced researchers attitude toward musical are much used in musicology. This is because the genres and ruled the choice of analysis objects. term classical music is commonly used in the public (1991, p.13; author’s translation) library context. Further, this avoids some of the value-laden connotations of the terms art music and There is an apparent connection between the conser- serious music and their implications (e.g. that rock vatory tradition’s aesthetic and the ideological dis- music can not be serious or art). The concept of paragement of popular music and its research meth- popular music refers to the music that does not natu- ods. The autonomous-aesthetic paradigm of the con- rally file under classical music or ethno-music (see servatory tradition, which according to Björnberg e.g., Cutler, 1985, p.17). The aim is to draw attention (1991) has been dominating musicology for a long to the two subdomains in music that are more sepa- time, supplies inadequate methods for analyzing rated by different actors, institutions and discourses popular music. This has led to: than by the music itself. . . .[that] some researchers inside this tradition Some differences between the treatment of classical and [have been led] to the conclusion that intra- popular music in musicology musical factors are irrelevant...and that this [the popular music] instead is based on sociological, Classical music has, to a larger extent than popular socio-psychological and economical conditions. music, been analyzed from the point of view of the (Björnberg 1991, p.39; author’s translation) music’s content, structure, syntax etc. Popular music, on the other hand, has received less interest from 148 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

Björnberg says some researchers, but this view has ent musical genres (cf., Björnberg, 1991, p.13). This strongly influenced the research on popular music. has also been the case in the libraries, although im- Research on popular music was not born as an inde- portant changes have indeed taken place during the pendent field in musicology but grew out of other last decade (see, e.g., Indeksering af Musik, section disciplines such as traditional musicology, sociologi- 5.1.2). Even though libraries generally have a point cal studies and anthropology (cf., Middleton, 1990). of view different from that of musicology, they have The subdomains of classical and popular music are at the same time adopted many of its attitudes and not, however, two completely separate areas in musi- values. The Danish Dewey classification scheme, cology. The two research fields influence each other DK56 may serve as an example of this (c.f., Dansk primarily because they belong to the same subject Biblioteks Center, 1997/1999). In the notation field, but also because much research on popular mu- group 78.3 - 78.8 [Sheets of music and recorded music has some of its roots in research on classical music], nine pages are dedicated to the classification of sic (Nettl, 2001). At the same time, it should be classical music, but only one sheet is dedicated to the noted that the formation of a research tradition on classification of popular music. The subject classes popular music came, in part, as a reaction to tradi- are few and undifferentiated. This is probably partly tional musicology’s oversight of the area. due to the fact that the music libraries have tradi- At the 2001 IASPM4 conference in Turku, Philip tionally served different musical institutions such as Tagg stated: “I soon found that teaching popular conservatories. Later on, large music sections music analysis was impossible if you tried to use the emerged in the public library and were free from methods and concepts of conventional, solely struc- such obligations (see ,e.g., Norge [Bibliotekloven] turalist, musicology” (Tagg, 2001, p.1). This quota- [The Norwegian Library Law], 1997). This has not, tion indicates that the research in popular music had however, led to radical changes and the inherent val- to delimit itself from traditional musicology and ues of the tradition still dominates libraries. those methods that have dominated research. This can be illustrated by analyzing the classifica- Clearly there have been significant developments tion tools that are available (e.g., DK5 and Dewey in the field of musicology, where studies of popular Decimal Classification and Relative Index (2003) music have become an important part of research, with their explicit or implicit values (see below, sec- not the least in the culture historic /new musicology tion 5.1). Another example is the values that are ex- paradigm (Balchin, 2001). Nonetheless, musicology pressed by the music collection. Both the classifica- is still lacking interest in treating music without re- tion of recorded music, and the composition of the gard to type of music (e.g. classical and popular mu- collection, express more implicit values that pay sic). This may be seen as an indicator that the tradi- debts to different worldviews, ethical principals, tional paradigm is still strong. Musicology maintains paradigms, or epistemological considerations. The the distinction between classical music and popular worldviews expressed by the classification and col- music even though the traditional opposition be- lection need not be in accordance with the world- tween “high” art and “low” art in many cases no views of the librarians, in spite of this: “…pre exist- longer applies, either in musicology or in the library. ing conceptualizations, ways of classifying phenom- The rigid distinction between classical and popular ena…for instance, music into serious and non seri- music may involve a barrier in studies of music that ous…capture even the speaker whose conscious in- mixes several genres or traditions. This rigid distinc- tention is to oppose them” (Talja, 2001, p.15; Hall, tion is also somewhat artificial compared to the 1982). It has been beyond the scope of this project “real” world of played music5 and this may imply to closely investigate the music collections in differ- prejudices of how music is perceived. This also im- ent libraries. plies consequences for the management of informa- Examination of, among others, Deichman Public tion about music in the libraries such as shelf ar- Library in Oslo, Bergen Public Library, Copenhagen rangements and categorisations. Public Library and their electronic catalogues revealed that the collections of classical music are more Classical music and popular music in the context differentiated and comprehensive, and less casually of libraries selected, than the collections of popular music. This may be due to problems caused by the need to Aesthetic and ideological considerations have influ- choose from a vast amount of popular music, com- enced the attitude of researchers concerning differ- pared to that of classical music. Because classical mu- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 149 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

sic has a much longer written history and is a more pects that are especially stressed. As a result, the au- lucid field, it has been easier to classify and control thors have chosen to include not only “high” cultural its different kinds of styles and genres. Part of the art music (classical music) but also folk music (ethno reason seems to be connected to the influence of the music) and entertainment music (popular music). traditional paradigm in musicology, which has This is in contrast to the traditional stylistic treat- tended to favor classical music. The argument is that ment of the history of music that has focused on it is easier to build a differentiated collection when “high” cultural art music. the field is well organized and mapped. Structurally, music is treated as one field of study rather than strongly separated areas. Though devel- 3 Epistemologies in Music opments in different fields of music are written about in separate sections of the text, they are still 3.1 A specific example of how epistemological views treated in the same chapters, and hence are filed un- influence the way music is defined, described and der the same main subject headings. This communi- organized cates that the different parts belong to the same evolutionary stage in human cultural and social history. Two Danish histories of music can be used to dem- Until the period labelled the “bourgeois culture of onstrate how different “paradigms” influence the music,” which is considered to start in the middle of way music is divided, classified, indexed and organ- the 18th century, they try to organize the history of ized. The books are Hansen et al. (1990) [Gads His- music in respect to the function it had in the society. tory of Music] and Brincker et al. (1982-1984) This is reflected in the titles of the main chapters, for [Gyldendals History of Music, Vol. 1-4]. They per- example, Musik i hofkulturen [music in the court- ceive the history of music from two different per- culture] Musik i teateret [music in the theatre], Musik spectives that pay debts to different epistemological i kirken [music in the church] etc. At the beginning positions and paradigms. Brincker et al. have the of the bourgeois music culture, music is still treated most explicit paradigm, which is presented in the with connection to the function it has in the society, foreword: but in that age the understanding of music was starting to change. From understanding music as con- The culture of music is viewed as a part of a his- nected to a function, it moved towards understand- torical process, where the music is included in a ing music as art for its own sake, as an aesthetic ob- interaction with political, social, economical ject (Dahlhaus, 1989, pp.1-17). Brincker et al. in- and ideological elements; and the description of clude this perspective in the organizing of the music, the music’s function in this interaction is this from the beginning of the bourgeois music culture, book’s main concern. One could therefore say until the present. Overall, the book interprets and that it is the music’s cultural- and social history understands changes in musical directions as caused rather than its style- and personal history, that by socio-cultural, political or economical conditions, is our concern. (Brincker et al. 1982, p.7; au- with keywords such as class struggle, conditions of thor’s translation). power, rebellion, ruler’s ideological abuse of music, commercializing, and market forces: “It is a conse- These authors see music as a kind of socio-cultural quence of the basic attitude of this presentation that construction. They do not regard style- and per- attempts to explain the history of music can not be sonal-history as the main goal for exploring the his- made on purely musical terms” (Brincker et al., 1982, tory of music. Music is not to be considered Vol.3, p. 233; author’s translation). The work has an autonomous, nor is the composer the most impor- implicit view that rebellion against dominating forces tant factor influencing the development of music and in the society is of inherent value and that commer- musical styles. The socio-cultural context is consid- cialization disrupts music: “The hippie and flower- ered the primary force in the development and func- power movements’ lack of political theory and foun- tion of music and musical styles; namely political, dation in reality made them an easy target for the economical, social and ideological elements. Brincker American record-industry. The transition from pro- et al. do not altogether dismiss the style-centred tra- gressive sub-culture to commercial mass-culture dition in the history of musicology, but see it as sec- took place during the years 1965-1967” (Brincker et ondary and complementary compared to the broader al., 1982, Vol.3, p.203; author’s translation). social and cultural history. It is the sociological as- 150 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

Brincker et al. place less emphasis on musical servatory tradition,” “the traditional paradigm,” or styles, artists and composers, because they are seen “the romantic intellectual historical tradition” in mu- as being of secondary importance. The more direct sicology. It is clear that Hansen et al. try to avoid the epistemological or theoretical assumptions that lay more ideological aspects of this tradition, for exam- behind their view could be connected to a Marxist ple, the rigid distinction between “high” art music philosophy of science, which stresses the descrip- (classical music) and “low” popular music. They also tions of underlying causal structures in explaining try to make a broader scope in understanding the his- observable phenomena in which “...scientific inquiry tory of music, but in spite of this, they are an example is inevitably and deeply affected by social interests of this tradition. We can observe this through the lit- and relations of social power” (Miller, 1998, p. 147). tle space that has been given to 20th century popular Historically we could also connect many of the theo- music (32 pages) compared to classical music in the retical assumptions we find in Brincker et al. to the same period (103 pages). In addition, the classical Frankfurt School of philosophy, with its “critical composers are treated in more detail, and with respect theory” of society and its “historical materialistic to different musical styles, compared to the treatment view” (Honneth, 1998, p. 730-737). It is also impor- of the popular music. “The conservatory tradition,” tant to note that Brincker et al. try to avoid the tradi- that separates “high” and “low” is thus still evident in tional view of classical music as “high” art and popu- Hansen et al. Many of the choices in Hansen et al. are lar music as “low” art. obviously connected to its function as a textbook. Hansen et al. state in the foreword that it has not Nonetheless, these choices carry underlying episte- been its task to: “...carry out a specific theoretical un- mological assumptions. The romantic intellectual his- derstanding of the relationship between particular ef- torical tradition in music is connected to the view of fecting powers in the historical evolution and on the the individual’s freedom and a strong subjective sense other hand the caused music” (Hansen et al., 1990, p. of art (Nielsen, 1976). This views the composer as the 9; author’s translation). Already here it distinguishes creator of an autonomous musical work (cf., section itself markedly from Brincker et al. Hansen et al. 3.3). Hansen et al. validate this perspective by focus- stress that it is the understanding of the musical ing on the importance of composers and individual works that is the main goal, and not only its starting works in style changes throughout the history of mu- point, as is the case in Brincker et al. It is important sic. Correspondingly, they mark divisions in styles to note that Hansen et al. (1990) is written as a text- and apply music-historical epochs like Baroque and book on the history of music. With regard to this Wiener-classicism. Hansen et al. use as a basis, the purpose, Hansen et al chose a more pragmatic-me- concepts and structure-historical elements from thodical basis. They begin: “For just a few years ago “...the development of the written and delivered such a more pragmatic basis could easily have been European art music. It is first with the music from esteemed as a expression of narrow-mindedness. But the 20th century...that the aim is more comprehen- exactly an independence from the idea that certain sive and differentiated, with the addition of music historical moments are decisive in development of from other continents and with jazz and popular mu- music...is today a part of a modern history-methodi- sic” (Hansen et al., 1990, p. 9; author’s translation). cal understanding, known as structural history” (Han- This is a basis that Brincker et al. cannot avoid either, sen et al., 1990, p.9; author’s translation). They aim to even though they try to make their assumptions to it present the “...multifaceted and changing factors that more explicit. In addition, they try to bring this in- manifests themselves in the formulation of the music, heritance into discussion, and, more actively, to in- its displayed forms in a given historical epoch and its clude popular music and music from other continents impact on the future” (Hansen et al., 1990, p.9; au- in their overall perspective. thor’s translation). They also regard the history of It is important to note that it is not only structural music as fundamentally different from general history elements and content that are influenced by the dif- because of music’s aesthetic character, and they have ferent points of view, but also terminology. This is the implicit view that the musical work is relatively only partly the case because overall, they share much autonomous. Consequently, Hansen et al. focus more of the same terminology due to their common basis on the composers and performers role in the devel- in written and delivered European art-music. But as opment of music. Overall, the view of Hansen et al. previously noted, Hansen et al. and Brincker et al. use on music history is connected to “the style para- different terms to label music historical epochs. This digm,” “the structural historical paradigm,” “the con- may easily be compared to problems of defining, in- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 151 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

dexing and labelling musical genres. Both Hansen et The figure shows that musicology studies differ- al. and Brincker et al. use mainly common genre ent fields or objects using different methods, which terms like rock, jazz, and blues in their treatment of are both influenced by values. Musicology shares popular music. That does not necessarily mean, how- with other fields certain philosophies of science such ever, that they share the same meaning of those musi- as positivism and hermeneutics. There are also “para- cal concepts. Because neither text provides explicit digms” in musicology. The word “paradigm” is espe- definitions for such genre concepts, it is difficult to cially connected with Kuhn (1970), but cannot here pin down the exact nature of the differences. be discussed in depth. One aspect of Kuhn is, however, especially interesting in the context of musicol- 3.2 General Considerations Concerning Epistemolo- ogy, his view on values: “Usually they [values] are gies in Musicology more widely shared among different communities than either symbolic generalizations or models, and Fig. 1 below is based on Ruud (1992, p. 8) and lists they do much to provide a sense of community to some basic dimensions of musicology. natural scientists as a whole” (Kuhn, 1970, p.184).

Fig. 1:

MUSICOLOGY IS ABOUT

VALUES / ETHICAL BASIS:

VIEW OF HUMAN BEINGS VIEW OF MUSIC VIEW OF SOCIETY

SUB-FIELDS OF MUSICOLOGY:

OBJECTS SOUND/SOUND-LAPSE HUMAN BEING MUSIC AS EXPRESSION, DOCUMENTS REACTIONS TO SOUND SOCIETY STRUCTURE SOURCES IDEAS

ORGANOLOGY ICONOGRAPHY HISTORY OF MUSIC THEORY OF MUSIC….HISTORY OF STYLE ACOUSTICS PSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC MUSIC THERAPY MUSIC-PEDAGOGICS ANTHROPOLOGY OF MUSIC SOCIOLOGY OF MUSIC AESTHETIC OF MUSIC SEMIOTICS OF MUSIC

METHODS OF MUSICOLOGY

SOURCE CRITICISM STYLE / WORK ANALYSIS BIOGRAPHICAL METHODS PHENOMENOLOGY OBSERVATION EXPERIMENT FIELDWORK INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE CONCEPT ANALYSIS HERMENEUTICAL METHOD SEMIOTICS CULTURAL ANALYSIS FEMINIST THEORY DISCOURSE-THEORY

PHILOSOPHIES OF SCIENCE:

HERMENUTICS POSITIVISM IDEALISM

STRUCTURALISM CRITICAL THEORY SYSTEMS THEORY.

PARADIGMS:

STUDY OF MUSIC AS: WORK/STRUCTURE SYMBOL EXPERIENCES HUMAN INTERACTIONS MUSICAL FUNCTIONS 152 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

Another quotation further stresses the importance of 3.3 Paradigms in musicology and their ethical ethical principles in aesthetic disciplines: principles

…shared values can be important determinants Traditional paradigm of group behaviour even though the members of the group do not all apply them in the same The conservatory tradition focuses on music as syn- way. (If that were not the case, there would be tax and structure of sound (real or imagined). This no special philosophic problems about value has, according to Keil (1966) often led to a depend- theory or aesthetics.) Men did not paint alike ence on notation in Western musical analysis. This during the periods when representation was the leads to a focus on musical structure in analysis of, or primary value, but the developmental pattern of research in, music. The traditional paradigm regards the plastic arts changed drastically when that the musical work as an autonomous work created by value was abandoned. (Kuhn, 1970, p.186) a composer/composers of a relatively high degree of intellectual sovereignty. This has lead to a focus on Values/ethical principles are central because they are developments of styles connected to their composers implicit or explicit in every part of the music domain and in some degree, the performers of music, while in both practical and theoretical aspects. What one the analysis of developments in styles connected to considers as valuable research-objects, methods for socio-cultural aspects have been relatively ignored. In research, organization principles and so on are of this sense, the traditional paradigm considers musical fundamental importance for organizing music in works to have an eigenvalue regardless of its recep- general and for the indexing of musical genres in par- tion or context. According to Talja (2001, p. 93), the ticular. metaphysical concepts of individual freedom, genius, Figure 2 below presents a reconstructing of fig. 1. creativity, and inner truthfulness are taken as facts in Values are here seen as the most basic influence in the ideology of autonomous art (see also Williams, musicology. The values are influential on what para- 1977; Wolf, 1987). The romantic ideal of art for art’s digm is selected by the researchers, which are again own sake is also strong in this paradigm. An impor- related to their philosophy of science. These values tant ethical principle is that popular music is consid- and views are again influential on what objects are ered “low art” (low aesthetical value) and classical studied in musicology and what methods are being music (western art-music) is generally considered used in research. “high art” (high aesthetical value). This means that popular music is considered to be of lesser value than Fig. 2: classical music and, thus, is classified and indexed in

less detailed manner. If we look more closely at the STRUCTURE OF MUSICOLOGY values connected to the traditional paradigm, there VALUES / ETHICAL BASIS: resides a kind of idealism where there is assumed an PARADIGMS: existence of a canon of great music (cf., Nettl, 2001, PHILOSOPHIES OF SCIENCE p.306-307). Other parameters for aesthetical value SUB-FIELDS OF MUSICOLOGY: have often been added, for example, degree of com- METHODS OF MUSICOLOGY plexity or degree of popularity (leading to the fact that some classical music has been considered of

lesser aesthetical value than others). The separation If we return to section 3.1 we can see how the two between popular music as “low art” and classical mu- works on the history of music exemplify this model sic as “high art” are ungrounded in the sense that it is by demonstrating how different values and para- a constructed aesthetical ideal, not an indisputable digms tend to address different sub-fields and use fact of the nature of music. different research methods. A specific German idealistic version exists within

this tradition. Nielsen (1976) notes that this intellec-

tual historical/idealistic tradition cannot be labelled an absolute epistemology in many cases “...because its foundation is unconscious of itself and is therefore unformulated” (Nielsen, 1976, p.8; author’s translation). Nevertheless the idealistic tradition car- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 153 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

ries some epistemological implications. Historically, In the “The Common Culture Repertoire”: claims Nielsen, the tradition is attached to Germany and the philosophical tendencies that made their way “Culture is a domain of universally valid values. there in the 19th century. In contrast to the rational- The very idea of art’s universal humanity, uni- ism of the Enlightenment philosophy that domi- versal validity, and universality explains the un- nated the French bourgeoisie, the situation was the specified culture talk that is characteristic for opposite in Germany where the bourgeoisie culture the common culture repertoire. Culture and art was: “. . . irrational, it was pervaded by the idea of the consistently spoken of without feeling a need individuals absolute freedom and intellectual sover- to specify the tradition under discussion, the eignty, it became detached from reality and roman- phenomena that are included in culture and art, tic, it became the contrast to the French intellectual or the historical position from which culture is class-conscious enlightened reason; - and it became approached. Unspecified culture talk is based so, because the bourgeoisie...was isolated from eco- on the mode of thought where culture is spiri- nomical and political influence on society” (Nielsen, tual – that is, neutral and nonpolitical – and in 1976, p.189; author’s translation). Culturally this was which the term social is connected with politics expressed through an art that was strongly loaded and economic life” (Talja, 2001, p.89) with subjectivity. This lead to a change in the concept of culture and in the general understanding of Culture historic / New musicology paradigm culture. Nielsen exemplifies this by citing Hauser: In the culture historic / new musicology paradigm7 “The artistic creation which was earlier defined the main focus is on music understood as culture in unambiguous a definable intellectual activity, opposition to music solely understood as structure justified on rules of taste which could be taught of sound. This often leads to a materialistic (or sym- and learned, is now emerging as a secretive bolic) understanding of music, and music history is process which is explained by such inscrutable regarded as part of a broader cultural or social his- sources as divine submitance, blind intuition tory. The evolution of music and the development of and unpredictable mood” (Hauser, 1972 ren- different musical styles are seen as caused by some dered in Nielsen 1976, p.189-190; author’s materialistic or idealistic conditions in a socio-cul- translation). tural context. This paradigm consequently includes both the more cultural-sociological/materialistic If we place the traditional paradigm in a larger cul- grounded views and the more cultural/symbolic tural context it could be connected to what Talja, in grounded views. The latter is often connected to the her book Music, Culture, and the Library, labels “The anthropological view where the functions of music, Common Culture Repertoire.” She outlines three for example, music as ritual, music as symbol, and large-scale “theories of culture, art, and civilization music and identity, are important (Ruud, 1992, p.58). from the societal and historical framework within They both share the understanding of music as cul- which the library institution receives its form and tural/social products and give this aspect precedence meaning” (Talja, 2001, p.71). Based on an analysis of over intra-musical aspects with regard to the analysis library discourses she discovered three different and interpretation of music. This implies that musi- points of departure from which the current state of cal works do not have an absolute eigenvalue but that culture was analyzed: the value is connected with sociological circumstances (e.g. the ideology of the ruling class and of [1] the viewpoint of the official, institutional the uses of music) or with cultural aspects (e.g. with music culture, termed the common culture symbolic meaning and reception). repertoire The culture historic / new musicology paradigm [2] the viewpoint focusing on cultural industry does not ignore the influence and importance of per- and publicity termed the consumer culture sonal actors like composers or musicians in the de- repertoire and velopment of new styles and genres. It sees, however, [3] the viewpoint of street culture labeled the the materialistic conditions or cultural circumstances mosaic culture repertoire (p.72). in society as having greater importance in understanding the development of new styles and genres in music. There are two main standpoints concerning 154 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

ethical principles in the culture historic / new musi- rameters. Which elements and aspects to take into cology paradigm: one, which considers all kind of consideration when defining genres can be roughly music equally worthy of study and another, which summarized by the following quotation: has preferences for specific kinds of music. Brincker et al. may exemplify the latter because of their im- The repetition units that define a musical genre plicit view of commercial music as of lesser aestheti- can be identified on several levels. In the broad- cal value than non-commercial music. est understanding of the concept, they may ex- If we place both the traditional and culture his- tend into the social domain, so that a genre will toric/new musicology paradigm in the context of the be dependent for its definition on context, history of musicology it becomes evident that the function and community validation and not culture historic/new musicology paradigm is an- simply on formal and technical regulation. Thus, chored most strongly in ethnomusicology, and that the repetitions would be located in social, be- the traditional paradigm is anchored most strongly in havioural and even ideological domains as well historical musicology. This can be illustrated by the as in musical materials. (Samson, 2001, p.657) tension between those two sub-disciplines in musicology: This illustrates two complementary approaches to the study of genre, one that focuses on the qualities The contrasts have been so pronounced that of artworks and another that focus on qualities of ex- one might consider historical musicology and perience (Samson, 2001, p.657). ethnomusicology (both of which, in principle, Simon Frith argues that the genre terms in popu- have interests in history and in the place of mu- lar music arise as a result of the music industry’s wish sic in society) as representing the diametrical to make the music a commodity: “Genre is a way of opposites between which most music is played defining music in its market, or alternatively, the out: synchronic-diachronic, art-music - func- market in its music” (Frith, 1998, p.76). He contin- tional music, the élite-the entire society, dy- ues further: namic music-static music, personalized-anony- Genre maps change according to who they’re for. mous, individual-societal, origins known-origins And there is a further complication. The point of a unknown, music as sound-music as culture. music label is, in part, to make coherent the way in (Nettl, 2001, p.308, see also Korsyn, 2003, p.33) which different music media divide the market – record companies, radio stations, music magazines, and 4. Music analysis and music genres concert promoters can only benefit from an agreed definition of, say, heavy metal. But this doesn’t al- 4.1 Defining music genres ways work smoothly, if only because different media, by necessity, map their consumers in different ways. Genre terms in popular music are a result of a his- (Frith, 1998, p.77) torical development inside the field of music. It al- Frith emphasises that there are not any general ways takes some time from when a new musical style valid definitions of the different genre categories; is discovered, until it is accepted as a genre. Fabbri and in different musical discourses and communities suggest that: “A musical genre is a set of musical one would be inclined to both define genre catego- events (real or possible) whose course is governed by ries differently and to use different genre terms. One a definite set of social accepted rules” (1981, p.1). If example of this is how the term RIO (Rock In Op- we look up genre in The New Grove Dictionary of position) has been used among a group of listeners Music and Musician the dictionary article start as fol- and journalists connected to progressive music8, as a lows: “Genre. A class, type or category, sanctioned term for a specific musical style or for some common by convention. Since conventional definitions derive characteristics connected to a specific kind of music (inductively) from concrete particulars, such as mu- (cf., Cutler, 1985, pp.131-135). This is a genre term sical works or musical practices, and are therefore that is rarely used outside this particular musical dis- subject to change, a genre is probably closer to an course. Genre terms rise from the need to be able to ‘ideal type’ (in Max Weber’s sense) than to a Platonic separate musical styles and types from each other ‘ideal form’” (Samson, 2001, p.657). These two quo- (on ground of music’s internal or external aspects). tations emphasise the historical and social aspects in Different musical discourses illustrate different definitions of genres alongside formal musical pa- needs when it comes to the division of music into Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 155 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

different genres. The heavy metal discourse has, for torical perspective it becomes evident that the intro- example, classified music into several sub-genres like duction of particular genre terms often emerge at a doom metal, speed metal, grind core and hard core. specific point in history pronounced by, for instance, The blues discourse would generally not have the a music journalist. This can be exemplified by same need for classifying heavy metal into so many “krautrock.” Krautrock has become, among other sub-genres and even though commercial interests things, a designation for German experimental rock (making music a commodity) influence the need for at the end of the sixties and in the seventies. The genre divisions, it is not the only aspect that influ- background for this designation was the Amon Duul ences the development and use of genre concepts. song Mama Duul und ihre Sauerkrautband Spielt Auf, Genre is a complex area and even more so in the field which ”...came via the English music press’ reporting of popular music, partly because the genre concept on the new wave of German groups, whereby they has been applied differently in classical and popular unintentionally came to name it. Hereafter the wave music. This is probably also due to the influence of got the lightly condensed term krautrock (that an Aristotelian concept theory in the categorization means ‘cabbage-rock’)” (Marstal & Moos, 2001, of genres in classical music with a focus on line-up, p.135; author’s translation). instrumentation, musical form and so on. Here, the Afterwards, such genre concepts often became focus has been more on characteristics that are easier part of a canon in the history of music, which is re- to measure compared to others that are more fluid, peated in newer literature. Historically defined genre such as the elements that constitutes rock. This is concepts are repeated in music literature until music one reason why little has been done in musicology to historians obtain new knowledge about the subject, define genres more precisely. An example of this is or until they view it from a different angle or para- what we find on the subject “rock” in two different digm. Some actors in the domain of music have dictionaries of music: Middleton’s (2001) description precedence over others concerning which genre con- of rock in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and cepts that become accepted. This is in accordance Musicians and Slonimsky’s (1998,) description of with Kuhn’s view (1970). rock in Webster’s New World Dictionary of Music. My view is that the traditional paradigm in musi- They demonstrate that many genre categories are de- cology has precedence over other paradigms in musi- fined highly historically, which means that they are cology with the understanding of music, and hence connected to the historical evolution of music. They the understanding of genre. This is also evident when are descriptive in their nature with few strictly drawn we look at how libraries have understood these con- borders. Such historical definitions may serve some cepts. There exists a wide range of verbalization of functions, but when we are going to use them as ac- music and musical genres. Concerning popular mu- tive subject terms in a phonographic database, a clari- sic, however, only a small part of this verbalization is fication of the genre categories that includes other probably reaching the “canonic” history books of elements and methods/approaches is much needed. music, or the organization of music in musicology, This analysis points to a possible relationship be- or the libraries’ indexing and classification (partly tween paradigms and genres: Genre analysis in the due to a lack of interest in musicology in certain ar- traditional paradigm (primary classical music) has eas). The genre concepts used by journalists, listen- been dominated by the “qualities of artwork ap- ers, scholars, librarians, and the music industry have proach” while genre analysis in the culture historic / varied histories and starting points. Different tradi- new musicology paradigm (primary popular music tions, paradigms and values inside the music domain and ethno-music) has been dominated by the “quali- are influencing the verbalization of music. ties of experience” approach. 4.3 Analyzing music exemplified by popular music and 4.2 Actors responsible for the verbalization of genres the connection to values/paradigms in popular music Three main approaches to the analysis of popular From the point of view of indexing and organizing music that Björnberg (1991) outlines, will now be music, an important question is: Which actors are represented: sponsible for the verbalization of the music and the building of music terminology? In this paper we have 1. Structural analysis of music focused on the verbalization that musicology exhibits 2. Sociological analysis through actors like music historians. Viewed in a his- 3. Semiotic analysis 156 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

The description of these three approaches, together Björnberg 1991). Maróthy points to the style marks with the prior analysis, is the point of departure for that characterize the two musical directions and how connecting different methods for analyzing music to they have developed historically. This example is also different paradigms in musicology. Ørom’s (2003) a historical treatment of the problem, which is not suggestions of different paradigms in the domain of typical in structural analysis where an ahistoric ap- art-studies have also been helpful. proach is equally common. The structural approach For several reasons, sociological analysis has is typical for the analysis of music from the point of dominated research in popular music. Carlsson & view of the traditional paradigm. We can also call it Ling (1980, p. 301-323; rendered after Björnberg, the stylistic paradigm and it is interesting here to 1991) mention the absence of adequate analytical compare musicology with the domain of art studies. methods in the study of popular music. “Sound,” for Ørom (2003) has outlined some paradigms in the example, is important in separating different genres domain of art-studies and one of those paradigms is from each other in popular music. It is not, however, comparable to the stylistic paradigm we find in musi- something that is regarded by traditional methods cology: for analyzing music. Moreover, the assumption of the traditional paradigm that popular music as some- Based on stylistic characteristics Wöllfin thing simpler or less complex compared to art-music, grouped works into related categories. This has probably influenced much analysis of popular meant that the analysis of style became the ba- music from the beginning. If one treats popular mu- sis and defining method of the stylistic para- sic as something simpler and of lower value, the im- digm in art history and the object was the plication is quite likely to be that one would not fo- works of art belonging to high culture. In a cus so much on the inner structure of the music; the more specific sense the object of the stylistic music is expected to be simple, and not much is ex- paradigm is the formal aspects of the work of pected to be gained from a structure analysis point of art (style, composition, way of painting and the view. The culture historic/new musicology paradigm, like). (Ørom, 2003) on the other hand, has influenced much research on popular music. It has, however, focused more on We can connect this to musicology’s focus on style music as culture, than on music as structure of when it becomes institutionalized after 1900 sound. Together these factors have produced a socio- (Bengtsson, 1973). In addition, we could say that the logical bias in the analysis of popular music. traditional paradigm in section 3 is highly overlap- Within these three main approaches, the different ping with Ørom’s (2003) stylistic paradigm. While kinds of methods applied will be influenced by dif- the analysis of musical structure and the tradi- ferent epistemologies and philosophies of sciences. tional/stylistic paradigm often have been connected One typical example is the quantitative method, to a positivistic philosophy of science (Kerman, which owes much to a positivistic philosophy of sci- 1985, p.31-59), this is not always the case. ence. In concrete music research and analysis there The idealistic tradition, or traditional paradigm, are, of course, other approaches, in addition to those regards the musical work as the product of a sover- three outlined below, and instances of approaches eign composer, akin to Ørom (2003): “As a conse- combined. And in the case of analysis of popular quence of the focus on styles the intertextuality is music, one could generally argue that most of the lit- limited to works of art, i.e. the history of art is con- erature on the analysis of popular music is character- ceived of as an autonomous history. The content ised by a fairly pragmatic use of traditional analytical analysis, i.e. the meaning of the works of art, is be- methods (Björnberg 1991). yond the horizon of this paradigm.” Hansen et al. discussed in section 3.1 offer, with the reservations 4.3.1 Structural analysis (Stylistic paradigm) pointed out in that section, an example of an organization of music from the stylistic perspective. The structural analysis of music focuses mainly on the inner structure of the musical work, both in a 4.3.2 Sociological analysis (materialistic paradigm) single musical work or whole genres or styles. An example is seen in Maróthys analysis of style features Sociological analysis of popular music focuses on in “bourgeois” versus “proletarian” music from the how social factors influence music. Adorno (1976, middle age up until today (1974, rendered after p.30-47, rendered after Björnberg 1991) was quite Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 157 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

avant-garde when he formulated his theories on mu- material, rather than intra-musical or sociological re- sic and sociology. He points to how the industrial lations. Many of the studies in this field have utilized production of popular music has led to a standardisa- methods that are only loosely connected to estab- tion of musical forms. The two main areas of interest lished theories in semiotics (Bjørnberg, 1991). This for sociological analysis are the production and con- is quite natural as musical communication is different sumption of music. Many of the studies on the pro- from nonverbal and verbal communication, both oral duction of music have focused on the economic and communication and communication through written political factors that have “ruled” the production of language. Music does not have the same strictness in popular music. This particular focus is, according to the rules applying to meaning that one normally Bjørnberg (1991), a result of the strong growth of finds in the languages, where there often would be a the music industry after the Second World War. The consensus on the meaning of different sign constella- sociological analysis is closely tied to what Ørom tions within the same cultural context. Björnberg ex- calls the materialistic paradigm: plains it in the following way:

A third paradigm in – or approach to – art his- In discussions concerning sense and meaning in tory is materialistic and is generally known as music, it is often emphasised that music is non- the social history of art…The paradigm is based referential: unlike verbal language musical on “the Marxist thesis that the economic base structures lack denotations, and musical mean- conditions the cultural superstructure and that ing arises through those connotations or asso- as a result styles vary according to the character ciations which the music cause in relationship of the dominant class”. (Fernie, 1995, p.18). to the listener. (1991, p.51; author’s translation) Within this paradigm the social functions of art and the sociology of art are studied. (Ørom, Other researchers, however, see this differently, and 2003) Middleton argues against analyses which only consider the connotative aspects, or meaning, of music, As already demonstrated in section 3.1, Brincker et because this: “…ha[s] a tendency to ignore the se- al. is an example of an organization of music from mantic process which is connected to the syntactical the materialistic point of view. This becomes even structure of music”(1990, p.220ff, rendered after clearer when we look at Ørom’s remarks on the ma- Björnberg 1991, p.51; author’s translation). terialistic paradigm: We can connect the semiotic analysis to Ørom’s description of the iconographic paradigm in relation The works of art are considered as integrated to art-studies – even though there are some obvious elements in the historical and social context. It differences: means that the materialistic conception of art is opposed to the general Western idea of the The iconography analysis (which included a autonomous art. The materialistic paradigm stylistic analysis) aims at the interpretation of aims at analyzing meaning and the function of the intrinsic and symbolical meaning of images. art in the context of material, social, political The interpretation of this intrinsic meaning is and ideological structures. (Ørom, 2003) based on the study of contemporary philosophy and literature…The focus of the icono- Importantly, the materialistic paradigm exceeds the graphic paradigm is on allegorical and symbolic sociological analysis but is nonetheless connected to meaning…The research object of the icono- it. Similarly, the culture historic/new musicology graphic paradigm is the meaning of the works paradigm is exceeding the materialistic paradigm, be- of art. In general the meaning is interpreted in cause, even though we can regard new musicology as the cultural context. (Ørom, 2003) connected to the materialistic paradigm, it contains a wider range of perspectives. One of the obvious differences is that Ørom’s iconoclastic paradigm is focusing on high culture and 4.3.3 Semiotic analysis (iconographic paradigm) that analysis, in this paradigm, may use other methods, such as content analysis. In addition, it is easy to Semiotic analysis of popular music is engaged in imagine that different kinds of semiotic analysis are finding the meaning, or significance, in the musical indebted to either the stylistic paradigm or the mate- 158 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

rialistic paradigm or both, dependent on which semi- respect to the reception of music. This problem be- otic tradition the researcher supports. We can also, comes reinforced by many of the genre categories to some extent, compare the iconographic paradigm that are used in the classification of popular music with the culture historic/new musicology paradigm and especially by the lack of a theoretical basis for where the iconographic paradigm can be considered defining them. Context, traditions and history are of to be one part of new musicology, the part that fo- course vital and important parts of analyzing and cuses on music as cultural signs and symbols and categorizing music, but if this is the only focus, it re- which is connected to the anthropological view. duces music to a mere product of external factors. Both the “work centred” and the “context centred” 4.4 The traditional paradigm and the culture analysis stand in danger of omitting important as- historic/new musicology paradigm and their pects of music if it does not consider and incorporate consequences for analysis of music the opposite method.

The traditional paradigm has stressed form and con- 5 Genre as subject access criterion tent (syntax) in the analysis and classification of music (for example, at the form level: sonata, suite and 5.1 Classification and indexing of music through the symphony9). One aspect of the traditional paradigm lenses of DK5 and Indeksering af musik that is perhaps even more important is the omission of socio-cultural context, which naturally could be Traditional classification systems like Dewey or DK5 drawn upon in the division of music into genres. have been used both for shelf arrangement and for Why are those context dependent elements not given catalogues. In modern electronic catalogues many more weight? We might find the link by looking at kinds of subject access points are available. For ex- what we have written about epistemological back- ample, more than one classification system may be ground for the idealistic tradition (section 3.3). used. Libraries can reuse classifications and indexing Would context be important in analyzing music and from other libraries, for example from Library of division into genres, if the individual’s freedom and Congress. Classifications thus need not be con- mental sovereignty were dominant? In my opinion, it strained by the demands raised by shelving. All pos- would not. Probably the focus on the single musical sible subject access points have to be regarded as work and the single composer in the traditional competing and supplementary systems for subject paradigm has its background in this worldview. access to collections of documents (cf., Hjørland & The traditional paradigm’s aesthetic and ideologi- Nielsen, 2001). cal distinction between art-music as something Classification and indexing can be seen as rela- “high” and popular music as something “low,” illumi- tively similar activities. They may be more or less dif- nates the connection between the traditional para- ferent depending on the specific conditions and sys- digm’s epistemology and methods. This distinction tems used. A classification system is, in principle, a between “high” and “low” has lead to less interest in controlled vocabulary as is, for example, a thesaurus. analyzing popular music with respect to structure in Such systems share the condition that they operate this tradition and to a larger interest in sociological with a set of fixed categories and concepts (e.g. genre perspectives when popular music was regarded at all. categories), which the indexer is bound to use as op- The culture historic/new musicology paradigm has posed to indexing systems based on “free” or uncon- further emphasized the sociological and historical trolled terms. Any system based on controlled vo- perspective in the analysis of popular music. cabulary thus has to deal with some kind of classifi- The weakness of the sociological/historical point cation of subject access information, such as genres. of view is that it may reduce the music to only a product of a given “sub-culture,” and that it can have 5.1.1 Genre classification in DK5 problems with capturing music that mixes several styles and genres, or cases where the artist is more or This section presents how the DK5 system has clas- less on the sideline of the dominating “sub-cultures.” sified popular music in genre (cf., Dansk Biblioteks In my opinion it is narrowing if music is treated Center, 1997/1999), illustrating how the traditional more with respect to traditions and methods of pro- paradigm in musicology still influences the organiz- duction, context, history etc., than with respect to ing of music in libraries. As already mentioned, less the music in itself (content and expression) and with than one page is dedicated to classification of popu- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 159 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

lar music in DK5. Class no. 78.79 with the class label 5.1.2 Genre division in Indeksering af musik Blues. Jazz. Beat. Viser [Ballads]. Evergreens. Sclagere [indexing of music] [Hits] is dedicated to classification of popular music. In addition, there are some possibilities to subdivide Indeksering af musik (Dansk Biblioteks Center, these classes. In the subdivision of Beat (with the 1996/1998) was written as an answer to a concrete class label: Rock (Beat). Moderne folkemusik [Mod- need in the libraries to work out subject indexing of ern folk-music (Folk)]) at 78.794 are the possibilities recorded music. This need had been documented by for further division as follows: a pre-investigation done by Dansk Biblioteks Center, DBC [The Danish Bibliographical Centre] in con- .794:2 Country & Western (hillbilly) nection with finding out how to start a subject pro- .794:3 Rhythm & blues ject in the field of music (Hanghøj Petersen, 1995, .794:4 Soul p.13-14). Based on this background, DBC produced .794:5 Rock’n roll. Rock. Folk Indeksering af musik as an indexing guide for librar-

ies. In the introduction it says: It is tempting to question whether this genre division has ever functioned well. It is lacking all genre and This guide in subject-indexing of music is based sub-genre that has appeared in the last 30 years, for on the music itself and those media or docu- example, progressive rock, punk, new wave, disco, ments that is contributing to maintain and ar- techno, hip-hop and many more. It is also important range it, first and foremost notes and phono- to note that all genres mentioned above are promi- grams. (Dansk Biblioteks Center, 1996/1998, nent “historical” genre that have appeared in the area introduction; author’s translation) of popular music from the late sixties until today. It is difficult to express the manifold of contemporary In the introductory chapter, subject analysis is treated popular music with such an undifferentiated division. and sub chapter 1.2.2.1 introduces a checklist of ele- If a library has only a small collection it is possible ments that can be crucial in making decisions regard- for the user to find what he is looking for, but, for ing subject terms for a given document. On this comprehensive collections of music, the number of checklist genre/style is mentioned first, and some classes is evidently problematic. The specificity of comments are added: the terminology is simply inadequate for retrieval. Although classification of recorded music in DK5 Does the musical recording belong to a certain is different from its indexing, it is important to con- genre or style? - a musical expression which is sider that classification is also often used as the basis often connected to either a certain time (pe- for the indexing of popular music. Classification, in riod), a certain place (nation, region) and/or a many cases, is one of the ruling factors helping to certain environment (social, by age, by race). decide which main subject term each document is (Dansk Biblioteks Center 1996/1998, 1.2.2.1; given. Some libraries have taken the initiative and author’s translation) have provided more categories. However, if there are not noticeably more categories than there are subdi- We are here given some cues of what is considered visions in DK5, this does not help much. The main important to take into consideration when deciding a branch of the public library in Copenhagen, for ex- phonogram’s genre or style. We are not, however, ample, still uses large categories like jazz, rock/pop given any elaborate consideration on what consti- etc., in shelving, explaining why the retrieval of rele- tutes different genres or styles. We find also in sub- vant music is very difficult if the name of the art- chapter 1.2.1.1 an account of the investigation of the ist/composer is unknown 10. document: “A complete listening of the phonogram Even though classification and indexing are two would normally be impossible – and not necessary. operations that may be applied independently in or- But the indexer should guard oneself against over- der to supplement each other and to enhance genre looking useful information” (Dansk Biblioteks Cen- retrieval, this does not seems to be the case in prac- ter, 1996/1998; author’s translation]). tice. The end of the guide lists the sources one should examine when describing genre, such as databases, encyclopedias, Internet, information from record companies, reviews and inquiries to subject specialists. Chapter 2 deals with principles for assignment 160 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

of subject terms and chapter 3 deals with the shaping ferent genres? What is it that constitutes a musical of the same subject terms. Chapter 5 is about index- genre, and what lies behind the terms that have been ing practices, which is of course highly relevant in used? The different genre concepts or terms are not this context. This applies especially to sub chapter defined; neither in DK5 nor in Indeksering af musik. 5.4: [Subject-terms on the music’s genre or style]. What is, for example, the definition of rock? Such Under the topic “non-classical music” is written: definitions should not necessarily have been included but it becomes a major problem when there does not Subject-terms should be provided for main- exist any generally valid classification criteria of the genres...: rock, jazz, blues, gospel, folk-music genre categories in popular music. (but not entertainment) as well as for sub- Those who search for rock music in databases will genres: hip hop, heavy metal, techno, folk, soul, have their own definitions and understandings of country, swing, bop, fiddlers-music, kletzmer what rock music is. These definitions are not neces- and so on, along with sub-genres’ sub-genres. sarily the same as those held by indexers. We touch (Dansk Biblioteks Center (1996/1998) 5.4.1.3; here a well-known problem in human indexing, author’s translation) namely: inconsistency. And even though this is impossible to completely eliminate in real life, this in- Further practices for subject assignment of music consistency is much more prominent because there is that mix several genres are outlined. One is here a lack of theoretically founded definitions in this asked to weigh the most prominent genre, and, if field. There should be a theoretical foundation and possible to use well established crossover genres like description of the genre concepts that have been fusion (jazz/rock). used in a given database of phonograms. The elec- Compared to DK5 there are greater possibilities tronic catalogues in Deichman Public Library (in in Indeksering af musik for providing a document a Oslo) and the electronic catalogue in Copenhagen more specific subject term. This is clearly an advan- Public Library and other visited libraries, do not con- tage and it provides possibilities for greater differen- tain such definitions with regard to recorded music. tiation of genres. One can, however, still ask how There are some attempts of making definitions of adequate the division of main genres is: rock, jazz, genres in music databases available on the Internet. blues, gospel and folk music, or whether they are the Allmusic.com is an example, but it is preliminary and main genres. (They are, by the way, similar to the raises the question of authority. If there had been a most important classes in DK5). When sub-genres stronger theoretical basis for the genres used in li- are mentioned, the implication must be that there is a brary databases, it would be helpful for the users. connection between a sub-genre and the broader Users would have something to connect to the gen- genre. What is then, for example, hip hop a sub- res and it would be easier to find what is searched genre of? It is also important to stress that in index- for. The problem is especially pressing concerning ing there are greater possibilities to assign several recordings that are difficult to place under only one subject terms to the same document, where a goal in genre category, or concerning music that has not classification is often to be able to place a document been placed under a historical period or genre by in one category only (especially in classification sys- music historians. tems designed for shelve arrangement). Often there are many complementary (or contra- There is no need to criticize Indeksering af musik dictory) subject index terms assigned to a musical re- for elements that the authors obviously consider cord in addition to the main genre category (cf., the outside the scope of the guide. Nonetheless, it seems electronic catalogues in Deichman Public Library and to be taken for granted that there exists a set of “given” in Copenhagen Public Library). This is an attempt to and unproblematic genre terms. Further, what is as- cope with the problem of the lack of a theoretical sumed to be problematical for the indexer is how to ground for defining and indexing genres in popular place each document in the correct genre. The au- music. This is probably done in order to make sure thors are by no means ignorant of the existence of that different users with different mappings of gen- new and uncertain genres, but they do not address res can retrieve a given record. This may be a fruitful this problem. The guide says nothing about how you ideal but it is a problem that this strategy is not con- are supposed to identify the documents belonging to sistent through the whole catalogues because it is the different genres. And here we are at the core of based on the individual indexer’s knowledge and the problem concerning: what characterizes the dif- choices. In addition, it does not display the relation- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 161 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

ship between different genre terms. The users are not of describing a genre is to point to a prototype ex- provided with the basis for how the different genre ample of it. The French group Magma can thus be terms have been applied. This basis is probably con- seen as both a prototype example and the historic nected with different pre-understandings of the mu- origin of the subgenre “zeuhl” in progressive rock. sic and connected to different musical discourses and Something like this prototype approach has probably to different paradigms in musicology. been the dominating factor in the genre indexing of popular music. 5.2 Epistemology of genre and subject indexing “Reading indexing” Indexing The second approach to genre indexing is based, to a When a librarian or an information specialist is in- higher degree, on placing music within a “canonic” dexing music by genres they will not normally per- history of music and its categorization of genres. The form a thorough analysis of the music at hand. It is indexer is here not primarily listening to the music, obvious that the methods used for placing a concrete but uses written sources (e.g. music history books, record into a genre category is different from the music dictionaries, information from the record inlay methods a musicologist uses when analyzing music. etc.) to be able to assign indexing terms. Some of The goal is to make a subject analysis rather than a this knowledge is typically provided by other actors regular music analysis. A subject analysis implies, ac- in musicology (e.g., through music dictionaries), and cording to Hjørland, “…an interpretation of the po- in those cases their views on knowledge organization tential of the document (or other information en- will be more prominent than the indexer’s view. This tity) in relation to the knowledge interests” (1997, approach is more dominant in indexing of classical p.41). This assumption was confirmed through con- music. One reason for this is that genres in classical versations with two librarians and the musician music are more strongly connected to measurable working in the Deichman Public Library and the Ber- features, such as musical form and instrumentation, gen Public Library. From these interviews there as compared to genres in popular music. One of the emerged two main approaches to genre indexing of librarians in the interview remarked that, in the in- recorded music. These will be outlined below and dexing of classical music, the focus is generally more connected to two important theories of concepts and factual in comparison to the indexing of popular mu- classifications (Aristotle and Wittgenstein). sic. This leads to the assertion that this type of indexing is more connected to the traditional paradigm in “Listening indexing” musicology. In this kind of indexing, structural formal features are more prominent, because this is the The first approach to genre indexing of music could way the traditional paradigm in musicology has pri- be characterized by applying a set of more uncon- marily analyzed music. This seems related to an Aris- scious methods rather than a fixed set of conscious totelian theory of concept and classification where methods that seek specific elements or aspects of the the music that is put in the same genre category must music. This kind of “listening indexing” is an opera- share a set of some more specific characteristic (position that is more based on musical intuition and mu- tive given), which must be different from music sical experience as the frame for placing the music in placed in other categories (cf., Sutcliffe, 1993, pp.35- a genre category. “Listening indexing” is often based 65). This theory of concepts is discussed by Ander- on resemblance between the indexed document and sen, who states: “…an ancient discussion whether what the indexer has formerly experienced. “Listen- concepts are defined by necessary and sufficient con- ing indexing” could lead to an argument in favour of ditions which hold for all instances of the concept in a theory of family resemblance based on the philoso- question, or if a concept can only be explicated by phy of Ludwig Wittgenstein. Such a theory could typical examples” (2002, p.96). And Andersen (2002) form the theoretical basis to genre concepts and be further adds that during most of the 20th century the used in the construction of a taxonomy of musical former has dominated modern philosophy. genres. This way of viewing the relationship between The prototype theory applied to musical genres a genre concept and the concrete records is related to may have its weakness in providing many border the so-called prototype theory of concepts developed cases of music with regard to genre, and in making it by the psychologist Eleanor Rosch (1978). This way difficult to define genres more explicitly. It is, of 162 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

course, not possible to define a set of genre catego- given users; for example, by considering the sym- ries that is completely mutually exclusive and unam- bolic meaning of the music. biguous, but it should be possible to improve the The second aspect is connected to the establish- definitions of genre concepts considerably in relation ment of genre categories. Again, different episte- to their use in retrieval systems. The strength of the mologies are at play, e.g., by defining genres solely prototype theory is: “…that a family resemblance ac- on positivistic quantitative measurement of struc- count of concept seemed to reflect the actual use of tures in music. We have already seen in section 3 concept much better than an account of necessary how two different paradigms imply different genre and sufficient conditions” (Andersen, 2002, p.96). categories. Such categories are never “neutral” or And connected to music, this seems to be the case for “objective,” and there are not any generally valid the way we normally experience genre. The strength definitions or understanding of the genre terms that of the Aristotelian theory of concept is that it is pos- are used in popular music, even though the genre sible to provide more precise definitions of genre terms have content and meaning for most of the categories based on some agreed characteristics in people that use them. As already demonstrated, the the music or connected to the music. The weakness traditional paradigm in musicology valued popular of this view is that it is a simplification of the reality music as something “low” aesthetically compared to and that, in many cases, it is unable to grasp the way “high” aesthetically valued classical music, which has we normally experience genre and define genre con- influenced the way popular music has been classified cepts. The points made in this section can be further in different genre categories. illustrated by the following statement: One may also consider that different views may have suppressed the interest in the genre concept it- The ways in which we describe and categorize self. The culture historic/new musicology has failed music, and how we actually hear and experience to contribute to more differentiated genre categories music, are two different worlds. Terms and in the organization of music. This is partly due to categorizations belong to the world of ideology, their main interest in music as culture at the expense and they tell about the society’s history and tra- of interest in music as an aesthetic object. ditions. The historical tradition expressed in Despite the range of new perspectives in musicol- words can clash with the consciousness born ogy, which may be labeled “new musicology,”11 the out of experiences… (Talja, 2001, p.7) traditional paradigm is still strong. This is evident in much research and even more evident in the classifi- Epistemological aspects cation and indexing of music in libraries. Classifica- tion schemes like DK5 is an example of this. To sub- Epistemology has two different implications for stantiate this argument, the role of the libraries in the genre indexing. First, we have the decision to assign a process of producing and organizing knowledge will piece of music a given classification of genres. When be considered. The role of libraries has traditionally we are going to analyze a phonogram we need to use been to collect and organize the more authoritative certain methods. These methods must include crite- and established kinds of knowledge. Such knowledge ria that enable us to pull out the information we need will typically first mark itself out when we are able to in order to place the music in a genre. Those criteria look at it in a historic context – in this case, from the or approaches can be conscious or unconscious but context of the history of musicology. The libraries they will nonetheless always be connected to a world will typically be one step behind the “state of the art” view, which is again connected to paradigms and in musicology, which will again be one step behind epistemology. Epistemologically, such classificatory the state of the art in the music itself. In section two decisions may be substantiated in different ways. A it was argued for a comprehensive definition of the classification of basic epistemological positions can music domain. This view makes it possible to view be found, for example, in Hjørland (2002b, p.269). and define genres from different epistemological po- An empirical epistemology tends to substantiate the sitions by focusing on more than one kind of actor in decision of assigning an item to a class by using “ob- the discourse communities. jective” criteria, such as the instruments used or a given sound pattern. A pragmatic epistemology, on the other hand, tends to substantiate the classificatory decisions by pointing to the consequences for Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 163 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

5.3 Genre indexing as a perspective of the 6 Summary and conclusions music-domain Section 2 considered music as a domain. Within the It seems as if there has been a lack of will in musicol- overall field of music, two subdomains related re- ogy and in libraries to do something more active to spectively to classical and popular music were intro- create a theoretical basis for classification of the dif- duced. These two subdomains have, to a large degree, ferent genre categories in music. This impression was different actors, institutions and processes. We have confirmed by Morten Michelsen at the Institution of also seen that the two subdomains normally differ in Musicology, Copenhagen, who said that classifica- their ways of analyzing and describing music (e.g., in tion of genres in popular music, and the work with genres) by applying different criteria originating their definitions, are something that generally has low from different “paradigms.” It is argued that a com- priority in musicology. This article has pointed out prehensive definition of the domain of music is the through the thoroughfare of DK5 and Indeksering af best starting point for organizing and analyzing mu- musik, the absence of theoretical underpinnings for sic. The holistic perspective is important: The or- choices of genre categories; and this can illustrate the ganization of musical knowledge should regard the same lack of interest for development of differenti- whole field of music and not just certain sub-fields ated genre-categories in the libraries. The domain- or paradigms inside the field. Depending on the goal analytic perspective could be helpful in the building of the organization, many possible perspectives on of an adequate theoretical basis for defining genre music, as well as many kinds of music, may turn out categories. With the comprehensive definition of the to be valuable for knowledge organization. The goals, music domain in mind, domain analysis could enable purposes, values, epistemologies and paradigms of us to draw on more perspectives that cross traditions different classification schemes or indexing practices and schools in musicology and also utilize other ac- should be made explicit for the user of those system. tors contributing to the knowledge of music. This Thus, in addition to mapping the field of music as would bring into consideration the breadth and this is now done in mainstream musicology, we need complexity of the field of popular music. to supplement with other approaches and sub-fields A main point here is my assertion that much of music, in order to enable an analysis and organiza- knowledge concerning genres in popular music re- tion of the music domain not limited to paradigms in sides outside the traditional music institutions, musicology such as the traditional or the culture his- among a group of actors labeled as “professional lis- toric/new musicology paradigm. This paper argues teners.”12 The point of departure of “professional” for the inclusion of many perspectives and views and listeners is often not the same as the point of depar- for a modified paradigm in organizing music in li- ture of the more institutionalized parts of the music braries and databases. This argumentation implies the domain or the music industry; the former is not review that the domain of music is not necessarily search or profit, but connected to enjoyment and the identical to how musicology has hitherto defined it. value of the personal experience. The music knowl- It appears as if the libraries have often taken over edge that resides in the “professional listeners” is, to a the classification and organization of music from mu- higher degree, unwritten and is, in some cases, not sicology, and that they have done this without taking even verbalized. Much of the verbalization of this into consideration the underdeveloped status of re- knowledge is found in smaller magazines, in under- search in popular music, even though the shortcom- ground fanzine’s, in local radio shows, in sub-cul- ings of this organization have been recognised among tures and so on. Imagine the die-hard heavy-metal librarians. This is also the case in many classification fan that can easily tell the difference between black- schemes, of which DK5, the Danish modified and death-metal, something that is almost impossible Dewey-system, is an example. Libraries have encoun- to hear without having extensive experience of this tered difficulties when the amount of popular music kind of music. This highlights the importance of ex- started to increase in the library collection because tensive domain specific knowledge in the classifica- there is not any well-developed and well-functional tion of different music genres, which is today lacking taxonomy that can meet the multiplicity in this field. in libraries, as well as in musicology. We should start In section 3, two Danish histories of music written collecting and using the more formalized verbaliza- from two different theoretical or paradigmatic points tion caused by those actors. This would typically be of view were examined. The two books offer empiri- through written material in magazines, fanzines, cal evidence on how different views affect the way books or on the Internet.13 music is labeled, described, defined and organized. 164 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

Each paradigm tends to develop, to some extent, its tems are not seen as accidental, but as connected to own terminology, its own system of periods, its own the status that popular music has received in the tra- system of musical genres, as well as its own theoreti- ditional paradigm, where it has been considered as cal view on the causes that have formed the history representing low aesthetical value. Because popular of music, the functions that music have, the value of music has not been considered worthy of structural different kinds of music, what music is considered analysis in the traditional paradigm and, moreover, worthy of study and – in the end – different defini- because music as culture has been stressed in the cul- tions of what music is. This has very important con- ture historic /new musicology paradigm, a socio- sequences for theories on how to select and organize cultural based analysis in mainstream musicology as music in libraries and databases. Any specific solu- well as in libraries. The analysis of the popular music tion will always be more related to some views than in itself (its content or expression) has been ne- to others. The two examples were followed by con- glected. This is problematic because the music itself sideration of some general connections in musicol- is of fundamental importance for the organization of ogy between sub-fields, research methods, paradigms music in differentiated genre categories. In this sec- and values. Two main paradigms in musicology were tion we have also regarded two different theoretical outlined: the traditional paradigm and the culture approaches of viewing concepts and the nature of the historic/new musicology paradigm. relationship between concepts (the Aristotelian the- Section 4 pointed to different factors that have ory of concept and “prototype” theory). They both been dominant in defining genres in popular music in have strengths and weaknesses, which are discussed. musicology. The factors that have been stressed are What have we discovered about the relation be- external factors connected to socio-cultural context. tween genre indexing of popular music and episte- This section has further focused on actors responsi- mological presupposition, values and ideologies? ble for the verbalization of genres in popular music First of all, we have seen that there is a connection where music historians have had precedence over between the elements above. The connection between other actors. Research in popular music is both con- genre indexing of popular music and epistemology nected to and delimited from research in classical has most clearly been found in the methods that are music. This is seen as a factor influencing the ap- used to analyze popular music and the way genres proaches used in the analysis of popular music. The have been divided and classified. We have seen that most important methods used to analyze music are the type of context based sociological methods that structural analysis (associated with the stylistic para- have their basis in positivism are those that have most digm), sociological analysis (connected to the materi- strongly influenced the analysis and on how genres in alistic paradigm) and semiotic analysis (connected to popular music are divided in the traditional paradigm. the iconographic paradigm). An attempt was made But the idealistic tradition has also influenced the not to draw overly precise lines in the analysis of classification and the analysis of popular music. paradigms or to outline all possible paradigms in mu- How could one build a theoretical foundation for sicology. The purpose is rather to demonstrate that organizing music and for defining and indexing gen- it is relevant to argue for the existence of different res? It can be done by viewing the music in perspec- paradigms in musicology, as well as to demonstrate tive of the domain analytical approach (Hjørland & that they are related to paradigms that can be found Albrechtsen, 1995). It would facilitate the use of in- in other aesthetic domains (cf., Ørom, 2003a+b). terdisciplinary methods, for example, the combina- Paradigms in musicology may be considered part of tion of music-structural, sociological and semiotic broader traditions or macro-sociological discourses analysis and the inclusion of other perspectives in the in, for example, history of art and cultural history theoretical foundation for defining genre categories. (cf., Talja, 2001).14 It will also provide a point of departure for mapping Section 5 showed that the actual possibilities for the knowledge and terminology of music. Librarians using genre as subject indexing in popular music are and information specialists can have an advantage faced with difficulties because adequate definitions compared to musicologists precisely by being able to of genres are lacking, as is the theoretical foundation consider more perspectives from the listeners’ posi- for deciding the basis on which to construct such tion. They could also utilize the knowledge of actors genre concepts. This has been exemplified in the in the domain that has not normally played a role in context of knowledge organization with DK5 and the organization of musical knowledge (e.g. “profes- Indeksering af musik. The shortcomings in these sys- sional listeners”). The domain analytic perspective Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 165 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

also offers inspiration from other domains (such as Notes art) and the study of how such fields have both similarities and differences. This might provide more 1 The term “discourse” is used in a comprehensive precise and comprehensive knowledge of the domain meaning in this article, including both a macro- of music, which can be applied to improve the in- sociological approach (Talja, 2001, p. 3) and a mi- formation services in general and the genre division cro-sociological approach. Some discourses can in particular. If such differentiated and theoretical be unique and connected to a specific context, for well-founded genre taxonomy is incorporated in li- example, a jazz discourse at a specific jazz club. brary catalogues and databases, can access and re- 2 For a comprehensive definition of the discipline trieval of music be highly improved. of musicology see Adler (1885). A task for the library community could be to help 3 Bengtsson (1973) points to various definitions of build a new paradigm which is based on music con- art-music (classical music) where there has been sidered as a whole field. It could be a kind of anthro- attempt to establish some criteria on the different pological based paradigm like the one Ruud (1992) elements connected to music. According to argues for. The anthropological based paradigm is Bengtsson, the first criterion is connected to: concerned with the relationship between music and “...that the art-music is a product of relative com- the socio-cultural context in which the music func- plicated and hierarchical society with obvious dif- tions. Its starting point is to regard sound structures ferentiation of different kind of work tasks on as socially constructed, both in the sense that they different kind of occupational groups” (Bengts- have been created socially, and by recognizing the son 1973, p.14; author’s translation). However, meaning they get from a social interpretation by a he puts forward one criterion that he deems more listener. According to Ruud, “Listening is to be un- suitable: “...the existence of conscious musical derstood as a strategic action more than a mechanical abstraction, consequently a piece of music theo- scanning” (1992, p.82), and meaning in music is not ry (and/or music-ethnology)” (Bengtsson 1973, immanent but is dependent on cultural positions. p.14; author’s translation). Another important characteristic of such an anthro- In addition he mentions the institutionalisation pological paradigm is that it does not make a distinc- of professional musicians and the emergence of tion between “high” classical music and “low” popu- special groups of recipients: “...whose educational lar music.15 At the same time, however, the musical level and material level at the same time give birth structures, the musical work and its creators, as well to a ‘art-music’ and a adequate music-linguistic as music reception and use, should be regarded as ‘competence’ to understand it” (1973, p.14; au- important. All this should be applied in the construc- thor’s translation) as an additional criterion. tion of a theoretical foundation for genre-categories. 4 The background for the founding of IASPM (The The new paradigm should utilize the knowledge pro- International Association for the Study of Popu- vided by the existing paradigms in musicology (e.g., lar Music) was Philip Tagg and Gerard Kempers traditional paradigm and the culture historic/new decision to attempt to improve the popular mu- musicology paradigm). At the same time, however, it sic’s status, position and methods inside musicol- should be based on theories and knowledge of ogy. This led to the organising of The First Inter- knowledge organization, goals, uses, users, etc. in the national Conference on Popular Music Studies in context of library and information science. Here it is Amsterdam in 1981, where among others Charles important to acknowledge the wide range of actors Hamm, Paul Oliver, Simon Frith, Günter Mayer in the music domain and that values and meanings and Franco Fabbri participate. The result was the connected to music may exist on several levels and be foundation of IASPM. IASPM`s goal was: “...to regarded from different perspectives (Abrahamsen, act as an international, interdisciplinary and in- 2003). The organization of knowledge is never neu- terprofessional association dedicated to the seri- tral and the users should ideally be provided with dif- ous study of popular music” (Tagg, 2001, p.2). ferent perspectives and at least be informed of the The foundation of such an organisation is an in- perspective that is chosen in e.g., a phonographic da- dicator of the need of some completely new tabase. This might provide a greater understanding of methods and approaches for the study of popular the genre categorization on the part of the user and music. it might enable a higher level of access to recorded 5 The music ensemble The Science Group is an ex- music. cellent example of this. The songwriter of the 166 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

group, Stevan Tickmayer, is a classical trained studies and criticism, as well as reception theory composer who applies modern classical composi- and history...Furthermore, social history and an- tion techniques when writing songs (studied un- thropological and ethno-musicological method- der Andreissen and Kurtag). At the same time, ologies...” (Stanley, 2001, p.557). two of the other group members, Chris Cutler 12 I use “professional listeners” as a term for people and Bob Drake, have their background from rock with great knowledge of music (competence) music (and improvisation) and they contribute to build primary on listening to music (and/or play- “the sound” and the shaping of the music. In an ing music) and a general interest in music. This email to the present author, Cutler explained that competence is typically of a more informal type they moved towards each other, in other words, opposed to a more formal competence of e.g. a Tickmayer moved towards rock music and im- musicologist. Examples of “professional listen- provisational music while Drake and Cutler ers” could be music journalists (amateurs), non- moved towards modern classical music. trained musicians, listeners of a particular sub- 6 DK-5 is used in Public libraries as well as in the genre (e.g. progressive rock) etc. Danish National Bibliography. 13 Even though this perspective will not solve the 7 It must be stressed here that the concept of new problems concerning definitions of genres, it will musicology is used slightly different in this con- nonetheless give more grounds to define music text than in other contexts in this paper. In this genres from. In addition to the specialised context the concept refers to the fact that interest knowledge those actors have of different genres in socio-cultural aspects in musicology has pri- they might also be able to provide valuable marily been inside ethnomusicology and in the knowledge on which elements in the music (and flow of new perspectives and approaches that has elements connected to the music) they consider been labelled new musicology: “In the last two to be prominent concerning the characteristics of decades of the 20th century, there was an explo- different genres. This is the background for pro- sion in the field of musicology as scholars sought posing a comprehensive definition of the domain to give voice to broader range of concerns” (Bal- of music that is built on viewing music as a whole chin, 2001, p.491). I have used new musicology in without losing the focus on the music itself. This this context in a more restricted meaning. See view is different from both the traditional and the also note 11. culture historic / new musicology paradigm in re- 8 Progressive music is here to be understood as a spect to the way they have normally materialised term for a type of experimental music. in music research, organising of music and defin- 9 See e.g., Dewey Decimal Classification and Rela- ing of genres in the musicology and in the librar- tive Index (2003, p.682-686) ies treatment of music organisation (e.g. genre 10 The possibility for retrieval of relevant music is categorisation). At the same time this view is increased if one uses electronic catalogues. More based on the existing ones and could be regarded subject access points are available, which is why, more as combination of the two paradigms with for example, an increased number of genre and some suggestion of improvements. I will return sub-genre terms may be applied alone or in com- to this in the summary and conclusions. Even bination with each other or other kinds of search though genre classification and categorisation has criteria. not been an area that has been given priority in 11 It is important to remark that the concept of new musicology, I would argue that it should be given musicology is here to be understood in a more priority in the library sector and particularly in comprehensive way than used in the context of the field of knowledge organisation. the description of the culture new musicology 14 See section 3.3. paradigm. In this context the concept new musi- 15 An important contribution to building such a cology could include more than one potential paradigm could be found in Hjørland’s (1997) paradigm and is a generic term for a set of new book Information Seeking and Subject Representa- approaches in musicology: “...‘structural’ and tion: An Activity-Theoretical Approach to Informa- ‘post-structural’ critical perspectives from lin- tion Science, where he among other things points guistics and the literary disciplines and their to the value of pragmatic philosophy, anthropol- combination with a hermeneutic view variously ogy and scientific realism in defining the concept derived from Adorno’s social theory, gender of subject: “The activity-theoretical conception Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 167 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

of subject is pragmatic in that it views cognition, 552-2370-2. (Internet version): 87-552-2371-0. knowledge, knowledge representation, and sub- http://www.indeksering.dk/musik/ [Only avail- ject analysis in their functionality, their teleologi- able to subscribers] (DBC’s indekseringsve- cal and goal-oriented nature, and their conse- jledninger). quences for human practice” (1997, p.83). Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index (2003) / Ed. by J. S. Mitchell et. al. 22.nd. ed. References Dublin: Online Computer Library Center. Vol. 3. Dansk Biblioteks Center (1997/1999). DK5: deci- Abrahamsen, K.T. (2003). Musikk og betydning i et malklassedeling. Vol. 1-3. [Ballerup]: Dansk Bib- semiotisk perspektiv [Music and meaning in a se- lioteks Center. miotic perspective]. København: Danmarks Bib- Dogan, M. (2001) Specialities and recombination of lioteksskole. (Unpublished thesis). specialities. International Encyclopedia of the Social Adler, G. (1885). Umfang, Methode und Ziel der and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 22, pp. 14851–14855. Musikwissenschaft. Vierteljahrschrift für Musik- Fabbri, F. (1980). A Theory of musical genres: two ap- wissenschaft, 1, 5-20. plications [online]. URL: http//theblackbook.net/ Adorno, T. W. (1976). Inledning till musiksociolo- acad/tagg/articles [Visited 2003-10-27]. gien: tolv teoretiska föreläsningar [Introduction to Fernie, E. (1995). Art history and its methods: a the sociology of music]. [Lund]: Bo Cavefors. critical anthology. London: Phaidon Press. Andersen, H. (2002). The Development of Scientific Fjordback Søndergaard, T.; Andersen, J. & Hjørland, Taxonomies. IN: Model-Based Reasoning: Science, B. (2003). Documents and the communication of Technology, Values. New York: Kluwer Aca- scientific and scholarly information. Revising and demic. 95-111. updating the UNISIST model. Journal of Docu- Balchin, R. (2001). The Nature of Musicology: 5. mentation, 59(3), 278-320. http://www.db.dk/bh/ New Trends. IN: The New Grove Dictionary of UNISIST.pdf (Visited February 15, 2004). Music and Musicians (vol. 17, p.491-492) / ed. by Frith, S. (1978). The Sociology of Rock. London: S. Sadie. 2. ed. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers. Constable. Bengtsson, I. (1973). Musikvetenskap: en översikt Frith, S. (1998). Performing rites: evaluating popular [Musicology: an overview]. Stocholm: Esselte music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Studium. Hall, S. (1982). The rediscovery of “ideology”: Re- Björnberg, A. (1991). Analyse af populærmusik: Te- turn of the repressed in media studies. IN: Gure- orier og metoder. [Analysis of popular music: vich, M., Bennet, T., Curran, J. & Woollacot, J. Theories and methods]. Aalborg: Institut for (Eds.). Culture, society and the media. London: musik og musikterapi. Methuen. 56-90. Brincker, J.; Gravesen, F.; Hatting, C. E. & Krabbe, Hanghøj Petersen, L. (1995). Grunge eller Trash? - N. (1982-1984). Gyldendals Musikhistorie. Den emneord på musikposterne i 1996!. Libretto, 1, 13- europæiske musikkulturs historie. Bind 1-4. Re- 14. digeret af Knud Ketting. [Gyldendals History of Hansen, F. E. et al. (1990). Gads Musikhistorie Music, Vol. 1-4]. Copenhagen: Gyldendal. [Gad’s History of Music]. Copenhagen: G. E. C. Carlsson, A. & Ling, J. (Eds.). (1980). Nordisk musik Gad. och musikvetenskap under 1970-talet [Nordic mu- Hauser, (1972). Konstarternas sociala historia. Stock- sic and musicology during the nineteenth seven- holm: Pan/ Norstedts. (Translated from The So- ties]: en rapport från 8:e nordiska musikforskar- cial History of Art, New York: Random House, kongressen, Ljungskile folkhögskola. [Göteborg]: Vintage Books, 1951). Göteborgs universitet. Hjørland, B. (1991). Det kognitive paradigme i bib- Cutler, C. (1985). File under popular: theoretical and lioteks – Og informasjonsvidenskapen [The cog- critical writings on music. London: RèR Mega- nitive paradigm in Library and Information Sci- corp. ISBN 0-946423-04-0 ence]. Biblioteksarbejde, 33, 5-37. Dahlhaus, C. (1989). The Idea of Absolute Music. Hjørland, B. (1993). Emnerepræsentation og informa- Chicago: University of Chicago Press. tionsøgning. Bidrag til en teori på kunskabsteoretisk Dansk Biblioteks Center (1996/1998). Indeksering af grundlag [Subject representation and information musik [Indexing of Music]. Project manager: Lars seeking. Contributions based on theory of Hanghøj Petersen. ISBN (Printed version): 87- knowledge]. Göteborg.: Valfrid. 168 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

Hjørland, B. (1997). Information Seeking and Subject Century: ed. by John V. Canfield. London: Representation: An Activity-Theoretical Approach Routledge. p.197-246. to Information Science. Westport, Conn.: Green- Nettl, B. (2001). The institutionalization of musicol- wood Press. ogy: Perspectives of a North American Ethno- Hjørland, B. (2002a). Domain analysis and informa- musicologist. IN: Rethinking music / ed. by N. tion science: Eleven approaches – traditional as Cook and M. Everist. Oxford: Oxford University well as innovative. Journal of Documentation, Press. 287-310. 58(4) 422-462. Nielsen, P. D. (1976). Videnskabsteorier i musikfaget. Hjørland, B. (2002b), Epistemology and the Socio- [Philosophies of science in music]. Århus: Pub- Cognitive Perspective in Information Science. limus. Journal of the American Society for Information Norge [Bibliotekloven] [The Library Act] (1997). Science and Technology, 53(4), 257-270. Lov om folkebibliotek [Law concerning public li- Hjørland, B. & Albrechtsen, H. (1995). Toward A braries]: av 20. desember 1985 nr 108: med for- New Horizon in Information Science: Domain skrifter, veiledende retningslinjer og instruks for Analysis. Journal of the American Society for In- Statens bibliotektilsyn. [Oslo]: Statens bibliotek- formation Science, 46(6), 400-425. tilsyn. Hjørland, B. & Nielsen, L. K. (2001). Subject access Rosch, E. (1978). Principles of categorization. IN: E. points in electronical retrieval. Annual Review of Rosch & B. B. Lloyd (Eds.): Cognition and cate- Information Science & Technology, 35, 249-298. gorization (pp. 27-48). Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Honneth, A. (1998). Frankfurt School. IN: Associates. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (vol. 3, Ruud, E. (1992). Innføring i systematisk musikkviten- pp.730-737). London: Routledge. skap. [Introduction to systematic musicology] Kerman, J. (1985). Contemplating Music: Challenges Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo. to Musicology. Cambridge: Harvard University Samson, J. (2001). Genre. IN: The New Grove Dic- Press. tionary of Music and Musicians (vol. 9, p.657-659) Keil, C. (1966). Motion and feeling through music. / ed. by S. Sadie. 2. ed. Oxford: Macmillan Pub- Journal of Aesthetic and Art Critisism, 24, 337-349. lishers. Korsyn, K. (2003). Decentering Music: A Critique of Shelemay, K. K. (1996). Crossing Boundaries in Mu- Contemporary Musical Research. Oxford: Oxford sic and Musical Scholarship: A Perspective from University Press. Ethnomusicology. Musical Quarterly, 80 (1), 19. Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolu- Slonimsky, N. (1998). Webster`s New World Dic- tions. 2. ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago tionary of Music. New York: Schirmer books. Press. Stanley, G. (2001). Historiography. IN: The New Maróthy, J. (1974). Music and the bourgeois, music Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (vol. 11, and the proletarian. Budapest: Akademiai kiado. p.546-561) / ed. by S. Sadie. 2. ed. Oxford: Mac- Marstal, H. & Moos, H. (2001). Filtreringer: elek- millan Publishers. tronisk musik fra tonegeneratorer til samplere 1898- Sutcliffe, J. P. (1993). Concept, class and category in 2001 [Filtration: electronic music from pitchgen- the tradition of Aristotle. IN: Categories and con- erators to samplers 1898-2001]. København: cepts. Theoretical views and inductive data analy- Høst & Søn. sis. London: Academic press. 35-65. Middleton, R. (1990). Studying popular music. Phila- Tagg, P. (2001). Twenty years after [online]. URL: delphia: Open University Press. http//theblackbook.net/acad/tagg/articles/turku Middleton, R. (2001). Rock. IN: The New Grove 2001.html [Visited 2003-10-27]. Dictionary of Music and Musicians (vol. 21, Talja, S. (2001). Music, Culture, and the Library: An pp.485-486) / ed. by S. Sadie. 2. ed. Oxford: Analysis of Discourses. London: Scarecrow Press. Macmillan Publishers. Williams, R. (1977). Marxism and literature. Oxford: Miller, R. W. (1998). Marxist philosophy of science. Oxford University Press. IN: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (vol. 6, Wolf, J. (1987). Foreword: The Ideology of autono- pp.147-150). London: Routledge. mous art. IN: Leppert, R. & McClary, S. (eds.). Moser, P. K. (1997). Epistemology. IN: Philosophy of Music and society: The Politics of composition, per- Meaning, Knowledge and Value in the Twentieth formance and reception. (pp.1-12). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 169 K. T. Abrahamsen: Indexing of Musical Genres. An Epistemological Perspective

Ørom, A. (2003a). Kunsten at organisere viden om hagen) who has been my supervisor for my thesis kunsten [The art of organising knowledge of art]. which formed the basis for this article. Without his Biblioteksarbejde, #65, 61-75. endless help and support, this article would never Ørom, A. (2003b). Knowledge Organisation in the have been written. He has kept faith in me and in domain of Art Studies: History, Transition and this project, despite my problems along the road. Conceptual Changes. Knowledge Organization, And the help he has given me in writing this article 30(3(4), pages n. a. (to be printed in this issue). could not be overestimated. In addition, I thank him for the support and inspiration he has given me and Acknowledgement all that I have learned from having him as a mentor. I would also like to thank Tine Vind, Morten Michel- I thank Jack Anderson (Ph. D. at Royal School of sen and Chris Cutler for valuable help in the devel- Library and Information Science, Copenhagen) who opment of this project and Sanna Talja for valuable was my supervisor when I first started this project as comments and suggestions. Last, I would like to part of my Master grade in Library and Information thank Bjørn Trygve Baasland and Bradley Long for Science at the Royal School of Library and Informa- help with translation of this project to English, Jenna tion Science in Copenhagen. I would especially like Hartel for language revision, and my wife Jorunn for to thank Birger Hjørland (Professor at the Royal endless faith and support. School of Library and Information Science, Copen-

170 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information: An Analysis of the Nursing Knowledge Domain

Olof Sundin

Swedish School of Library and Information Studies Göteborg University and Högskolan i Borås, SE-501, 90 BORÅS, Sweden

Olof Sundin is a senior lecturer at The Swedish School of Library and Information Science, University College of Borås. He defended his thesis titled Information Strategies and Occupational Identities in 2003 and thereby obtained a PhD in library and information science at Göteborg University, Sweden. His research interests lie mainly in the field of information behaviour of professionals. Since 2004, he has been working on a new research project on information seeking in the transition from educational to professional practice.

Sundin, Olof. (2003). Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information: An Analysis of the Nursing Knowledge Domain. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 170-181. 50 refs.

ABSTRACT: The aim of this article is to contribute to the development of the domain analytical approach by using tools from the theory of professions. This is accomplished by showing how the symbolic values of professional information can create, sustain, and alter professional interests, power relations, and occupational identities. By taking this approach, the importance of considering the issues of power and knowledge use as a social practice is highlighted – two themes that only to a certain extent have been attended to within domain analysis. The aim is accomplished through a study of nursing literature that reveals how professional information is regarded within the Swedish nursing profession. These are analyzed in relation to changes and development within the profession’s applied knowledge domain over time. It is argued that the knowledge domain of nursing has shifted from a primarily practical orientation towards an increasingly theoretical orientation. Its previous subordination to medical expertise has been replaced by an aspiration towards professional autonomy. This shift is seen as a result of a professional strategy where the specialist literature, libraries and databases of the occupational community play an important symbolic role.

1. Introduction importance of power and knowledge use in a social practice, which are two areas that only to a certain Domain analysis has, during the last decade, devel- extent have been attended to within domain analysis. oped as an important theoretical approach within li- The point of departure is domain analysis as it has brary and information science. It has, among other been put forward by Birger Hjørland. things, brought out the importance of epistemologi- Empirically, I investigate the Swedish knowledge cal questions and criticized mentalistic oriented re- domain of nursing, which is clarified and portrayed search. The primary aim of this article is to contrib- through a historical account of key events in the his- ute to the development of the domain analytical ap- tory of nursing education, the institutionalization of proach by using tools from the theory of profes- nursing research, and the growth of the domain’s sions. This will be accomplished by making visible professional information.1 The following question the symbolic values of professional information, guides the analysis of the empirical material of this through which professional interests, power rela- article: What ways of regarding professional informations, and occupational identities can be created, sus- tion are expressed within the nursing profession in tained and altered. In this way I want to highlight the relation to change over time in the profession’s Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 171 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

Swedish knowledge domain? In particular, I study I argue instead that professional information the increasing emphasis on academic knowledge should not only be seen as a representation of “facts,” within the professional knowledge domain of nurs- which can be transmitted between a “sender” and a ing. This knowledge domain has shifted from a pri- “receiver.” The media researcher James Carey (1989, marily practical orientation towards an increasingly p. 14ff) distinguishes in a similar way between two theoretical orientation. Its previous subordination to perspectives on communication. In the transmission medical expertise has been replaced by an aspiration perspective, communication is seen as a process of professional autonomy. This shift is seen as a re- where information is transmitted between individuals sult of a professional strategy in which the specialist with a geographical distance between each other. In literature, libraries and databases of the occupational the ritual perspective, on the other hand, information community play an important symbolic role. The aris seen as a tool through which common norms and ticle focuses on the decades following the year 1977, values can be sustained. In this article the latter per- an important date in the history of Swedish higher spective is at the fore, which I underline by talking education reform. The empirical material is primarily about the symbolic values of professional informa- taken from Swedish professional journals of nursing. tion. Professional information is, therefore, seen as a socio-cultural tool whose meaning and relevance is 2. Nurses and professional information constructed within the community it exists (cf. Cor-

nelius, 2002; Hjørland & Albrechtsen, 1995). Nurses constitute the largest occupational group within the healthcare sector and nursing has in Swe- 3. A theoretical framework den, as well as internationally, undergone major changes in organization, education, research and in 3.1 Domain analysis the professional information of the occupation (e.g. Erlöv & Petersson, 1992, 1996). At the same time, Domain analysis can be understood as a broad theo- library and information science research shows that retical approach that helps to unite researchers who nurses, only to a minor extent, seek and use formal look at the problems posed by library and informa- professional information in the work practice (e.g. tion science from a sociological perspective, as op- Silverstein, 1995; Spath & Buttlar, 1996; Urquhart, posed to a psychological one. In a narrower sense, 1998). Instead, nurses rely mainly on personal con- domain analysis is an approach formulated by Birger tacts and ward-based information. Furthermore, the Hjørland who, together with Hanne Albrectsen, de- research shows that nurses, compared to other occu- scribes it as follows in a programmatic article from pational groups within healthcare, use hospital librar- 1995: ies to a lesser extent (e.g. King, 1987; Spath & Buttlar, 1996) and then usually only in relation to The domain-analytic paradigm in information their further education (e.g. Urquhart, 1998). science (IS) states that the best way to under- These earlier studies generally use the information stand information in IS is to study the knowl- system as a starting-point and justify the study with edge-domains as thought or discourse commu- how these systems can be better and more often used nities, which are parts of society’s division of in the work practice of nurses. Therefore, although labor (Hjørland & Albrechtsen, 1995, p. 400). research articles concerning nurses in library and information science have been quite numerous, the lit- Opposed to an individualistic view on information erature has often had a normative state of departure needs as subjective expressions of lack of knowledge, in how nurses ought to conduct information seeking. Hjørland argues that questions concerning individu- Metaphors like “gap,” “barriers” and “bridges” fre- als’ interaction with professional information and in- quently recur when problems are discussed. The use formation systems must, in order to be meaningful, of these metaphors indicates a view of the relation of be related to the social practice that individuals are a professionals to professional information that I claim part of (e.g. Hjørland, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2002). has its starting-point in a sender/receiver model of Information needs, relevance judgment and knowl- communication (cf. Day, 2001). Information seeking edge organization should, thus, be observed from a and use is seen, according to this approach, as a way socio-cultural perspective. of receiving information that is seen essentially as ex- The view of domain analysis on the relation be- ternal facts that the individual, prior to information tween knowledge and social reality is, thus, not com- seeking, does not have. pletely unambiguous. A realistic-materialistic per- 172 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

spective of knowledge is often expressed, wherein groups to attain social status as professions – in knowledge seems to be regarded as determined, in a other words, their professional project (e.g. Witz, one-way direction, by the division of labour in soci- 1992). From this point of departure, occupational ety (e.g. Hjørland & Albrechtsen, 1995, p. 400). I ar- groups strive to attain autonomy and the tools that gue instead that a domain analytical viewpoint does they use for this activity are different kinds of strate- not necessarily exclude the possibility of seeing gies of closure – a concept taken from Max Weber. knowledge as constructed in a social and communi- These closure strategies refer, among other things, to cative interplay. In such a perspective, communica- how new members are taken up in the occupational tion with professional information between actors community, how the formal knowledge of the occu- within a community comes into focus. The empirical pational group is protected, and how occupational object of study is then partly shifted from the social groups try to exclude other occupations from their conditions of knowledge to the discourses where practice (MacDonald, 1995, p. 27ff). In the realiza- knowledge is produced, communicated and used. tion of occupational groups' professional projects, ri- Knowledge claims about social reality and their rep- valry between professions plays an important role, resentation in professional information, can not, ac- not least within healthcare, and to study such com- cording to such a neopragmatist position, be judged petition has become an important task for contem- in an absolute sense as “truer” than other knowledge porary research on professions (Abbott, 1988). The (cf. Wenneberg, 2000). medical profession's dominance over the work prac- By “knowledge” I refer to what a group of people tice of other professions within healthcare is strong, with a common social practice regard as knowledge which means that these other professions have to de- and which forms a guide to their activities. In the velop strategies in order to relate themselves to the professional practice of nurses, as for other profes- exceptional position of medicine. The relation be- sionals, there is a continual evaluation of knowledge tween the medical profession and the nursing profes- through more or less visible negotiations between ac- sion can thus be characterized by a relation of domi- tors in different arenas about the choice of different nance, subordination and resistance (Witz, 1992). working methods or values and the significance of In the present article an interest in the symbolic professional information. The knowledge claims of role of knowledge is brought together with an inter- different professional groups convey different per- est for how this knowledge is represented in the arti- spectives of social reality – perspectives that can be facts of professional information. Research on pro- in conflict with each other. fessions places the knowledge claims of professions If we accept that phenomena such as information as the focus of its interest. Up to the beginning of needs, relevance and the practice of knowledge or- the seventies, it concerned itself primarily with the ganization benefit from being researched as social role of knowledge in connection to professional phenomena while at the same time they include an in- problem solving; the better developed the knowledge terest in power, a significant question emerges. That system is, the better the possibilities for professional is: how are the norms and values of these phenomena problem solving. The better professional problem created, sustained and altered and by whom? To help solving becomes, the more status and power the pro- answer this question I want to put the spotlight on fession will have in society. The relation between the importance of investigating conflicts within and power and knowledge is one where by power accrues between professional knowledge domains. Domain to a well developed knowledge system. Research on analysis, as formulated by Hjørland, does not provide professions since that time has instead highlighted explicit guidelines for how these norms and values the symbolic value of knowledge, where the relation can be studied as expressions of conflicting group in- between knowledge and professional problem solv- terests. I therefore turn to the theory of professions. ing is more blurred (e.g. Collins, 1979). The relation between power and knowledge can here be expressed 3.2 Professional interests and power as a situation where those who have power also have better possibilities to raise their knowledge claims. Research on professions has contributed to an un- According to the last mentioned perspective, the link derstanding of the struggle for the professionaliza- between formal knowledge production of the profes- tion of nursing during the 20th century. Since the sion and its actual use in practice is not clear, but the seventies, sociological studies on professions have significance of this knowledge for the profession is been interested in the strategies used by occupational just as important through its symbolic function. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 173 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

A recurrent theme in the professional project of knowledge system of a profession has to possess so- nurses is the argument, advanced by representatives cietal acceptance in order to pursue its jurisdiction. of the nursing profession, for increased autonomy vis-à-vis the medical profession and increased status 4. Material in society supported by the fact that there exists a developed nursing knowledge system, a system inde- Hjørland (2002) presents eleven approaches to study- pendent from medicine. Professional information is a ing knowledge domains. The most relevant for this key component of the symbolic value of knowledge. article is to investigate the epistemological “truths” of When, for example, a researcher is interviewed on a domain and their manifestations when the signifi- television it is often done with a well-filled bookshelf cance of professional information is discussed in a in the background. Professional literature declares historical perspective. Professional journals are one of power, scientific authority and the preferential right the tools that mediate norms and values of the occu- of interpretation. Regardless of the nature of the re- pational community after basic training. The empiri- lation between the abstract knowledge system and cal material is therefore constituted primarily of arti- professional activity, it is on this relation that the cles from Swedish professional nursing journals. professional argument is based. The academization These are supplemented with nursing textbooks, re- of nurses’ education, the institutionalization of nurs- search articles and other documents where the pro- ing research and the scientification of the work prac- fession’s views of professional information are ex- tice can, therefore, be regarded as parts of the profes- pressed. The literature has been selected with the ob- sional project of nurses (cf. Rafferty, 1996; Traynor, jective of making visible the norms and values of the 1996, 1999). This professional discourse, formed out profession concerning the importance of professional of prevailing interests, thereby exerts a disciplinary information to nurses in their work. logic that influences individual practitioners’ infor- In the analysis, some documents have been ana- mation seeking and use by mediating a suitable col- lyzed on a descriptive level of interpretation in order lective professional identity (Evetts, 2003; Fournier, to contribute to an understanding of factual histori- 1999). cal and institutional circumstances. At the same time, The significance of the symbolic value of knowl- documents (sometimes the same ones) have been edge is highlighted by the fact that even if the mem- analyzed in order to contribute to a discursive inter- bers of the profession are regarded as experts and are pretation. In the latter case, the epistemological direc- acknowledged by society, including other profes- tion of the domain, and its significance for the role sions, they may not be given jurisdiction over the of professional information within the occupation’s application of their knowledge. Jurisdiction entails knowledge domain, is expressed through the litera- both that the profession can solve work tasks in their ture. In other words, the empirical material has been own way and that they are formally granted the right used partly to describe the actual circumstances that to exclude other professional groups from their lie “beyond” the text and partly to reveal which ques- problem solving (Abbott, 1988). Patrick Wilson dis- tions are under discussion where the text itself is the cusses professions, their knowledge claims and need object of study. for professional information in a similar manner. Wilson does not explicitly use theory of professions, 5. Changes in the knowledge domain of nursing but treats professionals' information seeking and use with the support of the concept of cognitive author- The Swedish nursing profession, as in the rest of the ity. Wilson underlines that the questions of who de- world, has deep historical roots. In this article, how- cides what knowledge is important, and what profes- ever, I introduce the empirical study with an account sional solutions are best, is settled by experts from of an important historical breaking-point in the pro- different knowledge domains, but he emphasizes fessionalization of Swedish nurses, namely the Swed- that such expertise is constructed within a social ish university reform of 1977. Thereafter, I portray, arena. In Public Knowledge, Private Ignorance this is in two parts, how professional information has been expressed in the following way: ”It is not enough, in used as a tool in the professional project of nurses. order to be a contributor to public knowledge, to The empirical account concludes with a discussion think one is; the rest of us have got to think so, too” on the specific phenomenon of evidence-based nurs- (Wilson, 1977, p. 16). In relation to theory of profes- ing in relation to the struggle of the occupations to sions this could be expressed as the belief that the become a profession. 174 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

5.1 From a craft to a profession pational groups, in varying degrees, had been provided with lesser medical skills in their training. The sociologist Anne Witz (1992) makes visible two What then, is meant by nursing, which since 1977 competing discourses in the Anglo-American history is described as the core subject of nursing education? of nursing: one discourse that primarily underlines The Swedish Medical Research Council appointed as the unique, often described as ”female,” craft in the early as 1974 an interdisciplinary committee for nursing occupation and one discourse that primarily promoting nursing research. They defined it initially emphasizes professionalism, formal knowledge and as “... an important supplement to a technically well- academic education. The former discourse domi- developed healthcare which has been experienced as nated the Swedish knowledge domain up to the too impersonal and sometimes even inhuman” 1970s and its norms and values pertaining to profes- (Medicinska forskningsrådet, 1978, p. 108. My sional literature can be characterized by the follow- transl.). Their work ended in 1982 with, among other ing quotation from 1867 by Florence Nightingale: things, an often cited definition of nursing and nursing research: This is the reason why nursing proper can only be taught by the patient’s bedside, and in the Nursing requires that we meet universal and sick-room or ward. Neither can it be taught by personal human needs and in doing so make use lectures or by books, though these are valuable of the individual's own resources for maintain- accessoires, if used as such; otherwise, what is ing or recovering optimal health as well as in the book stays in the book (in Nutting & meeting the need for care during the final Dock, 1907, p. 261). stages of life. Nursing coincides partly with and constitutes a supplement to medical care, tak- The education of nurses became increasingly theo- ing into consideration physical and social as retical during the 20th century, internationally as well as cultural aspects. Nursing research stud- well as in Sweden, but the core of nursing was for a ies this process, the situation and the environ- long time based on science and medicine. Thus, nurs- ment where nursing is given, the aids that are ing knowledge was subordinated to medicine and used, the results of nursing together with the nurses subordinated to physicians. A decisive break- relations and interplay between staff, patients ing-point occurred with the Swedish university re- and their relatives. Nursing research also in- form of 1977 (SFS 1977:218) and from then on the cludes research concerning the organization of discourse of professionalism came to dominate the healthcare and education in nursing. (Medicin- knowledge domain. Nursing education should, just ska forskningsrådet, 1982, p. 10. My transl.) as in other forms of education that were being integrated into the university system, be based on the One of the prerequisites that would eventually en- scientific grounds of nursing research. able nursing to develop as a scientific subject was the Even if the research base of nursing education had production of doctoral degrees by members of the been under discussion for some time, it was from knowledge domain. However, in the middle of the that point stipulated in the legislation. Iris Erlöv and 1970s there was not yet any Swedish PhD pro- Kerstin Petersson designate the ideology of this pe- gramme in nursing. In 1980 Umeå University was riod as holism and maintain that nursing, as such, has granted a temporary professorship in nursing re- not been paid attention to in this way since the days search and a PhD education was initiated two years of Florence Nightingale (Erlöv and Petersson,1992, later. The first professorships of nursing research p. 183ff). Instead of integrating more medical were established at Umeå University in 1986, knowledge into the education, the profession in- Linköping University in 1986, Uppsala University in creasingly pursued the development of their own 1987 and the Nordic School of Public Health in 1987 formal nursing knowledge. A comparable profes- (Bentling, 1995, p. 53). sional strategy can also be ascertained in the Anglo- American world (Rafferty, 1996). Nurses were edu- 5.2 Professional information at the fore cated to become experts of nursing instead of medical assistants of physicians. The reform thus chal- The change of direction within the professional lenged the medical hierarchy of knowledge with the knowledge domain which the university reform of physicians at the top and the notion that other occu- 1977 and its related institutionalization of nursing Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 175 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

research in Sweden demonstrated, left its mark on The lack of scientific nursing literature and the the growth and direction of, and the meaning given poorly equipped nursing school libraries were to, the professional information of the domain. The pointed out in a report from The Swedish Federation nursing libraries faced in 1977, as did the majority of of County Councils as a problem for the research teachers and students, a changed and partly unex- base of nursing education (Landstingsförbundet, plored knowledge domain. Also, access to hospital 1981). A similar manifestation of the need for better libraries was for the majority of Swedish nurses an access to professional information is proclaimed in important issue in the 1970s. Restrictions on access the Nursing Union pamphlet from 1981. It is a pol- to hospital libraries by nurses were challenged during icy platform that consists of eighteen articles, of the 1970s and instead the importance of access to which the fourth article emphasizes the importance hospital libraries for all occupational groups was un- of access to libraries: derlined. Already, in an article in The Municipal Worker2 from 1971, the author called attention to the Well-functioning libraries are needed to sup- fact that a hospital library ruling gave access only to port the connection to research. At present the physicians. An interviewed employee asked rhetori- level is uneven both at nursing school libraries cally the following question: and at hospital libraries. Nursing school libraries are developing strongly at the present time. But why should the medical library only be Members of the Nurses Union are not particu- open to doctors? Why should all the other staff larly considered a target group by either hospi- be shut out? That's annoyed me for a long time. tal libraries or academic libraries. The Union We can read as well, you know. (Midfeldt, should have representatives on the library 1971, p. 6. My transl.) committees that require libraries to provide books and journals that are of interest to Union Several regional evaluations of the role of Swedish members. In the future there ought to be a re- hospital libraries were made during the 1970s and search library for nursing in every university 1980s. These evaluations revealed that different types region. (SHSTF, 1981, p. 11. My transl.) of libraries had existed in hospitals for a long time, but these had often been reserved for physicians (e.g. I argue that developing access to professional infor- Stockholms läns landsting 1976). The representatives mation for nurses, both students and clinicians, was of the nursing profession took the library issue seri- seen as a prerequisite in order to realize the inten- ously. The following was written in1979 in an article tions of the university reform. Nursing libraries were from The Healthcare Union: a part of this explicit information strategy. The quotation above can also be seen as a manifestation of We are aware that the level of nursing school the professional project and its need to display both and medical libraries is very uneven. Within the to the surrounding world and the members of their nursing school area, much has been developed. own occupational community the existence of a for- Unfortunately it does not look quite so good as mal nursing knowledge base. far as hospital medical libraries are concerned However, to justify demands for better access, the and perhaps we have ourselves to blame. The professional literature has to be read. In a 1984 demand for nursing literature must come from Swedish thesis on the growth of nursing as an aca- us, from our representatives in library commit- demic discipline, the author describes the relation of tees! (Söderlund, 1979, p. 66. My transl.) practicing nurses to formal professional information:

The need to develop nursing libraries at the nursing Just as it is the nursing researcher's obligation schools, and professional libraries at the hospitals, to supply healthcare workers with new knowl- was now given increasing attention. In the Swedish edge it is the healthcare personnel’s responsibil- professional journals a number of articles were pub- ity to accept it, evaluate it and use it. This is lished during the 1980s and the early 1990s concern- easy to say but not so easy to do. Today's ing nursing school libraries, their role in education nurses are not educated or trained in reading, and how the growing professional information of the understanding or critically evaluating research domain could be searched using bibliographical articles. This is a feature that has developed tools. during the last five-year period. They also do 176 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

not have a tradition to fall back on of continu- tional community “…to mediate knowledge that is ing to read professional literature once they necessary to everyday work” (Stubbendorff, 1989, p. have completed their education. It is not natu- 3. My transl.). The Healthcare Union, which all ral for a nurse to read professional journals at nurses get in their mailbox, was (and is) thus an im- work during working hours. As a rule, there is portant tool for the communication between single no ward-based literature or journals. The de- members of the occupational community and the oc- mand to be at hand for the patient makes it im- cupational level. The Healthcare Union can therefore possible for nurses to visit the hospital library be said to mediate the professionalization strategy of in the same way that doctors can. (Andersson, the occupation by describing the growth of their 1984, p. 53. My transl.) own formal knowledge base, i.e. nursing. Union issues and the knowledge formation of the occupation This thesis, with its meta-disciplinary character, con- were seen to go hand in hand. stitutes an important and early basis of the growth of The Swedish university reform of 1977 and the the Swedish nursing discipline during the 1980s. The corresponding developments abroad brought with quotation further illustrates the importance that the them a shift in occupational identity as formulated representatives of the profession placed on the close within the profession. The new occupational identity relationship to professional information and special- had to be socially assimilated by practicing nurses ist libraries. and professional information proved to be the medi- Also, in the journal Care, it is possible to see the ating tool for the purpose. normative role that nurses’ professional journals have in mediating norms and values concerning the 5.3 Professional information as a tool for significance of formal professional information for academization the occupation. Below is a striking example of this information strategy, taken from an 1988 editorial The next, and still valid, university reform in Sweden encouraging nurses to be active participants in the started in 1993. It entailed a further step towards a occupational community: “scientification” of the knowledge domain. The length of nursing education increased from two to Sometimes you will hear and perhaps even find three years. The demands on the students to be able yourself saying that you do not choose to work to follow and participate in the formation of knowl- in nursing if you enjoy reading and writing. It's edge by means of information seeking and use were contact with people that you're interested in now clearly expressed in the legislation and in other and not reading and writing reports. --- You central texts of the profession (e.g. SFS, 1992:1434). can get into the habit of reading a professional The new nursing education made it possible to take a journal or a book, or why not an article in Bachelor of Nursing parallel to a vocational diploma. CARE, and then write a summary of it. This is During the 20th century, it is thus possible to track a also a great way of remembering what you've change in the nursing education from practice to read. --- If we, who work within such a soft theory, from medicine and natural science to nursing sector as healthcare must be considered to be, and from a vocational education to a more academic learn to describe in writing what we actually do, one. The academization of nursing education was re- if we document what we do in the same way as garded by the representatives of the profession as a the articles in this issue, then perhaps we will prerequisite for professionalization and thus, an in- quickly be taken more seriously. The tacit un- creased status for the occupation. The efforts of the derstandings that characterize nursing to a profession to mediate an awareness of the signifi- great degree need to be documented, spread cance of professional information for the members and read. ([unknown author], 1988, p 5. My of the occupational community should therefore not transl.) only be seen as a safeguard for better patient care, but also as an expression of the professional project By the end of the 1980s, clinical questions had be- of Swedish nurses. come key issues for the nursing trade-union and The The same year as the new university reform was Healthcare Union introduced a ”Clinical supple- implemented, The Healthcare Union further devel- ment” in 1989. This supplement was devoted to oped the relation between union issues and occupa- clinical articles mainly by members from the occupational issues: ”It is now the Union's ambition to Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 177 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

prove how union issues are occupational issues and The book discusses different types of literature, gives vice versa” (Stubbendorff, 1993, p. 3. My transl.). advice for the evaluation of the relevance of literature, describes how the Swedish classification system The rest of the nineties will be marked by the works, and how library catalogues work together professionalization endeavor. There are thoughts with the principles of bibliographic databases and on how to expand and increase the limited ca- subject catalogues. References to current legislation reer possibilities open to union members at and passages with wording such as “you must ac- present and to have their competence recog- quire,” “the statutes maintain,” “during your study nized as professional. (Ibid) time you must” and “you should continually read professional literature” reveal the strongly demand- In the professionalization endeavor of the occupa- ing style of the text (my italics). tion, nursing research and its application in both Use the results of research! is a textbook that ad- clinical work and education play an important role, dresses practicing nurses. In the introduction, an ar- both in raising the status of the professional and gument is built for the importance of applying re- more academically schooled nurse, but also for “disci- search results, which is motivated by both practical plining” the members of the occupation through the and normative reasoning with references to laws and mediation of the profession's new norms and values. regulations. One section of the book, “Finding the In relation to the university reform of 1993, two right articles and reports,” deals with the need to Swedish textbooks were published that both aimed at keep up to date through continual reading and task raising awareness within the occupational commu- oriented information seeking. How the choice of ap- nity of research, literature and information seeking: propriate journals should be made is described in Ask the literature! (Segesten & Segesten, 1993) and these words: Use the results of research! (Segesten, 1994). These two texts make clearly visible the interest of the pro- Discuss and make a list of the scientific journals fession in promoting a greater awareness of formal that the group is aware of. Rank them in the professional information and are therefore given par- order of importance you think they have for ticular attention here. Ask the literature! primarily ad- the group. If possible, seek advice from the li- dresses “older” nurses that have started professional brarian. Make sure that the list does not have a development courses, but the textbook has also been medical bias but that it really contains journals used in certain nursing programs. There are two from our own area of responsibility and activ- points of departure in the book: one is the difference ity. (Segesten, 1994, p. 32. My transl.) in study between senior high school and higher education where the latter requires a more independent It can be seen that nurses' reading of research litera- relationship to professional literature. The other is ture is given an important role and a stance is taken the need to keep up to date with the literature even in the last sentence of the quotation – it is primarily in the future career: their own knowledge domain that should be used, not the medical one. Both of the above textbooks Your education is not complete just because mediate the new, emerging occupational role's expec- you have a degree. In order to sustain your pro- tations of practicing nurses’ relation to professional fessional knowledge on a high level you will be information. During the last decade there are a num- required to develop throughout your life. You ber of examples of how nurses' journals in Sweden will find that this is regulated in the statutes for make room for articles about the ways, among other healthcare personnel... When your education is things, new information technology can be used to completed there will be no teachers to ask. You search for professional information, for example, must acquire an approach to the literature, “Knowledge thirsty sister finds information on the which becomes a natural part of your life. This net” (Nyman, 1998. My transl.). means among other things that you should continually read professional literature. In this 5.4 Evidence-based nursing – an epistemological way you will keep your knowledge up to date balancing act and be able to follow developments in your occupation. (Segesten & Segesten, 1993, p. 9. My A phenomenon that has received great attention dur- transl.) ing the last decade is evidence-based medicine and 178 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

the corresponding phenomenon of evidence-based tions of the movement from medicine to nursing. nursing. To base clinical work on research is, of The above described hierarchy of evidence has thus course, not reserved for evidence-based care, but partly challenged qualitative nursing research whose during the 1980s, the evidence-based approach was findings by definition always end up furthest down used for a particular problem solving method. Evi- in the hierarchy. dence-based care has, during the 1980s and 1990s, The basic standpoints of the evidence-based become a movement with specific journals, confer- movement’s epistemology have been discussed, criti- ences, training-centres and institutes. One of the de- cized and partly questioned. The implicit epistemo- parture points for this movement is the notion that logical basis of the evidence-based movement has there exists a gap between research and clinical prac- been criticized for allowing only one “truth” and one tice, a gap that I described earlier in the article. “rationality” when the “best practice” is summarized The importance of nurses’ information seeking in the form of clinical guidelines. According to this and use in the evidence-based tradition is expressed criticism the time bound and pragmatic nature of sci- in The Healthcare Union: “If nurses want to call entific knowledge is not recognized by the evidence- themselves professional they will have to keep up based movement. Also brought to the fore is the with research and scientific development” (Olsson, problem that phenomena, central to nurses, which 2000b, p. 40. My transl.). Another example is taken cannot be studied with methods that are acceptable from an introductory textbook to the evidence-based to the evidence-based movement, risk being dis- movement for nurses: ”There is thus a moral impera- missed as less interesting. This may lead to a negative tive for the practitioner to keep up-to-date with re- effect on the status of the qualitatively oriented search. Reading journals is a first step …” (Long, nursing knowledge domain. Evidence-based nursing 2002, p. xvi). But also the organization of healthcare, has also been discussed in professional journals. according to the evidence-based movement, needs to Among other things the dominance of qualitative change: nursing research has been criticized from an evidence-based perspective. More experimental inter- Thus, there needs to be access to libraries (with vention-based studies have also been called for (Ols- on-line searching facilities), dedicated/pro- son, 2000a) even though this criticism has not been tected time to locate, read and appraise evi- allowed to pass without comment (Olsson, 2000b). dence (it is not reasonable to expect this to be In 1999 The Healthcare Union introduced an on- done outside of work time) and, perhaps most going section dealing with research information. challenging, empowerment in the workplace to New clinically applicable knowledge is refereed and implement (agreed) changes in practice. (Long, written in an accessible language for a target audience 2002, p. xvi) of nurses, midwives and laboratory assistants – professionals who in general, according to the journal, Within the evidence-based movement, especially evi- normally do not read scientific journals. The section dence-based medicine, a hierarchy of scientific is entitled “Practice and Research” (my transl.) and methods has been established in order to evaluate the the evidence-based concept is avoided with the fol- “veracity” of research findings. This hierarchy can lowing motivation: “In our opinion, at The Health- differ in details, but at the top is Randomized Con- care Union and the reference group of researchers trolled Trials (RCT), or compilations of such, and at that are associated with the project, there are differ- the bottom are case studies and qualitative research. ent understandings of what the concept of evidence- Since medical knowledge has precedence in health- based research stands for” (Dalenstam, 1999, p. 44. care, other professions interested in the evidence- My transl.). This quotation illustrates the existing based movement have had to relate to this hierarchy. tensions in the attitudes to evidence-based nursing. Problems occur – depending on how strictly the hi- The professional project of Swedish nurses has, erarchy of evidence is followed – in the meeting be- during the last decades, included the development of tween evidence-based medicine and the often quali- a formal knowledge base through nursing research. tative human sciences oriented nursing research of By these means the representatives of the profession today (cf. Willman & Stoltz, 2002). It can be main- have wanted to prove the uniqueness of the knowl- tained that the methods of the evidence-based edge domain and of the clinical work of nurses, not movements have a specific in-built epistemology and least in relation to medicine and physicians. It has re- that it is therefore problematic to transmit the ambi- sulted in a change of direction from medicine to Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 179 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

nursing, where, among other things, the holistic as- nursing journals and other documents undertaken in pect of nursing work has been brought to the fore in this article, where the profession’s view of profes- contrast to the primarily atomistic interest of physi- sional information is expressed, makes visible the cians (Erlöv & Petersson, 1992, 1996). Instead of growing importance which is attached to profes- quantitative methods from a natural science perspec- sional information and nurses’ seeking and use of it. tive, the individual has been placed in the centre and A close relation to professional information implies researched in recent years, often with qualitative and increased opportunities for nurses to share common interpretative methods (e.g. Willman & Stoltz, norms and values concerning the practice of nursing, 2002). When the evidence-based movement became but it also seems to have a symbolic value in support- generally accepted during the 1990s, some members ing nurses’ professional project; the existence of pro- of the profession saw it as a chance to formalize their fessional literature and information systems, by and knowledge base in accordance with the principles of for members of the community, is regarded as one of medicine, while others saw it as a threat against the many criteria for the professionalization of nursing. unique knowledge of the profession which would be Thus I make visible how professional information is distorted by the traditional epistemology and meth- not just used for rationalistic problem solving, but odology of medicine. also as a symbolic tool to mediate norms and values. This information strategy challenges prevailing 6. Conclusion power relations between the traditional male-dominated medical profession and the female-dominated A recurring theme in this article is that the knowl- nursing profession, that is, between types of knowledge claims communicated by means of professional edge, occupations and gender (cf. Witz, 1992), information should be seen in relation to power and The primary aim of this article was to develop the to the competing interests of different occupational domain analytical approach by using tools from the- groups. I have described how the epistemological ory of professions. The domain analytical approach centre of gravity in the Swedish knowledge domain of creates new conditions under which to study human nursing has evolved, from a practical nursing orienta- interaction with professional information and its rep- tion during the early development of the occupation, resentation through knowledge organization. Do- to the more theoretically oriented nursing of today main analysis draws attention to the need to investi- (Erlöv & Petersson, 1992, 1996). An important step gate this interaction as a social and cultural phe- in this change is the academization of nursing educa- nomenon (e.g. Hjørland, 2000a; Hjørland & Al- tion initiated with the university reform of 1977 and brechtsen, 1995). I demonstrate this with an empha- the related institutionalization of nursing research. sis through the empirical examples of the article. But Nursing education became a university degree pro- I have also pointed out some shortcomings in do- gram and it was expected to be based, through pro- main analysis, especially in the analysis of applied fessional information, on the knowledge formation of domains. I have underlined that professional infor- its own domain. With support from the theory of mation is used in a social practice and its relevance, professions I regard this process, and its continued to a great extent, is asserted through the cognitive development during the 1980s and 1990s, partly as a authority that it is given. From my perspective, do- result of a professional project (cf. Abbott, 1988; main analysis, above all, creates a platform from Evetts, 2003; Rafferty, 1996; Traynor, 1996, 1999; which to view the research problems of library and Witz, 1992). I also show how representatives of the information science, but it offers no practical tools profession are forced to navigate in the context of the for analyzing internal conflicts and competition natural science oriented epistemology of the evi- within and between knowledge domains. I argue, dence-based movement. It can be maintained that the therefore, for the necessity of including issues con- cognitive authority of the professional information of cerning power and the conflicting interests of groups nursing is, to a great extent, created in relation to the through theory of professions when professional high status knowledge domain of medicine. knowledge domains are analyzed. In the introduction to this article I posed the fol- I also make a case in the article for the importance lowing question: what ways of regarding professional of studying the symbolic significance of professional information are expressed within the profession in information by combining domain analysis with the- relation to change over time in the profession’s ory of professions. As a result, I question the effects Swedish knowledge domain? The study of Swedish of the conduit metaphor, which have been very in- 180 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

fluential in library and information science (Day, der ett sekel. Lund: Pedagogiska institutionen, 2001). The metaphor leads to a view on how infor- Lunds universitet. Diss. mation, either seen as facts that mirror an outer real- Erlöv, I. & Petersson, K. (1996). Sjuksköterskornas ity or as the intentional expression of people's cogni- århundrade. In B. Johansson (ed.). Vårdpeda- tive structures, is transmitted between sender and re- gogisk antologi. Lund: Studentlitteratur. P. 31-49. ceiver. By studying the symbolic significances of Evetts, J. (2003). The sociological analysis of profes- professional information, I strive to distance myself sionalism: occupational change in the modern from professional interests, whether they are nurses’, world. International Sociology, 18(2), 395-415. librarians’ or researchers’, and instead, adopt a per- Fournier, V. (1999). The appeal to ‘professionalism’ spective where the normative interest of information as a disciplinary mechanism. The Sociological Re- seeking and use of professionals are seen partly as an view, 47(2), 280-307. expression of a strategy in an increasingly researched Hjørland, B. (2000a). Documents, memory institu- based professional life. I thereby show how libraries, tions and information science. Journal of Docu- journals and other artifacts of professional informa- mentation, 56(1), 27-41. tion do not just represent social reality; they also Hjørland, B. (2000b). Library and information sci- contribute to its establishment. ence: practice, theory, and philosophical basis. In- formation Processing and Management, 36, 501- Notes 531. Hjørland, B. (2000c). Relevance research: the miss- 1 The article is based on the PhD thesis Informa- ing perspective(s): “non-relevance” and “episte- tion strategies and occupational identities (Sundin, mological relevance”. Journal of the American So- 2003), which investigates this question and others ciety for Information Science, 51(2), 209-211. more extensively. Hjørland, B. (2002). Domain analysis in information 2 I have through out the article translated the science: eleven approaches – traditional as well as Swedish journal titles and book titles to English. innovative. Journal of Documentation, 58(4), 422- 462. References Hjørland, B. & Albrechtsen, H. (1995). Toward a new horizon in information science: domain- Abbott, A.D. (1988). The system of professions: an es- analysis. Journal of the American Society for In- say on the division of expert labor. Chicago: The formation Science, 46(6), 400-425. University of Chicago Press. King, D.N. (1987). The contribution of hospital li- Andersson, K.M. (1984). Omvårdnad: framväxten av brary information services to clinical care: a study en ny vetenskap. Solna: Esselte studium. Diss. in eight hospitals. Bulletin of Medical Library As- Bentling, S. (1995). Sjuksköterskeprofessionen: veten- sociation, 75(4), 291-301. skapliga idéer och kunskapsutveckling. Stockholm: Landstingsförbundet (1981). Forskningsanknytning Liber utbildning. av kommunal högskoleutbildning: en nulägesrap- Carey, J.W. (1989). Communication as culture: essays port. Stockholm: Landstingsförbundet. on media and society. Boston: Unwin Hyman. Long, A.F. (2002). Foreword: some challenges in do- Collins, R. (1979). The credential society: an historical ing evidence-based practice. I R. McSherry, M. sociology of education and stratification. New Simmons & P. Abbott (ed.). Evidence-informed York: Academic Press. nursing: a guide for clinical nurses. London: Cornelius, I.V. (2002). Theories of information. An- Routledge. P. xv-xviii. nual Review of Information Science and Technol- MacDonald, K.M. (1995). The sociology of the profes- ogy, 36, 393-425. sions. London: Sage Publications. Dalenstam, B. (1999). Vårdfacket presenterar ”Prak- Medicinska Forskningsrådet (1978). Initiativ inom tik och forskning”. Vårdfacket [The Health Care hälso- och sjukvårdsforskning: rapporter från medi- Union], 23(1), 44. cinska forskningsrådets initiativgrupper inom om- Day, R.E. (2001). The modern invention of informa- rådet hälso- och sjukvårdsforskning. Stockholm : tion: discourse, history, and power. Carbondale: Medicinska forskningsrådet (MFR). Southern Illinois University Press. Medicinska Forskningsrådet (1982). Teorier och me- Erlöv, I. & Petersson, K. (1992). Från kall till per- toder i omvårdnadsforskning: rapport från en ar- sonlighet: sjuksköterskans utbildning och arbete un- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 181 O. Sundin: Towards an Understanding of Symbolic Aspects of Professional Information

betsgrupp. Stockholm: Medicinska Forsknings- Stockholms läns landsting (1976). Biblioteksu- rådet (MFR). tredningen. Stockholm: Stockholms läns lands- Midfeldt, R. (1971). Få känner till att personalen får ting. låna i sjukhusets bibliotek. Kommunalarbetaren Stubbendorff, S. (1989). Premiär för vårdbilagorna. [The Municipal Worker], (15), 6-7. Vårdfacket [The Health Care Union], 13(2), 3. Nutting, M.A. & Dock, L.L. (1907). History of nurs- Stubbendorff, S. (1993). Vi gör avstamp för vidare ing: the evolution of nursing systems from the earli- utveckling. Vårdfacket [The Health Care Union], est times to the foundation of the first English and 17(12), 3. American training schools for nurses, vol. 2. New Sundin, O. (2003). Informationsstrategier och yrkesi- York: G.P Putnam’s Sons. dentiteter: en studie av sjuksköterskors relation till Nyman, K. (1998). Vetgirig syster hittar mycket fackinformation vid arbetsplatsen [Information kunskap på nätet. Vårdfacket [The Health Care Strategies and Occupational Identities]. Borås: Union], 22(6), 38-40. Valfrid. Olsson, A. (2000a). ”Urvattna inte evidensbegrep- Söderlund, M. (1979). SHSTF har ett bibliotek med pet”. Vårdfacket [The Health Care Union], unik medlemsservice. Vårdfacket [The Health 24(10), 36-37. Care Union], 3(9), 66-67. Olsson, A. (2000b). ”Evidens är ett relativt begrepp”. Traynor, M. (1996). Looking at discourse in a litera- Vårdfacket [The Health Care Union], 24(11), 40- ture review of nursing texts. Journal of Advanced 41. Nursing, 23(6), 1155-1161. Rafferty, A.M. (1996). The politics of nursing knowl- Traynor, M. (1999). The problem of dissemination: edge. London: Routledge. evidence and ideology. Nursing Inquiry, 6(3), Segesten, K. (1994). Använd forskningens resultat! Ett 187-197. studiematerial om vårdforskningens tillämpning i [Unknown author]. (1983). Till läsaren. Vård: ut- vardagen [Use the results of research!]. Stockholm: bildning, utveckling, forskning [Care], 1(1), 3. Vårdförbundet SHSTF. [Unknown author]. (1988). Kära läsare. Vård: ut- Segesten, K. & Segesten, K. (1993). Fråga littera- bildning, utveckling, forskning [Care], 6(3/4), 5. turen! Handledning i att söka, värdera och tillägna Urquhart, C. (1998). Personal knowledge: a clinical sig kunskap [Ask the literature!]. Göteborg: K&K perspective from the Value and Evince projects in Segesten. health library and information services. Journal of SHSTF (1981). Riktlinjer för forsknings- och ut- Documentation, 54(4), 420-442. vecklingsarbete. Stockholm: SHSTF. Wenneberg, S.B. (2000). Socialkonstruktivisme: posi- SFS (1977:218). Högskolelag. 1988/89. Stockholm: tioner, problemer og perspektiver. Frederiksberg: Liber förlag. Samfundslitteratur. SFS (1992:1434). Högskolelag. Stockholm: Allmänna Willman, A. & Stoltz, P. (2002). Yes, no, or perhaps: förlaget. reflections on Swedish human science nursing re- Silverstein, J.L. (1995). Strengthening the links be- search development. Nursing Science Quartely, tween health sciences information users and pro- 15(1), 66-70. viders. Bulletin of Medical Library Association, Wilson, P. (1977). Public knowledge, private igno- 83(4), 407-417. rance: toward a library and information policy. Spath, M. & Buttlar, L. (1996). Information and re- Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. search needs of acute-care clinical nurses. Bulletin Witz, A. (1992). Professions and patriarchy. London: of the Medical Library Association, 84(1), 112-116. Routledge.

182 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 R. Gazan: Metadata as a Realm of Translation

Metadata as a Realm of Translation: Merging Knowledge Domains in the Design of an Environmental Information System

Rich Gazan

Department of Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles GSE&IS Bldg., Box 951520, Los Angeles, CA 90095, E-mail: [email protected]

Rich Gazan recently defended his Ph.D. dissertation at the UCLA Department of Information Stud- ies. His research interests include knowledge integration, environmental information systems, social informatics and knowledge management. He has been a two-year member of the Alexandria Digital Earth Prototype digital library research team, a librarian at the University of Hawaii School of Ocean & Earth Science & Technology, and worked for seven years in a variety of positions in the database publishing industry.

Gazan, Rich. (2003). Metadata as a Realm of Translation: Merging Knowledge Domains in the De- sign of an Environmental Information System. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 182-190. 26 refs.

ABSTRACT: Bringing together document collections in merged information resources is becoming more common, but presents the problem of integrating content and metadata that have been created in different knowledge domains, using different classification schemes. This paper describes how a multidisciplinary team attempted to integrate metadata structures from several different collections in the development of an environmental information system. The results of this qualitative study suggest that though designers and users from diverse backgrounds could conceptualize and articulate the potential new knowledge the merged system might reveal, the perceived informational value of different access points varied with disciplinary membership, and the compromises forced by this merged collection created barriers and missed opportunities for the creation of new knowledge. However, people with a variety of backgrounds were able to contribute to negotiations about metadata decisions, suggesting that this may be a key realm of translation between diverse individuals in future collaborative environments. Conse- quences for domain-specific knowledge organization, and for a translation and integration role for those in the field of information science, are discussed.

1. Introduction associated with Raynaud’s disease and fish oil, helped to demonstrate the potential value of merging dispa- Those in the field of information science have only rate document collections as well. begun to explore the challenges and possibilities of The term hybrid knowledge is used to conceptual- conceptualizing knowledge domains as discourse ize one desired outcome of integrating diverse per- communities (Hjørland & Albrechtsen, 1995), each spectives, such as when ideas in one field are applied with particular histories, philosophies and practices. in another. Hybridity suggests intentionality, a con- Increasingly, members of diverse communities are scious effort to “breed” certain new knowledge from being brought together in collaborative research and known “parents,”’ distinct from serendipitous cases. design projects, with the assumption that by merging This immediately points out the importance of un- ideas and methods from several fields, innovation or derstanding how types of knowledge are different, new knowledge might result. Similarly, Swanson’s each with unique histories and contexts of creation (1986) classic work on undiscovered public knowl- and expression. Just as members of discourse com- edge, where he searched across two separate litera- munities have specialized languages, practices, and tures and found a link between the blood disorders senses of what knowledge is, the documents they Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 183 R. Gazan: Metadata as a Realm of Translation

create are also embedded in specific knowledge do- social network analysis to study the nature of hybrid mains. However, conceptualizing hybrid knowledge knowledge in the design of an environmental infor- is just the first step. In order to put this concept into mation system. The focus of this paper is on the par- practice in a working system, some process of trans- ticular challenges of providing access to this merged lation must take place. collection through metadata. This paper describes one such process of translation in a participant observation study of the design 2. Background of a Web-based environmental information system1. Based at a university library, the system brought to- Whether they are called disciplines (Klein, 1990), gether research scientists, historians, archivists, li- communities of practice (Wenger, 1998), epistemic brarians, programmers, educators and administrators communities (Van House, 2002), epistemic cultures from diverse institutions in its design. The system (Knorr Cetina, 1999) or discourse communities, collocates rare longitudinal data sets with mission each group defines, processes and generates knowl- logs of research expeditions, oral histories of re- edge in characteristic ways, and studying these do- search scientists, field guides, photographic collec- main-based discourses should be central to the con- tions, archival materials and Web resources in an at- cerns of information science as a field (Hjørland & tempt to provide an integrated, multifaceted over- Albrechtsen, 1995). view of environmental science. Combining these The concept of discourse communities adds a wide-ranging collections, and having researchers and strong social component to our view of how knowl- professionals come together to design the system, edge is produced, but other social forces also influ- was undertaken by the project participants in an ex- ence knowledge production and the resulting infor- plicit attempt to create new knowledge, in the sort of mation infrastructure (Fuller, 2002). Ideals of prag- “integrative synthesis” Julie Klein (1990, p.118) says matism and efficiency, economic concerns about po- typifies true interdisciplinarity. This was the primary tential innovation and leveraging research funds, and rationale for the selection of this design project as democratic notions of including many voices and both a research environment and an object of study. perspectives, all help undergird initiatives that en- Members of particular discourse communities are compass multiple domains. Similarly, publicly fund- sometimes able to make effective use of documents ed science is under increasing pressure to deliver from outside their areas of expertise. Indeed, creat- measurable results and to have its activities benefit ing new connections across disparate knowledge society more widely and more directly. The U.S. Na- domains is often a source of innovation. But much tional Science Foundation Digital Library Initiatives more often, the different vocabularies, practices and (DLI) illustrate this shift. The goal of DLI Phase 1 senses of “valid” knowledge,which are learned as part (1994 to 1998) was to “dramatically advance the of membership within particular communities, can means to collect, store, and organize information in hinder potential connections. digital forms, and make it available for searching, re- When documents are represented using classifica- trieval, and processing via communication networks” tion systems, the task of translation and assessment via six large-scale digital library projects (U.S. Na- becomes at least somewhat more manageable. By tional Science Foundation, 1998). In contrast, DLI searching a merged collection with a common meta- Phase 2 (1999 to present) places a greater emphasis data scheme, one might unearth hundreds of poten- on wider applications of these repositories, as evi- tially fruitful items from an unfamiliar collection, denced in undergraduate education (Borgman et al., juxtapose diverse views of a common topic, and cre- 2000). ate a new, hybrid knowledge. However, creating a Studies of actual practice can expose weaknesses merged metadata scheme is more than just selecting in purely pragmatic approaches to knowledge or- a list of common terms. Understanding and reconcil- ganization, and provide evidence for the inclusion of ing the diverse communities and contexts repre- sound theory. Buckland et al. (2000; 2001) provide sented in the merged collection is important, yet of- empirical support for Hjørland’s domain-analytic ten implicit or ignored. How these translations and view in several studies where researchers created dif- negotiations take place in practice needs to be better ferent indexes of the same collection for different understood. user groups, which led to evidence of improved re- This work is part of a larger qualitative study us- trieval performance. However, from its inception, ing observation, interviews, document analysis and the environmental information system studied here 184 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 R. Gazan: Metadata as a Realm of Translation

adopted the reverse approach: several collections could share was the descriptive metadata used to would be merged and described with one index for a merge the disparate collections. Classification sys- diverse user base. This compounded the challenge of tems, however, are anything but a “neutral terminol- subject analysis: ogy” (Bowker & Star, 1999). Choices about the metadata structure included which set of fields Because a document does have an infinite num- would be used to describe the collections, in other ber of subjects, the process of subject analysis words, which facets “mattered” and which did not. is a process of giving priority to those subjects Metadata content negotiations centered around which best serve the needs of the users of the which terms would be used to populate the fields, be information system in question. (Hjørland, they from subject headings and authority lists, 1998, p.610) thesauri or even uncontrolled text; here as well, these choices carry social and epistemological conse- But as the breadth of the user population increases, it quences. Design decisions included which of these becomes less and less possible to make generaliza- fields would be searchable in the final system, which tions about their needs. In formulating social epis- would be displayed, and which would be given visual temology as the foundation of a theory of bibliogra- primacy. In other words, the metadata structures of phy, Egan and Shera (1952, p.126) write: the constituent collections and the merged collection served as boundary objects, which ideally both in- ...there must be appropriate bibliographic com- habit several communities of practice and satisfy the munication (1) within each group, (2) among informational requirements of each (Star & Griese- the several groups of scholar-specialists, and (3) mer, 1989). It is important to note that the word between groups at the scholarly level and the “satisfy” is not used here in the sense of total fulfill- various groups of practitioners, operators, edu- ment as when repaying a loan, but in the weaker cators and lay public. sense of incomplete, though passable, success (OED, 2003). This sense of partial understanding has been a One of the core mandates of the grant which funded recurring theme in the larger study: individuals who the design of the system was to provide wider access could articulate partial understanding of the roles to environmental information for both researchers and concerns of other project members were better and the public. Therefore, the core of the design team able to conceptualize and express the “side-benefits” included content specialists (a range of research sci- of hybrid knowledge within the merged collections. entists, or scholar-specialists in Egan and Shera’s par- On a subtler but no less challenging level, com- lance), systems specialists (builders and designers), munication across communities is also influenced by and information specialists (librarians, archivists and issues of prestige and trust. Suchman (1994, p.51) curators of special collections), along with managers, raises the concern that multidisciplinary design pro- educators and support staff. These boundaries were jects may have significant disparities in: not rigid, as many individuals could claim membership in two or more of these areas. In practice, effec- [the] relative power and resource distribution tive communication across these boundaries is diffi- among the “disciplines” (or more broadly, cult on several levels, primarily due to the specialized knowledges ...) engaged in design activities. Are languages used by particular communities: they in fact equally valued, or do some dominate while others are seen as providing periph- When there is a group of people, each of whom eral, albeit crucial services? speaks a special professional jargon but each of whom also speaks a common language, it is Budd (2002) links social epistemology and praxis in sometimes necessary to drop the special lan- library and information science, and argues that as- guages and learn to understand each other in pects of cognitive authority and warrant be consid- terms of the common tongue, that is, to com- ered; that is, the extent to which someone’s claim to municate in neutral terminology. (Luszki, 1958, expertise is accepted by another person. Van House p.270) (2002) has studied a digital library of plant observation records and images (CalFlora), which relies on In the project studied here, the “common tongue” data provided by amateur observers as well as profes- that the content, systems and information specialists sional botanists; several levels of “credibility assess- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 185 R. Gazan: Metadata as a Realm of Translation

ment” measures for contributors are built into this Another phase of the investigation included a system. But warrant also extends to documents, and formal usability analysis of the system by both envi- even parts of documents: ronmental scientists and social scientific researchers and educators, as well as graduate students in each of The problem of the relative informational value these areas (n=12). None of the usability subjects of different subject access points such as titles, were members of the design team. abstracts, citations, descriptors or words from The usability analysis took the form of a think- full-text records is perhaps the most central aloud protocol, and was conducted in two stages. problem in IS. (Hjørland & Albrechtsen, 1995, Stage 1 assessment took place in parallel with the p.417) construction of the site and elicited subjective comments and opinions in time to feed back into ongo- Within established discourse communities, warrant is ing design and development. Stage 2 assessment formalized: only certain interpretations of data or in- added realistic search and browse tasks once the site formation, from certain sources, are considered valid and collections were nearly complete. At the close of knowledge. And this sort of warrant is rarely port- each of these assessments, participants were asked able from one domain to another. open-ended questions in a semi-structured interview In an ongoing project to reconcile overlapping about their perceptions of the overall goals and us- concepts from Medical Subject Headings and the ability of the system, as well as questions concerning UMLS Metathesaurus, Nelson et al. (2001) stress the the usefulness of the collections and the metadata importance of human review in considering the di- used to describe the collection items. verse views of the world that the controlled terms In a think-aloud protocol, the participant is asked represent, prior to any attempt at integration: to vocalize his or her thoughts and opinions while interacting with the resource to be evaluated. Think- As in a marriage, sharing of a worldview, a alouds can be used at any stage of system develop- common approach to the operational problems, ment and are a cost-effective way to gather qualita- and a fair and equitable reconciliation process is tive feedback (Nielsen, 1993). They are designed to necessary to bring two separate and distinct en- explore how the users approach the interface and tities into unity. what considerations they keep in mind during actual use. For example, if the users feel that the system Establishing a common framework for what consti- imposes an unnatural or convoluted series of steps to tuted both valid and useful content, and valid and accomplish a task, having them express this confu- useful descriptive metadata, was a core challenge of sion or frustration aloud can lead to concrete rec- this project. ommendations for evolving a more usable system. Subjects were recruited via an e-mail call to par- 3. Methodology ticipate in a usability assessment of a unique environmental information resource. This message was Data collection related to the metadata integration posted to the listservs of several university depart- aspects of the system was done primarily by observ- ments. Respondents were then asked to recommend ing the work practices of the individuals involved in others in their field. This snowball sample approach the design of the system, and by analyzing project yielded a total of 12 participants: documents over a ten-month period. Since this was a project that involved people from several different – 4 in environmental sciences institutions, much of the collaboration took place via – 4 in information science e-mail. Documents included the grant proposal, – 3 in history of science meeting notes, design documents, metadata stan- – 1 in education (with science education as a spe- dards and several versions of the system in various cialty) stages of development. The data was focused through subsequent semi-structured interviews with Subjects sat at a computer in a room on a university project participants (n=19) who worked with the campus, with the researcher sitting alongside as sub- metadata at any level, even tangentially. During these jects explored the site. They were asked to articulate interviews, project documents were present for con- their thoughts as they explored the site, but longer sultation. periods of silence or non-verbal cues were met with 186 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 R. Gazan: Metadata as a Realm of Translation

simple prompts, e.g. What were you trying to do named persons, however, commonly varied across there? Once subjects had become familiar with the collections in form, content and application. Particu- site and its collections, the semi-structured interview larly challenging were instances where equivalent de- commenced. scriptive terms came from controlled vocabularies in one collection, and uncontrolled text entries in an- 4. Results and Discussion other. The problem of integrating disparate forms of Findings related to both the design and the usability metadata was exemplified in the oral histories collec- of the site are interlinked in this section. On the de- tion. While the primary access points of a standard sign side, project members from different disciplines bibliographic record are Title, Author and Subject, tended to have divergent views about the usefulness the metadata structure of the oral histories collection of certain collection items, metadata structures and gave primacy to personal names. The name of the terms, though they were able to articulate and nego- person giving the oral history was recorded in no less tiate these differences in reference to the metadata. than four of the 14 fields used to describe each col- However, the breadth of the source collections and lection item (Title, Creator, Contributor, and Sub- the disparities in their native metadata proved too ject). However, classifying these items by Subject, great an obstacle for project members to overcome according to one design team member, was “a and complete integration of the collections was nightmare.” Even with relatively focused interview abandoned. In both the design and the usability questions structuring the oral histories, transcripts study of the site, subjects’ practices and interview re- commonly wandered from topic to topic, including sponses supported the idea that people trained in dif- names of missions, equipment, places, half- ferent discourse communities value different types of remembered names of other researchers, and so on. information forms and access points. Items of this sort simply do not lend themselves to description with a few topical terms. The Subject 4.1 Metadata as a Realm of Translation field for these items consisted of the name of the person interviewed, and their high-level subject spe- The main constituent collections of the environ- cialty (e.g. Meteorology). All other significant de- mental information system are: scriptive terms were placed in the Summary field, which allowed free text, comma-delimited entries. – University Archive photographs Since this field was unique to the oral histories col- – University Archive research expedition mission lection, and populated with uncontrolled text, the logs oral histories could not be easily integrated with the – Historical Society photographs rest of the collection in any meaningful way. Similar – Historical Society oral histories problems arose with other collections. Their meta- – Environmental data sets data structures might have worked well for their – Web resources originally intended audiences, but when repurposed – Field guides as part of a merged information resource, they inter- – Bibliographies of research publications fered with one another. Subject terms carry contextual baggage which can In their native format, each of these collections had a work against easy integration. Differences in the different metadata structure, different access points, scope, intent and syndetic structure of the source and used mostly different standards and classifica- vocabularies made comparing Subject fields across tion schemes to describe collection items. For exam- collections problematic. Merging unstructured vo- ple, while general topical terms were drawn from the cabularies like lists of local fish species (120 terms) Library of Congress Subject Headings in several col- with terms from the hierarchical LCSH thesaurus lections, some had separate fields for geographic (approximately 232,000 terms) creates obvious ine- names and features, which were populated using the qualities in scope. In the former, the names of local much more focused Alexandria Digital Library Gaz- fish species are the entire universe. In the latter, fish etteer. Fields such as Expedition Name and Research can be described in any number of senses, from bio- Vessel, which appeared in some of the collections of logical to economic to aesthetic. the University Archive, used local authority lists and The members of the design team soon realized the were very consistently applied. Authority lists of enormity of the task of metadata integration and Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 187 R. Gazan: Metadata as a Realm of Translation

item description for multiple audiences. With time cluding activities, objects, types of people, events, and funds running short, and a need to demonstrate and places, while TGM II provides terms for the “good usability” of the system for the final grant re- genre and physical description of these items. After port, a compromise was struck. In the words of one assessing the contents of the merged collection, can- design team member: didate headings were chosen and considered. For example, though many of the photographs in this sub- We figured we could get by in terms of the in- set of the collection are of boats, and Boats is a term tegration requirement just by applying high- in TGM, this was considered too narrow for a collec- level terms across what collections we could, tion of environmental resources, so the broader term then also by having all the different resources Vessels was chosen instead. accessible from the same page on the site. But Examining the Category list reveals that different for good usability, targeting the different re- classificatory models are at work simultaneously, a sources to different audiences was pretty much common problem when classification schemes favor inescapable. practical concerns over theoretical consistency, such as in many Web portals and directories (Zins, 2002). So the collections were scarcely merged at all. Upon In this case, percepts and concepts are mixed to- visiting the home page, users must first select a col- gether. For example, one can easily imagine pictures lection of interest, be it photographs, environmental of Beaches, Harbors, People or Vessels. But what data sets, oral histories or any of the others, then does a picture of Oceanography look like? And Ae- search it separately, using subject terms and other rial Views is more a description of a photograph than access points specific to that collection. a subject. In subsequent interviews, many of the pro- In the end, the only collections that could be inte- ject participants felt that the Category headings were grated to any extent were the photograph collections the best solution under the circumstances, but fell of the University Archive and the Historical Society. well short of meeting the integrative goals of the sys- To unify these two collections, project archivists cre- tem. One of the Archivists reported that she had to ated a list of very broad terms called the Category be “dragged kicking and screaming” into accepting field, and assigned one or more terms to each image, this compromise solution. such as this list of fourteen terms related to oceanog- Why did the metadata integration attempt fail? raphy: Despite the stated goal of creating a system that would “catalyze” new cross-domain knowledge, in – Aerial Views practice the metadata negotiations settled into a – Beaches more traditional pattern, where information special- – Diving ists simply reacted to stated or perceived user expec- – Events tations. This gets to larger issues of cognitive author- – Fishing ity of discourse communities, and who is entitled to – Fishing Industry make knowledge claims. Environmental scientists – Harbors did not see themselves as creators of information – Navigation and Communication systems, and information specialists did not see – Ocean Life themselves as potential creators of new environ- – Ocean Resources mental knowledge. This “contested collaboration” – Oceanography (Sonnenwald & Pierce, 2000) played itself out in a – People variety of ways outside the scope of this paper, but – Scientific Equipment the failure to penetrate this barrier in terms of meta- – Vessels data was evidenced in the results of the usability analysis. This list was developed using the Thesaurus for Graphic Materials (TGM) (U.S. Library of Con- 4.2 Access Points, Forms and Warrant gress, 1995), a thesaurus of about 6,300 terms designed specifically for indexing pictorial materials. In the design of this project, the researchers and the The thesaurus is split into two sections: TGM I pro- information specialists had vastly different concep- vides a controlled vocabulary for describing a broad tions of both the goals of the system and the level of range of subjects depicted in pictorial materials, in- collaboration that they expected to take place. The 188 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 R. Gazan: Metadata as a Realm of Translation

researchers saw the project primarily as the means to environmental data. These could have been linked digitize the environmental data sets, and one re- with the data sets, perhaps across a common geo- searcher thought other collections were “just along graphic, topical or temporal descriptor, to view the for the ride.” Researchers tended to be interested in numbers more critically, and in the context of how metadata issues only insofar as they made the envi- they were originally collected. Perhaps the notion ronmental data sets accessible. This suggests a differ- that the photograph collections had less perceived ence in the “relative informational value” of different value in the eyes of the researchers helps explain collection items and access points, in terms of their low level of involvement in the attempt to inte- Budd’s (2002, p.97) sense of warrant. A common ac- grate them with the data sets. cess point in many databases is a statement about the Historians and sociologists of science understand item’s form, which sometimes appears as a Resource that what is reported in journal articles and data sets Type or Document Type field, with a value like text, is just one version – a heavily filtered one – of the ac- image or data set. In the usability study, members of tual practice of science. Evidence of how science is different disciplines often suggested that the forms actually done, when it is captured at all, is recorded of information are an indicator of whether an item is in forms like archival photographs, mission logs, lab likely to be useful or not. As a group, information notes and oral histories. It is not surprising that his- specialists thought all forms were equally useful. torians of science in the usability study found these This was less true for the researchers, who said they forms most useful. found the most value in the environmental data sets. An interesting and somewhat unexpected finding Perceived differences in the relative informational was that regardless of their disciplinary membership, value of collection items can obscure the potential participants in the usability study initially perceived new knowledge a merged collection might reveal. the system as a Web site, as distinct from an infor- For example, the environmental data sets were de- mation resource created by professionals. Reasons rived from rainfall measurements, fish catch statistics given included the site’s attractive design, and its use and similar data, which had been reported in rare lo- of graphics and non-technical language. This resulted cal serial publications, some of which were more than in an initial assumption that the site’s main page eighty years old. Once digitized, the data sets were would have a prominent search box where uncon- available in several downloadable formats and could trolled textual queries could be entered. As they ex- be imported into spreadsheets or databases for fur- plored the site, users discovered that it was more of a ther analysis. However, from the data sets alone Web portal, a collection of links to separate but re- there was no way to tell what standards and equip- lated content. But it is worth noting that the per- ment had been used to collect the data, or how com- ceived genre of an information resource apparently parable and consistent the numbers were from year creates expectations as to its usability. to year. Some issues published errata, correcting the In analyzing possible reasons for the lack of war- reports of previous issues, but items were digitized as rant environmental scientists tended to have for the found, and never edited. archival photographs, the age of the resources were Ideally, users would be able to access and view the considered as a possible factor. Bibliometric studies full text of the serial publications, the downloadable of the literature of different disciplines implies that data sets derived from them, and related content the age of information tends to be characteristic of from other collections in some sort of integrated how each discourse community uses and assesses in- display, where the links between disparate collection formation resources (Burton & Kebler, 1960). But items would be made more explicit. This would pro- since the environmental data sets included longitudi- vide more context to any given subset of data, allow nal data nearly as old as the photographs, this seems users to identify potential inconsistencies, and possi- unlikely. Lack of warrant for information in photo- bly help users create new hybrid knowledge. graphic form is another possibility. When asked if Some of the people involved in designing the sys- the archival photograph collections would be useful tem – primarily librarians and archivists – were able to them, this comment from a physical oceanogra- to conceptualize and articulate connections between pher was typical: the disparate collections. For example, some photographs in both the University Archive and Historical It might be. I don’t know. But I don’t have time Society collections included images and names of the to chase down things like that. I might have a people and equipment that had collected some of the grad student do it, but I guess if I needed data Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 189 R. Gazan: Metadata as a Realm of Translation

for a research article and they brought me back ties, are well-positioned to take on this role of trans- old-time photographs, I wouldn’t be too happy. lation, integration and synthesis.

But this same researcher dealt routinely with satellite Notes imagery and other photographic data in his research. He later commented that it would be nice if the fish 1 The name and certain details of the system are catch statistics contained links to pictures of the fish withheld to protect the privacy of the project par- (“that would be a really good teaching tool”). So ticipants, in accordance with UCLA Office for perhaps the act of being linked with highly valued Protection of Research Subjects policy. content can create warrant, and raise the perceived 2 I thank Jenna Hartel and Jonathan Furner for this informational value of different information forms. insight. These observations underscore the need to learn more about which communities value what kinds of References information and access points, revealing diverse conceptions of what knowledge is, and who is entitled to Borgman, C.L., Gilliland-Swetland, A.J., Leazer, create it. Framing document collections, specialized G.H., Mayer, R., Gwynn, D., Gazan, R. & languages and metadata structures in the context of Mautone, P. (2000). Evaluating digital libraries for the communities that create them is a challenging yet teaching and learning in undergraduate education: necessary prelude to meaningful integration. A case study of the Alexandria Digital Earth Pro- totype (ADEPT). Library Trends 49(2), 228-250. 5. Conclusion Bowker, G.C. and S.L. Star (1999). Sorting Things Out: Classification and its Consequences. Cam- The research described in this paper is ongoing and bridge, Mass.: MIT Press. the results here must be considered preliminary. Buckland, M., Chen, A., Gebbie, M., Kim, Y. & That the current system falls short of its initial inte- Norgard, B. (2000). Variation by subdomain in grative aspirations, should not, I think, be seen as a indexes to knowledge organization systems. In C. failure of the system, but rather as empirical support Beghtol, L.C. Howarth, N.J. Willamson (Eds.). : for the idea that people and documents in particular Dynamism and Stability in Knowledge Organiza- knowledge domains require nuanced understanding tion: Proceedings of the 6th International ISKO by information scientists, to provide effective access Conference. Wuerzburg, Germany: Ergon Verlag. in a world where merged collections and multidisci- 48-53. plinary collaborations are becoming increasingly Buckland, M., Jiang, H., Kim, Y. & Petras, V. (2001). common. Though the attempt to integrate different Domain-based indexes: Indexing for communi- metadata schemes in this project could not be com- ties of users. In: 3e Congrès du Chapitre français pleted as originally imagined, these negotiations did de L’ISKO, 5-6 juillet 2001. Filtrage et résumé take place in the realm of metadata, of subject terms informatique de l’Information sur les réseaux. Paris: and access points. From both a social and technical Université Nanterre Paris X. 181-185. http:// standpoint, the challenge is the same: integrating di- metadata.sims.berkeley.edu/papers/ISKObuck.pdf verse views of the world. Budd, J.M. (2002). Jesse Shera, social epistemology Through organization and access, people in in- and praxis. Social Epistemology 16(1), 93-98. formation science have had a key role in transform- Burton, R.E. & Kebler, R.W. (1960). The ‘half-life’ ing the knowledge generated by different domains of some scientific and technical literatures. Jour- into the overall information infrastructure. Some- nal of the American Society for Information Science what paradoxically, the field simultaneously attempts 11(1), 18-22. to create and impose universal standards, while advo- Egan, M.E. & Shera, J.H. (1952). Foundations of a cating more flexible notions of service to diverse user theory of bibliography. Library Quarterly 44, communities.2 It is a continual balancing act, but this 125-137. merged perspective reflects the perennial trade-offs Fuller, S. (2002). Social Epistemology (2nd ed.). inherent in the design of any information system. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press. People who deal with information in the abstract, Hjørland, B. (1998). Theory and metatheory of in- and with determining the context of information formation science: a new interpretation. Journal needs by members of different discourse communi- of Documentation 54: 606-621 190 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 R. Gazan: Metadata as a Realm of Translation

Hjørland, B. & Albrechtsen, H. (1995). Toward a interwoven situational awareness, dense social new horizon in information science: Domain networks and contested collaboration in com- analysis. Journal of the American Society for In- mand and control. Information Processing & Man- formation Science, 46(6), 400–425. agement 36, 461-479. Kanfer, A., Bruce, B., Haythornthwaite, C., Bur- Star, S.L. & Griesemer, J.R. (1989). Institutional bules, N., Wade, J., Bowker, G. & Porac, J. ecology, “translations,” and boundary objects: (2000). Modeling distributed knowledge proc- Amateurs and professionals in Berkeley’s Mu- esses in next generation multidisciplinary alli- seum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39. Social ances. In: Conference Proceedings of Next Genera- Studies of Science 19, 387-420. tion Enterprises: Virtual Organizations and Mo- Suchman, L. (1994). Position statement for the bile/Pervasive Technologies. http://www.dkrc.org/ Dagstuhl Seminar on Multidisciplinary Design. In papers/aiworcpaper.pdf R. Keil-Slawik (Ed.). Position papers for Dagstuhl Klein, J.T. (1990). Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory Seminar 9348 on Interdisciplinary Foundations of & Practice. Detroit: Wayne State University System Design and Evaluation, 50-51. http:// Press. www.ipo.tue.nl/homepages/mrauterb/publications/ Knorr Cetina, K. (1999). Epistemic Cultures: How DS94report.pdf Sciences Make Knowledge. London: Harvard Uni- Swanson, D.R. (1986). Undiscovered public knowl- versity Press. edge. Library Quarterly 56, 103-118. Luszki, M.B. (1958). Interdisciplinary Team Research: U.S. Library of Congress (1995). Thesaurus for Methods and Problems. New York: New York Graphic Materials I: Subject Terms (TGM I). University Press. http://lcweb.loc.gov/rr/print/tgm1/ Nelson, S.J., Johnston, D., Powell, T. & Hole, W.T. U.S. National Science Foundation (1998). Digital (2001). Making the marriage: Reconciling views Libraries Initiative Phase One. http://www.dli2. of concepts and meaning in MeSH and the nsf.gov/dlione/ UMLS Metathesaurus. Journal of the American Van House, N. (2002). Digital libraries and practices Medical Informatics Association, 985. http://www. of trust: networked biodiversity information. So- amia.org/online_html/S34.HTM. cial Epistemology 16(1), 99-114. Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability Engineering. San Fran- Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learn- cisco: Morgan Kaufmann. ing, Meaning and Identity. Cambridge: Cam- OED (2003). Oxford English Dictionary. Available bridge University Press. online at: http://www.oed.com. Zins, C. (2002). Models for classifying Internet re- Sonnenwald, D.H. & Pierce, L.G. (2000). Informa- sources. Knowledge Organization 29(1), 20-28. tion behavior in dynamic group work contexts:

Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 191 J. T. Tennis: Two Axes of Domains for Domain Analysis

Two Axes of Domains for Domain Analysis

Joseph T. Tennis

Information School, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2840

Joseph T. Tennis is a PhD candidate in Information Science at the University of Washington Informa- tion School. His research interests are in the philosophical, methodological, and historical-comparative theories of knowledge organization. His current work explores the basic understandings of subject analysis as an interpretive act. Of primary importance to this work are methodologies for incorporat- ing users in the interpretation of documents for representation in information systems. He is active in International Society of Knowledge Organization, American Society for Information Science and Technology, and the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative.

Tennis, Joseph T.. (2003). Two Axes of Domains for Domain Analysis. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 191-195. 18 refs.

ABSTRACT: This paper adds two analytical devices to domain analysis, claiming that for domain analysis to work cumulatively transferable definitions of domains must be written. To establish this definition the author provides two axes to consider: Ar- eas of Modulation and Degrees of Specialization. These axes may serve as analytical devices for the domain analyst to delineate what is being studied and what is not being studied in a domain analysis.

1.1. Background – Ways of Defining a Domain muddied. It can be noted that for Hjørland (1995, 1998, 2002)1, it seems more important to define the Domain analysis is done in many ways and by many domain analytic paradigm than the object of inquiry, people in Information Science. But what is domain the domain. And it is this problem of definitional analysis and what is a domain? The act of analyzing a muddiness I address here. domain seems easier to define than its object of in- There are a number of concepts similar to do- vestigation – the domain itself. As a consequence mains in Information Science; like Communities of what constitutes a domain both for domain analysis Practice, and Epistemic Communities.2 It seems ap- (Hjørland, 2002) and for the various researchers in parent to the casual reader what a domain might be. this field stands as an open research question. This is It could be an area of expertise, a body of literature, evident from the great deal of activity that goes into or even a system of people and practices working domain analysis and its corollary pursuits. with a common language. However, none of these The academic study of domains must answer this common-sense parameters lend themselves to suc- basic question – what is a domain? Hjørland and Al- cinct definition. Each of these lends itself to opera- brechtsen define domains as “thought or discourse tionalization (definition within the context of one communities, which are parts of society’s division of research study), but not to definition – and more labor” (Hjørland and Albrechtsen, 1995, p. 400). A specifically to transferable definition (potentially domain can be seen, according to these authors, as a useful across research studies). type of discourse community. Thus, the term domain is not the same as discourse community. They 1.2. Introduction go on to review the literature that uses the concept of domain under many terms. They cite “special- This paper is a methodological paper not a defini- ity/discipline/domain/environment” (Hjørland and tional paper. I am concerned not with definitions of Albrechtsen, 1995 p. 401) as the unit of study. As a domains but with the operationalization procedures consequence, the definition and its boundaries are of defining domains. This paper outlines how one 192 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 J. T. Tennis: Two Axes of Domains for Domain Analysis

may outline definitions of domains. It does not de- 3. research in indexing and retrieving specialties fine what a domain is. The goals of this paper are: to 4. empirical user studies outline two analytical devices that I call axes. These 5. bibliometrical studies axes build on Hjørland’s work. These axes might be 6. historical studies used by a domain analyst in operationalizing his or 7. document and genre studies her definition of a domain so that other domain ana- 8. epistemological and critical studies lysts can work with a more transferable definition. 9. terminological studies, LSP, discourse studies The structure of the paper is as follows: I will outline 10. studies in structures and institutions in scientific Hjørland’s eleven approaches to domain analysis communication (Hjørland, 2002). These eleven approaches constitute 11. domain analysis in professional cognition and ar- frameworks used to examine a domain. The intention tificial intelligence and function of the eleven approaches is not to define what a domain is. For domain analysis to be cumula- For example, we may know the domain of Religion tive, the notion of domain must be defined in a trans- by producing literature guides to the literature of re- ferable definition – one that can be used by more than ligion. We may learn about the domain by conduct- one researcher, to allow for a shared understanding of ing user studies, bibliometric studies, and historical what the object of domain analysis is. Thus, a domain studies of the people, documents, and institutions of analyst must provide a standardized definition of a Religion. Yet it is still important that we ask: what is domain, a definition that is easily understood by Religion the domain? Where does it stop? Where does it other domain analysts. To aid the domain analyst, begin? This is not addressed by Hjørland (2002). two analytical devices called axes, are proposed. The Only an operationalized definition, a transferable discussion of these two axes constitutes the second and standardized definition can help the reader of a part of the paper. The third part of the paper illus- domain analysis article know. trates some examples of the axes in use. Each of the above eleven approaches can be used The question can be raised, as to whether a trans- to analyze a domain. Domain analysts can now, ferable definition is worth aiming for in domain drawing from Hjørland (2002), share an understand- analysis. As can be inferred from this introduction, ing of the formal divisions between these ap- this author sees domain analysis as both a broad proaches. However, these eleven approaches alone theoretical approach that allows for variation and do not allow us to share the definitions and bounda- open concepts, and as a particular approach from ries of what is analyzed. They do not delineate what which many theories can be derived. The analytical a domain is in any common transferable way. At least tools outlined in this paper are tools for a particular two other analytical devices are required to help theory of domain analysis, a theory that allows for formalize that discussion. These other analytical de- transferable definitions, that highlights conflicts vices, or axes, delineate what it is that the domain within domains, and allows for comparisons between analyst is studying. They delineate an operationalized domains. With the tools outlined in this paper, a definition of the domain being studied. The first axis transferable definition is both achievable and desir- is Areas of Modulation, which sets parameters on the able. Operationalization can be a common practice names and extension of the domain, and the second using common tools – enabling a better understand- axis is Degrees of Specialization, which qualifies and ing of domains studied. sets the intension of the domain. They are described in section three below. 2. Placing the Two Axes in Context: Hjørland’s Eleven Approaches to Domain Analysis 3. Two Axes of Domain Analysis – Approaches to and Parameters of the Domain Birger Hjørland outlines eleven approaches to domain analysis (Hjørland, 2002). These approaches 3.1. Axis One: Areas of Modulation provide the information scientist with tools to study a domain. According to Hjørland (2002), a domain The axis Areas of Modulation sets parameters on the can be known through: names and the extension of the domain. The extension of the domain is its total scope. It answers how 1. producing literature guides and subject gateways far-reaching the domain is. The axis Areas of Modu- 2. producing special classifications lation does this by negotiating the terms and their Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 193 J. T. Tennis: Two Axes of Domains for Domain Analysis

definitions used by members of the domain, with that must be dealt with in a domain analysis. This those used by domain analysts. This axis reconciles distinction is not lost on Hjørland. He provides the the question: what is the domain called and what reader with an introduction to a variety of psycholo- does it cover? Both are necessary to setting parame- gies in his 1998 article. One example is psychoanaly- ters about a domain. sis. Yet, when taken as a whole these psychologies An example might be Psychology. Hjørland are called “traditional mainstream psychology” (1998) has offered a rigorous analysis of Psychology (Hjørland, 1998 p. 176). We are left unsure of the from an epistemic point of view. He reviews the scope, the extension and intension of the domain many ways Psychology might be described as a do- under study. The reader is provided with an open main. Because “classification of a subject field is the- concept of psychology, rather than an operational- ory-laden and thus cannot be neutral or ahistroical,” ized concept of psychology. (Hjørland, 1998, p. 162) Hjørland seeks to show The same can hold for Religion. Religion is a do- “how basic epistemological assumptions have formed main in everyday life. It is a domain in religious prac- the different approaches to psychology during the tice and a domain in the academy. Each may use the 20th century” (Hjørland , 1998 p. 162). And precisely same name, Religion, for different meanings. What because the classification of a subject field(its do- then is the extension of the term religion? Is it Bud- main analysis) is theory-laden, the basic question ari- dhism and Confucianism and Christianity, or is it ses: whose psychology does Hjørland analyze? What only the study of Christian Theology, as some is its extension? Is Hjørland’s psychology, an aca- United States universities and colleges have it de- demic psychology, the same psychology as Naropa fined? Is the extension of the term religion a subset University’s Transpersonal Psychology (Naropa, of Sociology? 2003)? Transpersonal Psychology carries a different In an area of modulation we have to name the ex- name than Psychology in general. By invoking the tension. This must be apparent to the domain analyst name, the extension of Transpersonal Psychology is and the reader of the domain analysis. It is a classifi- set into relationship with Psychology. However, cation problem. The Areas of Modulation, axis one, without describing what it is and what it is not, we is an explicit statement of the name and extension of do not know the exact relationship between Trans- the domain examined. It states what is included, personal Psychology and Psychology. Transpersonal what is not included, and what the domain is called. Psychology might hold a perspective on the entire Details as to how the domain is organized beneath domain that may be different from the Psychology this extension and name are the province of the sec- represented in Hjørland’s analysis. Teachers in ond axis, Degrees of Specialization. Transpersonal Psychology might identify their domain as being different from Psychology in general. 3.2. Axis Two: Degrees of Specialization3 One definition of Transpersonal Psychology deline- ates as much: Degrees of Specialization qualify and set the intension of a domain. It may be neither desirable, nor In short, transpersonal psychology stands for feasible, to describe an entire domain. The whole the re-enchantment of psychology in combina- domain may have a name and an extension that can tion with the highest levels of theoretical and be defined, but it may not easily lend itself to analy- clinical perception and skill. It advocates free- sis. Thus, the domain must be qualified. By qualify- dom and full self-realization for all beings. It ing a domain, its extension is diminished and its in- sees the meaning and value of all things and the tension in increased. For example, to study Hindu- sacredness of the life journey. Without dis- ism is not to study all of Religion. The qualified do- counting suffering – psychological, social, po- main is Hinduism. Hinduism has a greater intension litical, environmental – transpersonal psychol- and a lesser extension compared to Religion. Hindu- ogy finds delight, comfort, and a sense of ism, if it is a part of Religion, is a qualification of Re- Home in the primal and profound interconnec- ligion. It means more specifically, a type of religion. tion of all existence, (Davis, 2003). Hinduism could also be qualified History or qualified Political Group. However, not all qualifications For Davis, Transpersonal Psychology is a “re- are easily nested. enchantment of psychology.” Transpersonal Psy- Another domain is Biomedical Ethics. Biomedical chology then is a different kind of Psychology, one Ethics might be considered its own domain without 194 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 J. T. Tennis: Two Axes of Domains for Domain Analysis

being a member of another broader group. The do- can begin using the eleven approaches outlined by main pulls its membership from many different areas Hjørland (2002). of the academy, industry, and health professions. Degrees of Specialization offer a way for domain Many of its members are from administration and analysis to qualify a domain. Focus and Intersection are policy makers. Policy and administration are do- increase the intension of a domain. And in doing so, mains in and of themselves, yet Biomedical Ethics is delineate what is studied in a domain analysis. the domain of interest here. Therefore, in order to study a domain in a cumulative way, domain analysis 4. Conclusion and Future Research must define the domain and set its intension. A domain analyst can do this by outlining the Areas of In domain analysis, critical questions about the ob- Modulation and the Degrees of Specialization. ject of inquiry – the domain – must be answered be- Degrees of Specialization are very familiar to fore rigorous, transferable, study can begin. If Hjør- knowledge organization research. Much of the re- land (1997; 1998; 2002) has provided us with the search in this field deals with these types of distinc- hammer, what are the nails? tions. The first Degree of Specialization is a negative This paper has outlined two axes of consideration one, that is, no qualification to the domain. A do- when analyzing a domain: Areas of Modulation and main analyst may well feel it necessary to analyze the Degrees of Specialization. Areas of Modulation set whole domain. This then, must be established as one the extension of the domain and Degrees of Speciali- of the possible intentions of the domain analysis. zation set the intension. Each of these axes has two Beyond the whole domain, the domain analyst may parameters. Areas of Modulation must state 1) the want to qualify a domain based on Focus or Intersec- totality of what is covered in the domain analysis – tions. the extension and 2) what it is called – its name. The A Focus, as a Degree of Specialization, is a pa- Degrees of Specialization must 1) qualify the domain rameter used to qualify a domain, and in so doing, – state its focus and 2) state where the domain is po- increases its intension, lessening its extension. A Fo- sitioned against other domains – its intersection. cus may be, for example, on the domain of Buddhist In doing so, this paper has offered to future do- monastic communities. Buddhist monastic commu- main analysts a way of delineating and defining a nities, as a domain, is very different from Buddhism domain using two axes and a total of four parameters in general or from Religion in general. It is more fo- – extension, naming, focus and intersection. cused. With an Area of Modulation defined, a do- The axes and parameters put forth in this paper main analyst may want to find divisions used within are suggestions for the domain analyst. They outline that domain that will allow her or him to qualify his the ways in which domains can be conceptualized or her domain analysis. For example, in the academic and delineated. By doing this, the fruitful outcome study of religion, there are scholars who are philoso- will lie in domain analysts constructing the defini- phers of Christian thought, or historians of Islamic tions of their domain that are transferable to other law, or anthropologists of Hinduism. It is conceiv- researchers, to members of domains, and to all parable that a Focus may be restricted to one person. ties interested in domain analysis. The other Degree of Specialization is Intersection. Often, what is perceived as an established domain in- Acknowledgements tersects with another domain. The result is a new domain to some, but not to others. It creates a ten- The author would like to acknowledge Jens-Erik sion between invested parties, purposes, and opera- Mai, Birger Hjørland, and the anonymous reviewers tions of the domain. Often, this intersection of do- for their helpful suggestions. mains renames itself. However, just as often, it does not. Often, this intersection seeks institutional sup- Notes port (like gaining status of department or school in the academy, or seeking funding and management in 1 Hjørland is interested in defining Subject or Sub- academic and other sectors). An example might be ject Matter (1992; 1997; 2001). Biomedical Ethics, or Feminist Thought. Where is 2 Others in this list of terms related to a domain the domain of Feminist Thought located? What is it include: Communities of Practice (Davenport called? Who are its members? These are basic ques- and Hall, 2002), Subject Matter (Hjørland, 2001), tions that must be answered before a domain analyst Work Environment (Rasmussen et al., 1994), Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 195 J. T. Tennis: Two Axes of Domains for Domain Analysis

Discourse Community (Hjørland, 1995), Field Hjørland, B. (2001). Subject Access Points in Elec- (Hjørland, 2000; 2001), Discipline (Hjørland, ), tronic Retrieval. Annual Review of Information Context (Solomon, 2002), Situated Knowledge Science and Technology. (Medford, NJ: Informa- (Cool, 2001.), Position (Wilson, 1968), Ba tion Today). 35:249-298. (Nonaka and Konno, 1998), Cynefin (Snowden, Hjørland, B. (2002). Domain analysis in information 2002) science: Eleven approaches – traditional as well as 3 Throughout this section and the next there is a innovative. In Journal of Documentation. 58(4): strong resemblance between my thoughts on De- 422-462. grees of Specialization and the thoughts of S. R. Naropa University. (2003). Transpersonal counseling Ranganathan’s ideas of subject development psychology. Available: http://www.naropa.edu/ (1967). A closer comparison would see where transpersonal/index.html there are true similarities and differences. Nonaka, I. and Konno, N. (1998). “The Concept of “Ba”: Building a Foundation for Knowledge References Creation.” In California Management Review. 40(3). Cool. C. (2001). The concept of situation in infor- Prieto-Díaz, R. (1992, October). Applying Faceted mation science. In Annual Review of Information Classification to Domain Analysis. In D. Shaw Science and Technology. (Medford, NJ: Informa- (Ed.), ASIS ’92: Proceedings of the 55th ASIS An- tion Today). 35:5-42. nual Meeting (Pittsburgh, PA). (Medford, NJ: Davenport, E. and Hall, H. (2002). Organizational Learned Information, Inc.): 316. knowledge and communities of practice. In An- Ranganathan, S. R. (1967). Prolegomena to Library nual Review of Information Science and Technol- Classification 3rd edition. (Bombay India: Asia ogy. (Medford, NJ: Information Today). 36:171- Publishing House). 227. Rasmussen, J., Mark Pejtersen, A. and Goodstein, L. Davis, J. (2003). Quote from “Transpersonal counsel- P. (1994). Cognitive systems engineering. (New ing psychology” Available: http://www.naropa.edu York: Wiley). /transpersonal/index.html Snowden, D. (2002). “Complex Acts of Knowing: Hjørland, B. (1992). The concept of “subject” in In- Paradox and Descriptive Self-awareness”. In formation Science. Journal of Documentation. Journal of Knowledge Management. May 6(2). 48(2): 172-200 Available: http://www-1.ibm.com/services/files/ Hjørland, B. and Albrechtsen, H. (1995). Toward A Complexactsofknowing_1.pdf [last access: 7.2002] New Horizon in Information Science: Domain Solomon, P. (2002). Discovering information in con- Analysis. In Journal of the American Society for text. Annual Review of Information Science and Information Science. 46(6): 400-425. Technology. (Medford, NJ: Information Today). Hjørland, Birger (1997). Information Seeking and 36:229-264. Subject Representation: An Activity-theoretical ap- Van House, N. (forthcoming). Epistemic Communi- proach to Information Science. (Westport & Lon- ties. Annual Review of Information Science and don: Greenwood Press). Technology, vol. 38. Hjørland, B. (1998). The Classification of Psychol- Wilson, P. (1968). Two Kinds of Power: An Essay on ogy: A Case Study in the Classification of a Bibliographical Control. (Berkeley, CA: Universi- Knowledge Field. Knowledge Organization. ty of California Press). 24(4): 162-201.

196 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

Domain Analysis of Social Work: An Example of an Integrated Methodological Approach

Chaim Zins* and David Guttmann**

* Department of Information Science, Bar-Ilan University, Email: [email protected] ** School of Social Work, Faculty of Social Welfare & Health Studies, University of Haifa, Israel.

Dr. Chaim Zins is an information scientist, at the Department of Information Science, Bar-Ilan Uni- versity. He is a former member at the Department of Human Services, University of Haifa. Dr. Zins' current research is focused on knowledge organization, foundations of information science, knowledge management, information and referral services, and information retrieval.

Prof. David Guttmann is a social worker. He is a Professor Emeritus and a former Head of the School of Social Work, at the University of Haifa.

Zins, Chaim and David Guttman. (2003). Domain Analysis of Social Work: An Example of an Inte- grated Methodological Approach. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 196-212. 41 refs.

ABSTRACT: This study exemplifies an integrated methodological approach to domain analysis. The study analyzes the field of social work. It is aimed at developing a systematic, comprehensive, and scientifically valid knowledge map, and its applicability as an efficient tool to adequately represent knowledge in the field. The map is composed of seven parts: foundation (meta-knowledge), social worker, environment, organization, area of practice, method, and client. The study followed a qualitative four-phase research methodology. The first phase was a phenomenological analysis of the basic characteristics of social work as a social service. The analysis resulted in a seven-facet subject classification. In the second phase the conceptual skeleton was elaborated, and adjusted to the field of social work by a grounded-theory methodology. The data used for grounding the model were 14 social work resources. The model was tested in the third phase by classifying 200 terms randomly selected from the Dictionary of Social Work (Barker, 1999). Finally, in the fourth phase we classified 197 papers published in two leading journals, Social Work and Social Service Review, in three successive years, 1997, 1998, and 1999. This exemplary study has implications for domain analysis. The paper discusses these implications.

KEYWORDS: domain analysis, knowledge map, social work, subject classification scheme, phenomenological analysis, scientific validity

1. Introduction formulation of the boundaries of the knowledge domain and its division into major parts. The term This study analyzes the field of social work. It is ‘knowledge map’ in this study is a synonym for a aimed at developing a systematic, comprehensive, subject classification scheme. and scientifically valid knowledge map, and its appli- Exploring the boundaries and basics of social cability as an efficient tool to adequately represent work is the core of this domain analysis research. knowledge in this field. Knowledge mapping is the What are the boundaries of the field of social work? Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 197 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

What are the basic building blocks of the profession? of the subject domains as the authors perceived These key issues seem to be on the agenda of schol- them. ars and practitioners in the field of social work. They Another group of social work subject classifica- are reflected in numerous studies and position papers tion schemes includes schemes used for classifying (see, e.g., Abbott, 1995; Bar-On, 1994, Gibelman, bibliographic resources in libraries (e.g., Library of 1999, Haynes & White, 1999; Leighninger, 1987; Congress Classification, 1998, Dewey Decimal Classi- Rosenfeld, 1983; Schneider & Netting, 1999; Tucker, fication (Dewey, 1996), Bliss Bibliographic Classifica- 1996; Walz & Groze, 1991; Witkin, 1999). tion – Class Q: Social Welfare (Mills and Broughton, Since this study is primarily based on an analysis 1977)), scholarly databases (e.g., Social Work Ab- of the phenomena of social work, followed by scien- stracts, 2001), and the Internet (Social Work Gate- tifically based structuring, it will hopefully be util- way, 2000). This group also includes the Library of ized for improving and evaluating social work aca- Congress Subject Headings (1997), which is a thesau- demic programs, as well as for developing structured rus of keywords used for indexing bibliographic re- social work bibliographic resources, compiling read- sources rather than a classification scheme. The Li- ing lists and bibliographic collections, facilitating brary of Congress classification scheme and the So- quick subject access to bibliographic resources in da- cial Work Abstracts classification scheme are the most tabases and web sites, and evaluating the coverage of comprehensive. knowledge in academic journals. All the schemes presented above are based on, and reflect, thematic connections among the various top- 2. Subject Classification Scheme of Social Work ics. These are not mere arbitrary or alphabetical lists of topics. Therefore, without delving into the nature In order not to ‘reinvent the wheel’ we reviewed of these connections, we may agree to describe them known subject classification schemes. The number of as systematic. In addition, most of these schemes subject classification schemes of social work is large. were formulated in the late 1990s, so they are cer- In fact, almost any introductory book on social work tainly up to date. Though most of the schemes are presents an optional scheme in its table of contents incomplete, some are comprehensive and adequately (see, e.g., Compton & Galaway, 1994; Johnson & cover the social work knowledge domain. Still, the Yanca, 2001; Gitterman, 1991). Gitterman (1991), for scientific basis of these schemes is not clear. This instance, divided social work practices with vulner- study sought to develop a scientifically valid, as well able populations into two categories: (1) vulnerable as systematic, comprehensive, and updated subject life conditions, and (2), vulnerable life circumstances classification scheme of social work. Accordingly, and events. Vulnerable life conditions include AIDS, the significance of the study lies in the scientific va- alcoholism and other drug addictions, borderline per- lidity of the structuring methodology. sonality, chronic physical illness and disability, de- Zins and Guttmann (2000) developed a subject pression, eating problems, learning disabilities, mental classification scheme for the field of Logotherapy. retardation, and schizophrenia. Vulnerable life circum- We follow their methodological approach and ex- stances and events include adolescent pregnancy, child plore the applicability of their model to the field of abuse and neglect, children in foster care, crime vic- social work. tims, death of a child, domestic violence, elderly in need of long-term care, family caregivers of the frail 3. Methodology elderly, homeless people, immigrants and refugees, imprisonment, suicide and suicidal behavior, and A scientifically valid knowledge map is a map that workers in job jeopardy. This presents to the reader was developed based on a scientifically valid structur- an optional, though partial, subject classification ing methodology. Note that the term “scientific scheme of the field of social work. methodology” has different meanings. Without delv- Subject classification schemes of social work can ing into the definition of “a scientifically valid meth- also be found in overviews and encyclopedia articles. odology” – which exceeds the framework of this Good examples are the articles of Brieland (1996), study – one can agree that the scientific validity of a Hopps and Collins (1996), Popple (1996), and scheme depends on two necessary conditions. These Turner (1996), which were published in the Encyclo- are the scientific validity of the structuring method- pedia of Social Work (Edwards, 1996). The sections’ ology (whatever it is) and the fact that it is grounded titles in these articles usually present thematic maps in empirical raw material. 198 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

This is crucial; the scientific validity of a knowl- ideological engagement to the social worker-client edge map is primarily based on the scientific validity professional relationship. The Pragmatist’s map of the structuring methodology rather than on the stresses the overall value of social work to individuals structure itself. Since knowledge structuring is an in- and society. Hence, a Pragmatist’s map includes, for tellectual activity aimed at organizing the knowledge example, human needs, social ideologies, and social domain, it is based on two generic elements, namely policies. the relevant constitutive concepts and the content of In this study, the structuring followed a qualita- the knowledge domain. Consequently, from the epis- tive four-phase research methodology, which com- temological perspective knowledge structuring can be bines the rationalistic and the empirical approaches. based either on a logical analysis of the relevant con- The first phase utilizes a rationalistic methodology; stitutive concepts (e.g., “social work”) or on an em- the second, the third, and the fourth utilize empirical pirical study of the field (e.g., what social workers ac- methodologies. Following Hjørland’s classification tually do). In other words, domain analysis can be ei- of structuring methodologies, one can characterize ther conceptual (i.e., a typology) or empirical (i.e., a the first phase as Rationalism and the other phases as taxonomy). Typologies and taxonomies can be highly Empiricism. sophisticated. But to be acknowledged as scientific The first phase was a phenomenological analysis they need to be grounded in (or tested by) empirical of social work as a social service. It resulted in a data by means of scientific methodologies. seven-facet subject classification scheme. A phe- Hjørland (1998, 2002b) identified and formulated nomenological analysis is a conceptual analysis, since four methodological approaches to constructing sub- a phenomenon is a concept in the individual’s mind, ject classification schemes. These are Empiricism, which mirrors real or imaginary objects, activities, Rationalism, Historicism, and Pragmatism. I suggest and events. A phenomenological analysis relates to that the four approaches be arranged in two groups, the meaning of the concept, while ignoring the ques- based on the type of structure they generate. Ration- tion of reality. A Phenomenologist studies the mean- alism generates typologies. Empiricism, Historicism, ing of the studied phenomenon rather than its “real” and Pragmatism generate taxonomies. Note that nature. The reader should note that this interpreta- Pragmatism is based on personal or societal values tion of “Phenomenology” is rooted in the writings of and goals, so one may argue that it generates typolo- the philosopher Edmond Husserl (e.g., Husserl, gies. Still, Pragmatism stresses the benefits to indi- 1972). From an epistemological perspective, a phe- viduals and societies in real-life conditions, so they nomenological analysis of “Unicorn” relates to the are subject to empirical testing. For that reason, notion of a unicorn as an animal, regardless of the Pragmatism generates taxonomies rather than ty- fact that a unicorn is an imaginary animal. Similarly, a pologies. phenomenological analysis of “social work” is a Each approach creates a different structure since it study of the meaning of “social work” rather than its stresses a different perspective. The Rationalist realization in real social work practice. Moreover, a stresses the meaning of the relevant concepts. The phenomenological analysis differs from a scientific Empiricist stresses the current content of the subject study in focusing on the meaning of a concept rather domain. The Historicist emphasizes the development than on the real nature of the phenomenon. Scien- of the knowledge domain from a historical perspec- tific studies, on the other hand, try to capture the re- tive, and the Pragmatist stresses the benefits to indi- ality by means of empirical explorations. Here this viduals and societies. Consequently, the four ap- was undertaken in the second, the third, and the proaches generate four different knowledge maps of fourth phases of the study. social work. The Rationalist’s map stresses the mean- In the second phase, the seven-facet conceptual ing of “social work” and comprises social work key skeleton was elaborated and adjusted to the field of elements, such as the social worker, the environ- social work by a grounded-theory methodology. This ment, the client, and so on. The Empiricist’s map is a general research methodology for developing stresses the contemporary state of social work. This theory – in this case, model structuring – grounded in includes, for example, the types of social problems data systematically gathered and analyzed (Strauss & and therapeutic methods employed by social work- Corbin, 1994). The data used for grounding the ers. The Historicist’s map stresses changes in social structuring were the 13 classification schemes de- work conceptions; for example, the shift from char- duced from the resources mentioned in the previous ity to social justice, and the shift from idealistic and section and the Table of Contents of the Encyclope- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 199 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

dia of Social Work (Edwards, 1996). Note that the list pirical raw material. The hierarchical sub-division of encyclopedia articles is set in alphabetical order structure in each facet is a product of the social work and not by subject classification. Nevertheless, it pro- academic and professional knowledge. vides a detailed coverage of the field. Meta-knowledge. The Foundation section is In the third phase we tested the model by classify- unique. It includes the meta-knowledge of the field ing 200 terms randomly selected from the Dictionary of social work. Its rationale rests on philosophical of Social Work (Barker, 1999). We selected only grounds rather than on the phenomenological analy- terms, omitting names of people and organizations. sis of social work, as is the case with facets (or sec- The model evaluation was part of the structuring tions) 2 through 7. The necessity of a specific meta- process, and resulted in refining the model. The ra- knowledge section is derived, as a philosophical im- tionale of the evaluation lay in the assumption that plication, from Kurt Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem the validity of the model required that every one of (Gödel, 1931). From Gödel’s theorem one can con- the 200 terms be placed in at least one relevant cate- clude that it is logically impossible to form an axio- gory. Each term had indeed at least one category. matic system without assuming additional postu- However, some of the terms were placed in several lates. By accepting this implication, we realize that it categories. is theoretically impossible to formulate a self- Finally, in the fourth phase we classified all 197 sufficient explanation based exclusively on the phe- papers published in two leading scholarly journals, nomenological analysis of social work. Conse- Social Work and Social Service Review, in three suc- quently, an additional meta-knowledge section, cessive years, 1997, 1998, and 1999. The two journals which in the model is titled “Foundation,” is a neces- cover the various perspectives of social work theory sary basis in the knowledge construction of the field. and practice. Of these papers, 124 were published in Meta-knowledge is knowledge on knowledge. It in- Social Work and 73 in Social Service Review. The cludes epistemological, methodological, conceptual, classification was based on a textual analysis of the theoretical, historical, and practical postulates, and papers. We independently analyzed the papers and principles and guidelines regarding the relevant body then discussed the disagreements. Each paper was of knowledge. placed in at least one relevant category. Some papers Six basics of social work. As noted, sections 2 were found relevant for several categories and they through 7 are based on the phenomenological analy- were sited accordingly on the map. sis of social work as a social service. The conception The knowledge map is presented in figure 1. The of social work as a case of social service paves the 200 exemplary concepts and 197 papers published in way to define the six basics of social work. Zins Social Work and Social Service Review are presented (2001) identified six key elements common to all in figure 2. human services. These are the service provider, the recipient, the environment, the organization, the 4. The Model need, and the method. Every social service is an interaction between the provider and the recipient ef- Overview. The four-phase research methodology fectuated through four media: the environment, the produced a seven-facet hierarchical three-level sub- organizational framework, the needs addressed by ject classification scheme (see Figure 1). The seven the service, and the method. By adjusting the generic facets are (1) Foundation, (2) Social Worker, (3) So- terminology to the context of social work, one can cial Environment, (4) Organization, (5) Area of define six basics essential for characterizing the so- Practice, (6) Method, and (7) Client. Most facets are cial work phenomenon: the social worker, the social composed of a three-level hierarchical structure. For environment, the organization, the area of practice, example: Foundation (1st level) – Theory (2nd level) – the method, and the client. These six basics, together Definition (3rd level); Social Environment (1st level) – with the Foundation (i.e., meta-knowledge) section, Settings (2nd level) – Day care (3rd level). In some establish the theoretical ground for the seven-facet cases we used fewer levels of sub-classification, or we classification of social work. refined the classification by adding a fourth level of Foundation. The Foundation section is composed topical sub-division, as in the following case: of theory, history of social welfare and social work, Foundation (1st level) – Theory (2nd level) – Disci- education, and research and evaluation. The theory plines (3rd level) – Anthropology (4th level). The level sub-section is divided into two categories: defini- of subdivision of each facet is grounded in the em- tion/conception and disciplines. In a concepts map, 200 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

the “definition/conception” category includes the mental health institutions are common arenas for concepts “social work,” “social welfare,” and “human clinical social workers. Certainly, mental health is an services.” However, in a bibliographic resource that important area of practice. We have acknowledged its utilizes this classification scheme the defini- place by designating a specific sub-category, category tion/conception category includes the papers men- 5A(11)b (Areas of Practice – Social Problems – Health tioned above in the Introduction, as well as this pa- Care – Mental Health). Mental health is perceived as per. The “disciplines” category is composed of nine part of health care, besides physical health. Conse- bodies of knowledge that establish the theoretical quently, mental settings, such as mental health hos- basis of social work; these are anthropology, eco- pitals, are represented by the hospital social work nomics, law, medicine, philosophy and ethics, politi- category (5D(5)). cal science, psychology and psychiatry, religion, and Organization. The “organization” category re- sociology. The education section refers to academic lates to the organizational aspects of the social ser- education in social work and to professional training vice provision. The organizational perspectives are of social workers. Social work education embodies divided into two sub-categories: organizational type theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge. The and membership type. Theoretically, social work can research and evaluation category includes concepts be affiliated with governmental, public, and private and resources on social work research and on evalua- sectors; with nonprofit (i.e., governmental and pub- tion and assessment of policies, techniques, and pro- lic), and for-profit (i.e., private) organizations. The grams. Research on social work theory and practice membership-type classification is divided into two is composed of two types, theoretical and empirical. sub-categories: sectarian and voluntary. Empirical research is divided into quantitative and Area of practice. Social work areas of practice are qualitative. Note that scientific research and program divided into two broad categories: social problems evaluation are two different activities. Nevertheless, and promotion of social justice. We identified 20 ma- they are interrelated and utilize similar methodolo- jor types of social problems that social workers usu- gies. ally deal with. These are (1) addictions (e.g., alcohol- Social worker. This section addresses three as- ism, drug abuse, etc.), (2) AIDS/HIV, (3) adoption, pects related to the social worker, namely the social (4) aggression and violence, (5) crime, (6) disabili- worker’s personality traits and value orientation, his ties, (7) disasters (earthquake, flooding, etc.), (8) or her theoretical knowledge, and his or her applied displacement, (9) family malfunction, (10) family knowledge and work experience. Generally, it is ex- planning, (11) health care, (12) immigration, (13) pected that the social worker be humanitarian and losses and bereavement, (14) poverty, (15) prostitu- egalitarian. Note that this section relates to the per- tion, (16) rehabilitation, (17) retirement, (18) sex sonal therapist. It differs from the Foundation– abuse and rape, (19) suicidal behavior, and (20) social Education section, which refers to social work educa- deviance. tion, namely academic and professional programs. Three of the social problems listed above are fur- Theoretical knowledge should consist of general ther divided into a fourth level of sub-categories. humanist knowledge, general social work knowledge, Family malfunction is divided into four categories: and professional knowledge in the field of expertise adolescent pregnancy, child abuse, runaway, and (e.g., medicine, psychology, etc.). In addition, the women abuse. Health care is divided into physical social worker is expected to have relevant applied health and mental health. Finally, poverty is classi- knowledge and work experience. fied into three classes: housing, hunger, and unem- Social environment. This section refers to the ployment. These three basic human needs seem to be therapeutic and service environment. Usually it re- the most significant for defining poverty. Note that fers to social policy on welfare issues, ethnic and cul- AIDS/HIV is currently a major social problem; tural milieu, religious perspectives, and the setting. therefore, we decided that it would be more appro- We identified nine distinctive settings: (1) correc- priate to treat it as a unique category, rather than a tional social work, (2) day care, (3) foster care, (4) sub-category of physical health. hospice care, (5) hospital social work, (6) industrial Social workers often act to promote social justice social work, (7) military social work, (8) occupa- in four areas: (1) distribution of social and economic tional social work, and (9) school social work. resources, (2) human rights, (3) minority rights, and The reader might wonder why we have omitted (4) client rights. Note that some of the concepts mental health from the list of nine settings since listed in figure 2 in the four sub-categories of “pro- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 201 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

moting social justice” (e.g., affirmative action and an- rion may characterize the nature of the clients. The tipoverty programs) are also implementations of so- clients can be characterized by their need, gender, cial policies. Therefore, they can also be classified as age, and cultural and ethnical identity. As one can “social environment – social policy (category 3A).” see, there are different ways to map the “client” sec- Method. Traditionally and logically, professional tion. This section is divided into two major catego- interventions can be direct or indirect. The classifica- ries “individuals” and “groups and communities.” tion is based on the level of the social worker’s in- The “group and community” category is divided into volvement and his or her connection with the client. four sub-categories: age-based, culture and ethnicity- However, we could not ignore a significant group of based, gender-based, and need-based groups and technology-based interventions. Although in prac- communities. Detailed classifications of need-based tice we could have characterized these interventions groups can be found in Taxonomy of Human Services as direct and indirect, it seemed reasonable to formu- (Sales, 1994). late a specific category. Therefore, social work methods are divided here into three classes: direct inter- 5. Discussion and Conclusion vention, indirect intervention, and technology-based social work. A systematic, comprehensive, and scientifically There are thirteen major types of direct interven- valid map. We have succeeded in developing a sys- tions: (1) advocacy, (2) case management, (3) clinical tematic scheme that enables information profession- social work, (4) community organization, (5) con- als, as well as social workers, to understand the struc- flict resolution, (6) counseling, (7) crisis interven- ture of the social work knowledge domain and the tion, (8) empowerment, (9) family therapy, (10) conceptual relations among its major parts. This is group work, (11) guardianship, (12) interviewing, because the structuring was essentially based on a and (13) referring. The indirect interventions are di- phenomenological analysis of the diverse characteris- vided in six major categories: (1) administration and tics of social work’s manifold phenomena. The phe- management, (2) consultation, (3) fundraising, (4) nomenological analysis provided the theoretical basis information and referral services, (5) planning/pro- of the classification. Still, the fundamental signifi- gram development, and (6) supervision. cance of this study goes even farther. It culminates in Note that two pairs of similar sub-categories are the scientific structuring methodology, which found (i.e., counseling vs. consultation, and referring grounded the model on empirical data, and estab- vs. information and referral services) that belong to lished its scientific validity. Evidently, the combina- both types of interventions, direct and indirect. tion of rationalistic and empirical research ap- “Counseling,” as a direct method of intervention, re- proaches emerges as a powerful tool for developing fers to advising clients, while “consultation” refers to systematic, comprehensive, and scientifically valid peer consultations and to counseling given to profes- subject classification schemes. The model that has sional social workers. “Referring,” as a direct method been developed in this exemplary study is indeed sys- of intervention, means referring specific clients, in tematic, comprehensive, and scientifically valid. This the course and as part of the intervention, to obtain integrated methodological approach sets an example assistance from other helpers. “Information and re- that may be followed in other subject domains. ferral services,” as an indirect intervention, is the Academic integrity. Still, this is definitely not the creation and operation of an information resource or one ultimate model but an optional one. It is clear an information service primarily aimed at meeting that the model reflects personal interpretations of the information needs of professionals, clients, and the concept of social work and its related concepts. the general public. The phenomenological analysis is based by its very The technology-based category is currently com- nature on the philosophical, professional, and ideo- posed of two sub-categories, namely computer and logical tenets of the expert in the subject matter. The Internet-based interventions, and telephone-based subjective interpretations inherent in the phenome- interventions (e.g., emergency helplines). nological analysis, as well as in the grounded-theory Client. Different criteria serve to classify the cli- qualitative research methodology, do not mean that ents. A quantitative criterion may classify clients into the model is arbitrary and irrational. Yet the real three major categories, individuals, groups, and question is what constitutes the logical and the scien- communities, each of which requires different thera- tific validity of subject classifications. Obviously, peutic and treatment techniques. A descriptive crite- logical validity and scientific validity are based on es- 202 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

tablished criteria. Nevertheless, one cannot avoid the the inference is crucial: it means that the model has fact that, at the end of the day, the ultimate criterion to be revised. Since social work is constantly chang- is the researcher’s impartial academic integrity. ing, we expect this development to be inevitable. Overlaps. Categories of systematic schemes are Subject classification. The subject classification mutually exclusive. However, the reader might find emerged here as an efficient tool for organizing bib- overlapping among some of the categories. We dealt liographic resources and facilitating intelligible repre- with these overlaps, and were aware of their ration- sentation of accumulated knowledge in the specific ales, as evidenced with health care and AIDS/HIV. field based on thematic relations. Zins and Guttmann Yet we decided to set a special category for (2000) noted the existence of several models for or- AIDS/HIV, although it is part of health care, in organizing bibliographic resources, among them der to reflect its dimensions and severity. Note, chronological order of publications, alphabetical or- however, that in most cases the so-called overlaps der of authors, and subject classification. In May arise from different interpretations and emphases. 2000 they surveyed a randomly selected sample of Taking, for instance, the phenomenon of mental 100 web sites of scholarly journals and found that 96 health – social work, one can emphasize the general journals (96%) utilized the chronological order of perspectives of mental health as a specified area of publications, 11 (11%) utilized the alphabetical order practice (i.e., category 5A(11)b), the institutional of authors’ names, and only one (1%) followed a setting (i.e., category 3D(5)), or the therapeutic subject classification of the relevant field. The supe- method (i.e., category 6A(3)). Another example is riority of the subject classification scheme, which the phenomenon of community social work. The en- represents thematic relations, over the chronological vironmental perspective of the community is repre- order of the publication and the alphabetical order of sented in section 3, Social Environment. The meth- authors’ names, which reflect arbitrary connections, odological perspective is represented in category is self-explanatory. It arises from a comparison of 6A4, Community Organization. The cliental foci are Figures 2 and appendixes A and B. Note that Ap- represented in the four sub-categories of the 7B pendix A presents the alphabetical order of papers category, Client: Groups and Communities. The nu- published in Social Work, and Appendix B presents ances are inevitable. Nevertheless, they do not negate the alphabetical order of papers published in Social the validity of the model, but rather exemplify the Service Review. The chronological order of the pa- diversified perspectives of the social work phenome- pers is indicated by the numbers attached to the au- non and its diverse foci. thors’ names in the appendixes and in figure 2. Representing knowledge. The classification Evaluating knowledge coverage. Obviously, the process of the exemplary 200 concepts and the 197 model is a powerful tool for evaluating the knowl- articles was a means to test the validity of the model, edge coverage of academic and professional journals as well as its applicability. We succeeded in placing of social work. Reviewing Figure 2, one can at once each one of the 200 concepts and the 197 papers in at draw three conclusions in respect of the coverage of least one relevant category, thus substantiating the the journals in the three relevant successive years. validity of the model, and demonstrating its applica- First, the two journals differed in their coverage. For bility as a powerful tool to represent knowledge in example, they differed significantly in the coverage the field of social work. of Area of Practice (section 5) and Method (section Delimitation. The classification of the concepts 6). Social Work covered these two perspectives rela- and the papers was primarily aimed at exploring the tively more extensively than Social Service Review. capacity of the knowledge map to represent accumu- Second, the 197 papers published in the two journals lated knowledge in the fields of social work, rather together generally covered the seven perspectives. than at evaluating the two journals or the dictionary. However, and this is the third conclusion, the accu- Therefore, in many instances we placed the papers mulated coverage was not exhaustive and left some and the concepts in the most relevant category, while uncovered “white holes,” for example, Information ignoring other options. Furthermore, the reader and referral services (category 6B4). might disagree on the place where a specific paper is One can see that Social Work covers all seven fac- assigned. This does not refute the validity of the ets of the model, though in most of them the cover- model, but only reflects disagreement on the proper age is minimal. Clearly, Social Service Review is fo- place of the specific paper. However, if the reader cused on the meta-knowledge of social work, with cannot place the paper in any of the given categories, extensive coverage of the theoretical basis of the Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 203 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

field, its history, and research and evaluation. Al- not confuse it with the notion of facet classification though the journal addresses the other six facets of that is connected with the facet-analytic approach the model, their coverage is minimal. (e.g. Mills (1957), Mills & Broughton (1977), and Structured Thesauri. The classification of the 200 Vickery (1960)), and is implemented in Rangana- concepts presented in Figure 2 demonstrates the ap- than’s Colon Classification (CC) and Bliss’ Biblio- plicability of the knowledge map as a tool for devel- graphic Classification (BC)). The term “facet classi- oping structured thesauri. Structured thesauri are in- fication” refers here to any classification whose tegrated in bibliographic resources. Thesauri con- structure is composed of categories that represent struction is an important application of domain distinctive aspects of the subject. These categories analysis (MclIwaine and Williamson, 1999; Hjörland, are usually exhaustive and mutually exclusive. 2002a) Information professionals and lay users too, Analytico-Synthetic Classification. We also use structured thesauri for formulating improved adopt the term “Analytico-Synthetic Classification,” search queries. which is closely related to CC and BC, but we im- Classification as a tool for professional educa- plement it differently. Generally, a systematic classi- tion. Subject classification is a powerful tool for pro- fication construction is an Analytico-Synthetic proc- fessional education as well. Subject classification is ess. The analysis is a means to the synthesis, which aimed at assisting the reader to follow the thematic culminates in the structured scheme. The domain links among the various concepts that are included in analysis enables us to define the key elements of the the knowledge domain. Since this specific subject subject, but we still need the synthesis in order to classification scheme is based on a phenomenological capture the logical relations among them, and the analysis of the complex social work phenomenon, it boundaries of the subject domain. is assumed that it reflects fundamental conceptual re- Conclusion. To conclude, this study exemplifies lations among its various components. As Hjörland an integrated methodological approach for domain (1998, 2000, 2002a) puts it, classifications always re- analysis. We have succeeded in developing a system- flect (consciously or unconsciously) the theoretical atic, comprehensive, and scientifically valid knowl- and philosophical approach of the field being classi- edge map, and illustrated its applicability as an effi- fied. In our case, we launched the structuring with cient tool to adequately represent knowledge in the the conception that social work is a social service. field. We demonstrated that the map is an efficient This can help social workers to acquire a clearer con- tool for evaluating the coverage of knowledge in so- ception of the social work profession, and as Bowker cial work journals. This bodes well for future imple- and Star (1999) made clear, “classifications are a key mentations of the map for compiling reading lists part of standardization processes that are themselves and social work bibliographic collections, and facili- the cornerstones of working infrastructures.” tating access by subject to bibliographic resources Furthermore, social work educators can utilize the and databases, such as Social Work Abstracts (2001), knowledge map for developing introductory courses and in web directories, such as Social Work Gateway and compiling reading lists and bibliographic collec- (2000). It also paves the way to the development of tions based on the conception of social work (see structured thesauri and improved web sites and bib- Haythornthwaite, Bowker, Jenkins, & Rayward, liographic resources. We hope that the methodologi- 1999 as an example of implementing knowledge cal approach implemented in this study will set an mapping in LIS education). example for domain analysis and synthesis in other Facet classification. In the paper we use the term subjects as well. “facet classification” several times. The reader should

204 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

Figure 1: Knowledge Map of Social Work

1. Foundations (Meta-knowledge) 5. Areas of Practice 6. Method A. Theory (1) Definition/conception A. Social Problems A. Direct Intervention (2) Disciplines (1) Addictions (1) Advocacy a. Anthropology (2) AIDS/HIV (2) Case Management b Economics (3) Adoption (3) Clinical Social Work c. Law (4) Community Organization d. Medicine (4) Aggression/Violence (5) Conflict resolution e. Philosophy/Ethics (6) Counseling f. Political Science (5) Crime (6) Disabilities (7) Crisis intervention g. Psychology/Psychiatry (8) Empowerment h. Religion (7) Disasters (8) Displacement (9) Family Therapy i. Sociology (10) Group Work B. History of Social Welfare/Social (9) Family Malfunction a. Adolescent Pregnancy (11) Guardianship Work (12) Interviewing C. Education b. Child Abuse c. Runaway (13) Referring (1) Theoretical B. Indirect Intervention (2) Practical d. Women Abuse (10) Family Planning (1) Administration & Man- D. Research & Evaluation agement (2) Consultation (11) Health Care 2. Social Worker (3) Fundraising A. Personality Traits & Value Ori- a. Physical Health (4) Information & referral entation b. Mental Health (5) Planning/Program Develop- B. Theoretical Knowledge (12) Immigration ment C. Applied Knowledge & Work (13) Losses & Bereavement (6) Supervision Experience (14) Poverty C. Technology-based Social Work a. Housing (1) Computer/Internet-based 3. Social Environment b. Hunger (2) Telephone-based A. Social Policy c. Unemployment B. Ethnic/Cultural Milieu (15) Prostitution 7. Client C. Religious Milieu (16) Rehabilitation D. Settings (17) Retirement • A. Individuals (1) Correctional SW (18) Sex Abuse/Rape B. Groups and Communities (2) Day Care (19) Suicidal Behavior (1) Age-based (3) Foster Care (20) Social Deviance (2) Culture/Ethnicity-based (4) Hospice care B. Promotion of Social Justice (3) Gender-based (5) Hospital Social Work (1) Distribution of Social & (4) Need-based (6) Industrial Social Work Economic Resources (7) Military Social Work (2) Human Rights (8) Occupational Social Work (3) Minority rights (9) School Social Work (4) Client rights

4. Organization A. Organizational Type (1) Governmental Sector (2) Public Sector (3) Private Sector B. Membership Type (1) Sectarian (2) Voluntary

Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 205 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

Figure 2: 200 Exemplary Concepts and 197 Articles Published in Social Work and Social Service Review

Exemplary Concepts Papers in Social Work* Papers in Social Service Review*

“Soft sciences”. Gibelman 109, Hayner 84, Stuart 1.Definition 112. a. Anthropology a. Anthropology a. Anthropology. b. Economy. b. Economy. Rank & Hirschl 104 b. Economy. Brinton 46, Midgley 52, Reitan 40, Stoesz & saunders 67, Vartanian 23, 58, Wakefield 51. c. Law. c. Law. Kauts, Netting, Huber, c. Law. Linhorst & Dirks- Borders & Davis 28, Regrhr & Linhorts 55. Antle 24 d. Medicine. d. Medicine. d. Medicine. e. Philosophy/Ethics.Basic need, e. Philosophy/Ethics. Jayaratne, e. Philosophy/Ethics. Maluccio 7, bioethics, deontology, norms, Mattison & Croxton 16, , Man- Stoesz & Saunders 67. Utilitarianism. ning 17, Myers & Thyer 23, A. Theory Reamer 83, Regrhr & Antle 24. 2. Disciplines f. Political Science. Basic need, f. Political Science. Abramovitz f. Political Science. Boisjoly, Har- classical liberalism, laissez-faire. 85, Ozawa 91. ris &Duncan 48, Dodenhoff 41, Gibson 8, Hudson 47, Midgley 52, Wakefield 51. g. Psychology / Psychiatry. Adle- g. Psychology / Psychiatry. g. Psychology / Psychiatry. rian theory, basic need, behaviorism, cognitive models, disengagement theory, Kohelberg’s moral development. h. Religion. h. Religion. h. Religion. 1. Foundations Foundations 1. i. Sociology. Norms, organiza- i. Sociology. Jenson & Howard i. Sociology. Chaskin 22, Doden- tional theory. 71, Warren, Franklin & Streeter hoff 41, Reitan 40, Vartanian 23, 74, Queralt & Witte 82. 58. Indoor relief, philanthropy, relief, Carlton-Laney 46, 110, Gibelman Abel 26, Fisher 60, Hurl & Tucker settlement houses, softrage, “un- 109, Haynes 84, Huff 90, Johnson 21, Knupfer 70, Machtinger 57, B. History of worthy poor”. 111. Morrison-Dore 59, Morton 33, SW Reisch 34, Twiss & Martin 62. In-service training, psychosocial Okundaye, Gray & Gray 115, Fisher 60,Reisch 34, Shoemaker 1. Theoretical study. Schneider & Netting 113. 35. C. Education Case method system. Haj-Yahia 14, Okundaye, Gray & Shoemaker 35. 2. Practical Gray 115. Applied research, cost-benefit Andrews & Ben-Arieh 97, Depoy, Bolen & Scannapieco 63, Kost & analysis, Delphi method, descrip- Hartman, Haslett 123, Faul & Ersing 45, Meyers & Heintze 54, tive study, feasibility study, infer- Hudson 45, Fredriksen 100, Morton 33, Queralt & n Witte 29, ence, inventory, multivariate Greenley, Gorey, Thyer & 72. D. Research & analysis, needs assessments, null Pawluck 67, Greenberg & Brown

Evaluation hypothesis, operational definition, 19, Padgett 75, Reese, Ahern, pilot study, qualitative research, Nair, OwFaire & Warren 122, quantitative research, randomiza- Rubin, Cardenas, Warren, Pike & tion, replication, validity, analysis Wambach 78, Staudt 9, Stocks 79, of variance (ANOVA). Weaver 105. Activist role, altruism, “bleeding Berkman & Zinberg 25, Csikai & Kagle 38, Karabanow 65 heart,” burnout, deductive reason- Sales 64, Collins, Tourse & Kamya ing, eclectic, egalitarianism, ethical 12, Jayaratne, Mattison & Crox- A. Personality conduct, genuineness, malfea- ton 16, Manning 17, Schneider &

Traits & Values sance, motivation, passivity, pa- Netting 113. ternalism, reformer, role model, self determination, strength perspective. B. Theoretical Person in environment, scientific Timberlake & Sabatino & Martin Kondrat 69.

2. Social Worker Knowledge method, second opinion. 29. C. App. Knowl- Advice giving, direct practice, sec- Timberlake & Sabatino & Martin Kirk, Wakefield, Hsieh & Pottick edge & Work ond opinion. 29. 56. Exp.

* The numbers adjacent to the authors’ names reflect the chronological order of the papers. 206 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

Exemplary Concepts Papers in Social Work Papers in Social Service Review

Incrementalism, quota system, Arhangelsky 39, Baker 3,.Jimenez residency law, social security. 2, Smith & Yeung, 28, Usui & A. Social Policy Palley16. B. Ethnic & Culture shock, minorities of Delgado & Barton 73. Savaya & Malkinson 10, Cultural Mi- color. Venkatesh 24. lieu C. Religious

Milieu 1. Correctional Community-based corrections. Spergel & Grossman 36. SW 2. Day care Queralt & Dryden Witte 29. Orphanage. O’Donnell 117. Bilaver, Jaudes, Koepke & Goerge 68, Berrick , Barth , Needell & 3. Foster care Jonson-Reid 12, Usher, Randolph & Gogan 53

3. Social Environment 3. Social Environment 4. Hospice care Palliative care. D. Settings 5. Hospital SW Medical social work. Marley 80. 6. Industrial SW 7. Military SW 8. Occupational Occupational health. Iversen 88. SW Career counseling. Astor, Behre, Fravil & Wallace 5, 9. School SW 63, Dupper & Poertner 32, Richman, Rosenfeld & Bowen 70. Section of housing, sheltered 1. Gov. Sector workshop, skilled nursing facili- A. Organizational ties. Type Sheltered care facility, skilled Felty & Jones 36, Hudson 47, Sil- 2. Public Sector nursing facilities. berberg 30. 3. Private Sector Felty & Jones 36. 4. Organization Organization 4. B. Membership 1. Sectarian Type 2. Voluntary Self-help organizations. Hudson 47.

Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 207 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

Exemplary Concepts Papers in Social Work Papers in Social Service Review

Alcoholics Anonymous, drug ad- Barber & Gilberston 6, Burke & El-Bassel, Chen & Cooper 44. diction, dual diagnosis, nicotine de- Clapp 44, Davis & Jansen 60, Faul 1. Addictions pendence, pathological gambling & Hudson 45, Johnson, Bryant, Collins, Noe, Strader & Berbaum 69, Kauffman , Silver & Poulin 18. AIDS/HIV Dunbar, Mueller, Medina, & Wolf 58, Marcenko & Samost 93, 2. AIDS Poindexter & Linsk 94, Somlai, Kelly, Wagstaff & Whitson 50. Adoptive parents, open adoption. Bausch & Serpe 11, Brooks, Barth, Bussiere & Patterson 102, 3. Adoption Hollingsworth 55, Hollingsworth 118. 4. Aggression & . Carlson 7, Guterman & Cameron Violence 39, Roberts & Brownell 114 Juvenile offenders, parole, re- Roberts & Brownell 114. Linhorst & Dirks-Linhorst 55, 5. Crime socialization group. Maxson, Whitlock & Klein 31, Smith & Stern 17. Meyers, Lukemeyer & Smeeding 6. Disabilities 37. 7. Disasters Bridge housing. 8. Displacement Bridge housing. a. Adolescent Pregnancy. a. Adolescent Pregnancy. a. Adolescent Pregnancy. Cor- coran & Kunz 13. b. Child abuse. child neglect. b. Child Abuse. Mulroy 20. b. Child Abuse. Beeman 18, DePan- 9. Family Mal- filis & Zuravin 61, Knepper & Barton function 14 A. Social c. Runaways. c. Runaways. Twaite & Lampert 1. c. Runaways. Problems d. Women Abuse. d. Women Abuse. d. Women Abuse. 10. Family Plan. Abortion, planned parenthood. Jackson 101. Baker 3. 11. Health Care a. Physical Health. Catastrophic ill- a. Physical Health. Loveland- a. Physical Health. ness, dual diagnosis, prenatal SW, Cook, Selig, Wedge & Gohn-Baube right to refuse treatment, triage. 99, Mitchell 77, Monahan & Hooker 22, Perloff & Jattee 98. b. Mental Health. Acrophobia, b. Mental Health. Carlson 7, Mar- b. Mental Health. dual diagnosis, eating disorders, ley 80,.Mitchell 77, Vourlekis, Ed- right to refuse treatment. inburg & Knee 89, Yamashiro & 5. Area of Practice Matsuoka 15. 12. Immigration Chow 96, Padilla 48. 13. Losses & Be- Logotherapy. reave. 14. Poverty a. Housing. Antipoverty programs, a. Housing. Pollio 43, Shepard 47, a. Housing. Entner Wright, Caspi, “bag lady”, bridge housing. Vissing & Diament 3. Moffitt & Silva 32, Twiss & Martin 62, Wong, Culhane & Kuhn 19 b. Hunger. Antipoverty programs. b. Hunger. Seipel 116. b. Hunger. c. Unemployment. Antipoverty c. Unemployment. Raheim 4. c. Unemployment. Laseter 4, programs. Schreiner 71. 15. Prostitution 16. Rehabilitation 17. Retirement 18. Sex Abuse & Finerman, & Bennett 54, Sloan, Rape Edmond, Rubin & Doughty 53. 19. Suicidal Be- havior 20. S. Deviance “Coming out” 1. Distribution of Affirmative action, antipoverty pro- Domanski 59. Brodkin 1, Hudson 66, Scharlach, Social & Ec. Res. grams, income test, preventive SW, & Grosswald, 15, Sherraden & social development, social justice, Barrera 25. transfer payment, unemployment compensation, welfare rights, cate- B. Promo- gorically needy. tion of So- 2. Human Rights Preventive right to die, right to life Poindexter 49. Trolander 6. cial Justice movement, social justice. 3. Minority rights Preventive SW, social justice. Haight 62, Weaver 61. Savaya & Malkinson 10. Alimony, legitimization, patients’ Maluccio 7. rights, preventive SW, right to re- 4. Client rights fuse treatment, social justice, citi- zen participation.

208 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

Exemplary Concepts Papers in Social Work Papers in Social Service Review

1. Advocacy Advocate role, child advocacy. Litzelfelner & Petr 31. 2. Case Background investigation, case re- Resnick & Gelhous-Tighe 8, Rock Brock & Harknett 49, Martin, Pe- Management cord, contracting, “door knob & Congress 108. ters & Glisson 50. communication”, micro practice. 3. Clinical SW Brief therapy, casework, concurrent Alexander 30, Swenson 86. Morrison-Dore 59, Reid 9. therapy, contracting, “door knob communication”, dual relationships, environmental treatment, facilitation, poetry therapy, rational. Bargaining, “broken window the- Barton & Watkins & Jarjoura 38, Silberberg 30. ory”, broker role, community de- Carter 95, Chaskin, Joseph & velopment, change agent, enabler, Chipenda-Dansokho 34, Cohen & generalist, linkage, macro practice, Phillips 37, Delgado 35, Dupper & 4. Community mobilizer role, negotiation, out- Poertner 32, Finn & Checkoway 72, Organization reach, systemic requisites. Morrison, Howard, Johnson, Navarro, Plachetka & Bell 42, Mul- roy 20, Mulroy & Shay 41, Naparstek & Dooley 40, Page-Adams & Sher- raden 33. A. Direct 5. Conflict reso- Arbitration, experiential therapy, Mackey & O’Brien 57, McMillen Interven- lution mediation, role playing, progressive 119, Strom-Gottfried 76. tion SW. 6. Counseling Spiritual counseling. Voss, Douville, Little soldier & Twiss 106. 7. Crisis inter- Bridge housing, crisis sequence, lo- Wilhelmus 56. Johnson 5. vention gotherapy. 8. Empowerment Concurrent therapy, couples group therapy, joint custody, mirror technique, multi-problem family, para- doxical directive, relabeling, scape- 6. Method Method 6. goat, side taking, audio feedback. 9. Family Therapy Briar-Lawson 87. 10. Group Work Action sociogram, art therapy, closed group, movement therapy, open group, participant observation, reality therapy. 11. Guardianship Joint custody. 12. Interviewing Coaching, paraphrasing, selective attention. 13. Referring 1. Administration Affirmative action, case integration, Resnick & Gelhous-Tighe 8. Waldfogel 20. & Management community development, cost sharing, indirect practice, exchange model. B. Indi- 2. Consultation Case conference, collaboration. rect In- 3. Fundraising Charitable gambling, joint funding, Marx 52, Page-Adams & Sherraden terven- matching grants, philanthropy. 33. tion 4. Information & Clearing house. Referral 5. Plann/Program Development 6. Supervision 1. Computer-based Computer-mediated intervention, Gelman, Pollack.,& Weiner 107, C. Tech- interface ,video feedback. Giffords 65, Rock & Congress 108. nology- based SW 2. Telephone - Postplacement contact, telephone Schopler, Abell & Galinsky based reassurance, hot line. 66,Wiener 68.

Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 209 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

Exemplary Concepts Papers in Social Work Papers in Social Service Review A. Individuals 1. Age-based Elderly, frail elderly, juvenile of- Burnette 92, Delgado & Tennstedt Courtney, Piliavin & Entner fenders, latchkey child, minorities 10, McQuaide 51, Potts 27, Reinardy Wright 27, Foster & Furstenberg of color. & Kane 124, Siebert, Mutran & 73, Maxson & Whitlock & Klein Reitzes 120, Smith 26. 31, Smokowski 42, Smith & Carl- son 11. 2. Culture and Ethnicity-based B. Groups & 3. Gender- Communities based 7. Clients 4. Need-based Alcoholics Anonymous, caregiver Applewhite 2, Barber & Gilberston 6, Jackson 43, Johnson 5, Venkatesh support group, “coming out,” inpa- Burnette 92, Kamya 13, Dore, Nel- 24. tient, marathon group, minorities of son-Zlupko & Kaufmann 103, Kelley color, mutual-aid group, sensitivity & Clifford 21, Reese, Ahern, Nair, group, support group, task groups. O’Faire & Warren 122, Savaya 81, Toseland, McCallion, Gerber, Daw- son, Gieryic & Guilamo-Ramos 121.

Appendix B: Papers Published in Social Service Review

(The numbers in the square brackets reflect the chronological order of the papers)

Abel, 71(4) Medicine and morality: the health care program of the New York Charity …[26] Arhangelsky, 72(2) Modern Russian social security [39] Baker, 71(1) Parental benefits policies and the gendered division of labor [3] Beeman, 71(3) Reconceptualizing social support and its relationship to child neglect [18] Berrick, Barth, Needell, & Jonson-Reid, 71(2) Group care and young children [12] Bilaver, Jaudes, Koepke, & Goerge, 73(3) The health of children in foster care [68] Boisjoly, Harris, & Duncan, 72(4) Trends, events, and duration of initial welfare spells [48] Bolen, & Scannapieco, 73(3) Prevalence of child sexual abuse: a corrective metanalysis [63] Brinton, 72(4) From high school to work in Japan: lessons for the United States? The social …[46] Brock, & Harknett, 72(4) A comparison of two welfare-to-work case management models [49] Brodkin, 71(1) Inside the welfare contract: discretion and accountability in state welfare … [1] Chaskin, 71(4) Perspectives on neighborhood and community: a review of the literature [22] Corcoran & Kunz, 71(2) Do unmarried births among African-American teens lead to adult … [13] Courtney, Piliavin, & Entner Wright, 71(4) Transitions from and returns to out-of-home care [27] DePanfilis, & Zuravin, 73(2) Epidemiology of child maltreatment recurrences [61] Dodenhoff, 72(3) Is welfare really about social control? [41] El-Bassel, Chen, & Cooper, 72(3) Social support and social network profiles among …[44] Entner Wright, Caspi, Moffitt, & Silva, 72(1) Factors associated with doubled-up housing…[32] Felty & Jones, 72(2) Human services at risk [36] Fisher, 73(2) "Speaking for the contribution of history": context and the origins of the Social …[60] Foster & Furstenberg, F. F. (1999), 73(2) The most disadvantaged children: trends over time [73] Gibson, 71(2) Facing off on social policy: can the right and left find middle ground? [8] Hudson, 72(4) The voluntary sector, the state, and citizenship in the United Kingdom [47] Hudson, 73(3) Conflict in today’s aging politics: new population encounters old ideology [66] Hurl & Tucker, 71(3) Homer folks and the minimization of the Michigan County agents [21] Jackson, 72(3) The role of social support in parenting for low-income, single, black mothers [43] Jimenez, 71(1) Concepts of health and national health care policy: a view from American history [2] Johnson, 71(1) Professional help and crime victims [5] Kagle, 72(2) Are we lying to ourselves about deception? [38] Karabanow, 73(3) When caring is not enough: emotional labor and youth shelter workers [65] Kirk, Wakefield, Hsieh, & Pottick, 73(1) Social context and social workers’ judgement of… [56] Knepper & Barton, 71(2) The effect of courtroom dynamics on child maltreatment proceedings [14] 210 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 Ch. Zins and D. Guttman: Domain Analysis of Social Work

Knupfer, 73(3) Professionalizing probation work in Chicago, 1900-1935 [70] Kondrat, 73(3) Who is the “self” in self-aware? Professional self-awareness from a critical …[69] Kost & Ersing, 72(3) Options and obstacles of county-level data in planning and monitoring … [45] Laseter, 71(1) The labor force participation of young black men: a qualitative examination [4] Linhorst & Dirks-Linhorst, 73(1) A critical assessment of disposition options for mentally ill … [55] Machtinger, 73(1) The U.S. Children’s Bureau and Mothers’ Pensions Administration, 1912-1930 [57] Maluccio, 71(1) Time for an ideological shift in child welfare? An essay review [7] Martin, Peters, & Glisson, 72(4) Factors affecting case management recommendation for …[50] Maxson, Whitlock, & Klein, 72(1) Vulnerability to street gang membership: implications for … [31] Meyers & Heintze, 73(1) The performance of the child-care subsidy system [54] Meyers, Lukemeyer, & Smeeding, 72(2) The cost of caring: childhood disability and poor…[37] Midgley, 73(1) Growth, redistribution, and welfare: toward social investment [52] Morrison Dore, 73(2) The retail method of social work: the role of the New York School in the …[59] Morton, 72(1) Cleveland’s child welfare system and the “American dilemma” 1941-1964 [33] Queralt & Witte, 72(1) Influences on neighborhood supply of child care in Massachusetts [29] Queralt & Witte, 73(3) Estimating the unmet need for a middling approach [72] Reid, 71(2) Long-term trends in clinical social work [9] Reisch, 72(2) The sociopolitical context and social work method, 1890-1950 [34] Reitan, 72(3) Theories of interorganizational relations in the human services [40] Sandfort, 73(3) The structural impediments to human service collaboration: the case of welfare …[64] Savaya & Malkinson, 71(2) When clients stay away [10] Scharlach & Grosswald, 71(3) The family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 [15] Schreiner, 73(3) Self-employment microenterprise, and the poorest Americans [71] Sherraden & Barrera, 71(4) Family support and birth outcomes among second-generation … [25] Shoemaker, 72(2) Early conflicts in social work education [35] Silberberg, 72(1) Balancing autonomy and dependence for community and …[30] Smith & Carlson, 71(2) Stress, coping, and resilience in children and youth [11] Smith & Stern, 71(3) Delinquency and antisocial behavior: a review of family processes…[17] Smith & Yeung, 72(1) Childhood welfare receipt and the implications of welfare reform [28] Smokowski, 72(3) Prevention and intervention strategies for promoting resilience in … [42] Stoesz & Saunders, 73(3) Welfare capitalism: a new approach to poverty policy? [67] Trolander, 71(1) Fighting racism and sexism: the Council on Social Work Education [6] Twiss & Martin, 73(2) Conventional and military public housing for families [62] Usher, Randolph, & Gogan, 73(1) Placement patterns in foster care [53] Usui & Palley, 71(3) The development of social policy for the elderly in Japan [16] Vartanian, 73(2) Adolescent neighborhood effects on labor market and economic outcomes [58] Vartanian, 71(4) Neighborhood effects on AFDC spells: examining the social isolation… [23] Venkatesh, 71(4) The three-tier model: how helping occurs in urban poor communities [24] Wakefield, 72(4) Foucauldian fallacies: an essay review of Leslie Margolin’s Under the Cover… [51] Waldfogel, 71(3) The new wave of service integration [20] Wong, Cuthanc, & Kuhn 71(3) Predictors of exit and reentry among family shelter users in NYC [19]

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Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 213 H. Albrechtsen and A. M. Pejtersen: Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design of Classification Schemes

Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design of Classification Schemes

Hanne Albrechtsen, Annelise Mark Pejtersen

Cognitive Systems Engineering Centre, Risø National Laboratory, Denmark

Hanne Albrechtsen is Senior Scientist at the Cognitive Systems Engineering Centre, CSEC, Risoe Na- tional Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. Previously, she was Assistant Professor at the Royal School of Library and Information Science, Denmark. Her research and teaching areas comprise knowledge organization, work domain analysis and human-computer interaction. She holds a PhD in Computer Science from Aalborg University, Denmark (2003). Hanne was involved as elected member of the ex- ecutive board of ISKO from 1998-2002 and was appointed president of ISKO from 1996-98.

Annelise Mark Pejtersen is Research Professor and head of the Cognitive Systems Engineering Center at Risoe National Laboratory in Denmark and Affiliate Professor at The Information School, The University of Washington in Seattle. She is a specialist in cross-disciplinary research in the fields of Cognitive Systems Engineering, Cognitive Work Analysis, Work Based Classification Schemes, Eco- logical Interface Design, and methods for design and evaluation of complex socio-technical systems. She has received several international awards, has been in charge of a number of funded research projects and a member of many governmental research committees.

Albrechtsen, Hanne and Annelise Mark Pejtersen. (2003). Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Cen- tered Design of Classification Schemes. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 213-227. 52 refs.

ABSTRACT: Work centered design of classification schemes is an emerging area of research which poses particular challenges to domain analysis and scheme construction. A key challenge in work centered design of classification schemes is the evolving semantics of work. This article introduces a work centered approach to the design of classification schemes, based on the framework of cognitive work analysis. We launch collaborative task situations as a new unit of analysis for capturing evolving semantic structures in work domains. An example case from a cognitive work analysis of three national film research archives illustrates the application of the framework for identifying actors’ needs for a classification scheme to support collaborative knowledge integration. It is concluded that a main contribution of the new approach is support for empirical analysis and overall design of classification schemes that can serve as material interfaces for actors’ negotiations and integration of knowledge perspectives during collaborative work.

1. Introduction mains or disciplines and reflect their needs of informational tools in those domains. The work centered Work centered design of classification schemes is design approach takes this dynamic approach one based on the view that semantic structures are dy- step further by focusing on the actual dynamics in a namically evolving in work situations. Former views work situation. The aim of this article is to contrib- on classification have mostly been based on more ute with a new work centered approach to design of static assumptions concerning semantics, such as classification schemes, based on the methodological deep semantic structures underlying all natural lan- framework of cognitive work analysis (Rasmussen, guages (e.g., Chomsky, 1971). The domain analytic Pejtersen and Goodstein, 1994; Pejtersen and approach (Hjørland and Albrechtsen, 1995) empha- Albrechtsen, 2000; Albrechtsen, 2003). The sug- sized a more dynamic understanding, according to gested approach differs from previous Information which the semantic structures are developed in do- Science contributions to the field, which primarily 214 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 H. Albrechtsen and A. M. Pejtersen: Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design of Classification Schemes

deal with detailed design of classification schemes, and can be understood in multiple macro-social con- based on guidelines and standards for scheme contexts, for instance, in the light of culture, economy struction (e.g., Ørnager Ornager, 1997; Nielsen, and organization (e.g., Hall, 1994; Hodson and Sulli- 2001). The focus of this article is on how to capture van, 1995). The phenomenon of work can also be work domain semantics through analysis of collabo- understood and studied as the sociology of workers rative task situations where actors formulate seman- or human actors at work, directed towards under- tic structures. Cognitive work analysis offers a standing of human experience and activity in work methodological framework for empirical analysis of domains (e.g., Auster, 1996). When human actors work and identification of semantic structures of enter and engage in the sphere of production, they work content. Furthermore, it offers a correspond- become subject to informal socialization and adapta- ing framework for work centered design and evaluation, irrespective of professional specialty, that is, re- tion, which can guide the transformation from em- gardless of their formal socialization in education pirical analysis of work to design of information sys- and training (Schmidt, 1990). This implies that work tems and classification schemes (Rasmussen, Pe- domain semantics is not only an effect of actors’ in- jtersen and Goodstein, 1994; Vicente, 1999; Sander- dividual knowledge and interests and their profes- son, 2003; Pejtersen, 1994; 1989). The focal point of sional paradigms or languages, but is as much an ef- the present article is cognitive work analysis of col- fect of their ongoing construction and integration of laborative knowledge integration in the film archive knowledge during work activity (e.g., Schmidt and domain and the corresponding identification of se- Wagner, 2003; Albrechtsen, 2003; Albrechtsen, Pe- mantic structures, exemplified through the case of jtersen and Cleal, 2002; Gerson and Star, 1986). collaborative negotiations of information needs at a The challenge of capturing work domain seman- national film archive. tics and the corresponding challenge of work cen- The article is structured as follows: Section 2 in- tered design are focal points of the current basic re- troduces the key challenge of capturing work domain search on work centered classification schemes, car- semantics for classification schemes. Section 3 ad- ried out at the Cognitive Systems Engineering Cen- dresses related work. In section 4, the methodologi- tre, Risø National Laboratory (Pejtersen and cal framework for cognitive work analysis is intro- Albrechtsen, 2000; Pejtersen and Albrechtsen, 2002; duced. Section 5 deals with the two main analysis Albrechtsen, Pejtersen and Cleal, 2002; Albrechtsen, perspectives of the framework that guide empirical 2003). At this stage of research, we define classifica- analysis for design of work centered classification tion schemes as symbolic artifacts, which inscribe schemes: means ends analysis and decision task stable semantic structures of work and make visible analysis. In section 6, an example is taken from the the semantics to support actors’ decision-making ac- film archive research domain of a prototypical deci- tivities. Currently, we are involved in large-scale em- sion task of knowledge mediation that involves col- pirical work analysis and evaluation of the design of a laborative exploration and integration of knowledge. web-based film research collaboratory, Collate (Cleal The example illustrates the use of the framework for et al, 2004; Andersen et al, 2003; Pejtersen et al, capturing evolving semantic structures in collabora- 2001). The aim of this research is to further develop tive knowledge integration and the corresponding methods for cognitive work analysis of collaborative need for a classification scheme. Section 7 provides work, which may inspire overall design of classifica- an overview of the analysis and overall design cycle tion schemes that can mediate and support collabo- for work centered classification schemes. The con- rating actors’ articulation work and sense-making in clusion, section 8, summarises the main points of the work domains. article and outlines future research. 3. Related work 2. Work domain semantics and classification schemes The last few years have seen an increasing research attention to design and use of classification schemes A key challenge in work centered design of classifi- in work domains. The research object can be under- cation schemes is that the schemes must be rooted in stood broadly and in an open way as construction, the semantics of the work domain. Because of the adaptation, maintenance and use of classification evolving nature of work, the corresponding domain schemes to support people’s work activity. From an semantics is dynamic. Work is a social phenomenon Information Science perspective, classification Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 215 H. Albrechtsen and A. M. Pejtersen: Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design of Classification Schemes

schemes are defined as tools for ordering and re- ‘subassembly’, and ‘tolerance’ within a manufactur- trieval of documents in collections or repositories ing company, is not merely terminological. The held and maintained by organizations like libraries, problem is multiple incongruent perspectives for archives and private companies (cf. e.g., Olson, 2002; conceptualization of work, as observed by Gerson Svenonius, 2000; Hjørland and Albrechtsen, 1999; and Star (1986), Star and Griesemer (1989), Pe- Miksa, 1992; Soergel, 1985). In work domains, hu- jtersen, Sonnenwald, Buur, Govindaraj and Vicente man actors may create common repositories or (1997), Davenport (2001) and Albrechtsen and Jacob common information spaces (e.g., Bannon and Bød- (1998). Such diversity of conceptualization can be an ker, 1997) and develop and apply classification effect of specialization of the workforce in profes- schemes for the ordering, searching and sharing of sional roles, discourses and disciplines, as pointed knowledge. In addition, classification schemes can out by Hjørland (2002 et passim). New conceptuali- support the actors’ mutual articulation of work and zations can evolve during collaborative practice and their joint decisions (Schmidt and Wagner, 2003; decision-making amongst actors in work domains. Gerson and Star, 1986). Articulation of work occurs For example, the problem of defining ‘tolerance’ of a in actors’ communication and negotiation about particular product design in a manufacturing com- work tasks, knowledge sharing and planning and pany will require dialogue and negotiation amongst analysis of work problems. Explicit procedures, or the actors involved from different parts of the enter- models for actors’ decisions, may exist in the shape prise, in order to get the work of establishing criteria of documents with policy formulations or in the for quality assurance done (cf., e.g., Schmidt, 1990; shape of common representations like classification Pejtersen et al, 1997). It is our assumption that schemes. Actors’ decisions can also follow implicit analysis of collaborative task situations, where actors procedures, learned or developed during their pro- are interdependent and need to develop a mutual un- fessional training or training and collaboration at the derstanding, can contribute to an understanding of workplace. In such a work-analytical perspective, how semantic structures evolve in work domains and work domain semantics is on the one hand inscribed how such structures can inspire the overall design of in stable procedures and common representations, classification schemes to support collaborative but is at the same time continually performed and ne- knowledge integration in work domains. gotiated during the actors’ ongoing communication and negotiations about work content (e.g., Simone 4. Cognitive work analysis and Sarini, 2001; Pejtersen and Albrechtsen, 2000; Carstensen, 1997; Middleton (1996); Schmidt and Cognitive work analysis is a methodology for sys- Bannon, 1992; Suchman, 1983). tematic exploration and analysis of work domains. Design of classification schemes for work do- The framework comprises a taxonomy to capture the mains can be based on data capturing from docu- context in which domain semantics evolves, together ments like product and process documentation cre- with models for analysing decision-making (Rasmus- ated in a work domain, and a corresponding mapping sen, Pejtersen and Goodstein, 1994). The framework of data into a classificatory structure (e.g., Prieto- has been developed from empirical analyses of a di- Diaz, 2002). Design of classification schemes for versity of work domains, based on extensive field work domains can also be based on statistical analy- studies in libraries, research archives and hospitals, as sis of diverse and common terms used by human ac- well as of product development in concurrent engi- tors in work organizations, when they search for in- neering and manufacturing (e.g., Pejtersen et al, formation, and a corresponding organization of 2001; Rasmussen, Pejtersen and Goodstein, 1994; terms into classificatory models like thesauri (e.g., Carstensen, 1997; Hovde, 1990; Rasmussen, Pe- Nielsen, 2002; Ørnager, 1997). From an analysis per- jtersen and Schmidt, 1990; Pejtersen, 1994). The spective, these approaches emphasize formal analysis framework supports understanding and modelling of of semantics through concept or term mapping into a work domain as a social system of work, which will universal models for organization of knowledge (see then shape the basis for design of information sys- e.g., Lyons, 1977, for a discussion of formal analysis tems. As pointed out by Vicente (1999), Rasmussen of semantics). and Pejtersen (1994) and Schmidt (1990), the social As Schmidt (1990) has pointed out, a problem like system of work is an extremely complex phenome- diverse terms in different organizational units of a non. It involves many forms of social interaction that work domain, such as terms like ‘part’, ‘project’, are bounded by a number of external and internal 216 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 H. Albrechtsen and A. M. Pejtersen: Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design of Classification Schemes

constraints. Internal constraints may include tradi- Some analysis perspectives of the Onion model tions and privileges of task allocation amongst the capture macro-level contexts like culture, economy actors and the way they tend to regulate horizontal and professional paradigms and values, as evidenced information flow amongst themselves. External con- by the means-ends perspective (layer 1) and the ac- straints like the function of a particular enterprise or tors’ knowledge perspective (layer 6). Other per- work domain in the socio-economical system, such spectives emphasize the actors’ situational work ac- as the external economical or political constraints for tivity in individual and collaborative work and their an educational institution or a manufacturing enter- interpretations of the territory of work (layer 3). prise, will impact the local regulations of work. The Based on the guidance of the Onion model, a con- different forms of interaction in the social system of crete conceptualization or model of the social system work do not exist as discrete entities, but are highly of work is progressively created. interdependent. 5. Design of classification schemes based on domain and decision task analysis The actual work environment Work domain analysis Pejtersen (1994; 1989; 1986) has developed the prin- in terms of means- ciple for work centered design of classification ends structure Activity analysis Individual and colla- schemes, that recurrent properties of information borative task situations needs arising in communicative interaction between work domain actors reflect structures of a multidimensional se- decision terms making mantic territory, and that such structures can be used strategies and in the design process of modelling classification heuristics schemes. This notion is based on extensive field Organizational analysis studies of collaborative task situations of fiction me- collaboration, division diation (searching and indexing), where recurrent of work, and social

patterns of formulations of properties and dimen- organization Actors’ resources and sions in information needs were identified. The fic- skills tion mediation dimensions were transformed to a Analysis classification scheme with an attribute structure, of Actors supporting all decision processes in searching and indexing, from negotiation of perspectives to planning of actions. Figure 1 The different perspectives involved in cognitive Work centered design of classification schemes work analysis (the Onion Model). builds on two main perspectives: means-ends analy-

sis and needs analysis (corresponding to layers 1 and Cognitive work analysis approaches this complexity 3-4 of the Onion model). The two steps of analysis through an analytical distinction between different can be carried out concurrently, in order to build up layers or perspectives of work. The Onion model an understanding of how the actors’ activities and (Rasmussen, Pejtersen and Goodstein, 1994) guides need formulations are coupled to the actual territory empirical study and interpretation of the social sys- of work. The generic means-ends model guides tem of work (figure 1). The Onion model provides means-ends analysis of the overall territory of work, an overall taxonomy for characterizing the stable which is involved in a collaborative task situation patterns of work. The onion model comprises the (Rasmussen, 1986). Analysis of actors’ needs is ad- following abstract layers or perspectives: dressed through identification of prototypical deci-

sion processes in a task situation and through the Means-ends perspective of the territory of work dimensions of knowledge levels and domain perspec- Work organization perspective tives involved in the decision processes of collabora- Task situation perspective tive work (Rasmussen, Pejtersen and Goodstein, Decision task perspective 1994; Pejtersen and Albrechtsen, 2002). Mental strategy perspective

Actors’ knowledge perspective

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5.1 Means-ends analysis of work and the abstraction The abstraction hierarchy has five levels, from goals hierarchy and constraints to physical resources. The highest level of goals (i) addresses the purpose of the work Means-ends analysis deals with the overall territory domain in relation to its functions in the environ- of work as (i) domain structures and actors’ work ment. This level applies to the domain’s anchoring in strategies on the one hand, and (ii) actors’ resources, cultural, political and economical systems. Con- background and preferences on the other hand. straints imposed by outside regulations like legisla- Means-ends analysis is based on two analytical prin- tion or codes of practice are addressed in this ab- ciples: (a) empirical analysis of work domains and straction level as well. The second level of abstrac- (b) mapping of identified domain substance in a tion concerns priority measures (ii). This describes means-ends hierarchy (Rasmussen, 1986; Rasmussen, how resources like staff, material and finances are al- Pejtersen and Goodstein, 1994). The generic means- located within the domain. The feature addresses ends abstraction hierarchy is displayed in figure 2. how the distribution of activities and materials are managed within a domain, through organizational MEANS-ENDS structure and division of labour and resources. The PROPERTIES REPRESENTED RELATIONS third level of abstraction is general functions (iii). Properties necessary and sufficient to This feature concerns the recurrent tasks carried out establish relations between the per- in a domain, irrespective of the physical resources formance of the system and the rea- Goals like staff or work tools involved in carrying out these sons for its design, i.e., the purposes and and constraints of its coupling to the tasks. The fourth level of abstraction focuses on Constraints environment. physical processes (iv) involved in work activities, Categories are in terms referring to which are necessary to establish and maintain the properties of environment. general functions of the work domain. The fifth and Properties necessary and sufficient to lowest level of abstraction covers an inventory of establish priorities according to the physical resources (v), which are created, used and intention behind design and opera- Priority tion: Topology of flow and accumula- maintained within the domain. ‘Physical resources’ measures tion of mass, energy, information, also cover the actors involved in activities in the do- people, monetary value. main, such as staff and users (Rasmussen, Pejtersen Categories in abstract terms, referring and Goodstein, 1994, pp. 35-55). The relations be- neither to system nor environment. tween the content or substance matter of the means- Properties necessary and sufficient to ends abstraction hierarchy are not static, nor are they identify the ‘functions’ which are to logically or causally given. The relations are given by General be coordinated irrespective of their Functions underlying physical processes. the actors’ interpretations of the territory of work. Categories according to recurrent, familiar input-output relationships. 5.2 Analysis of decision processes Properties necessary and sufficient for control of physical work activities Cognitive work makes use of decision templates as and use of equipment: To adjust op- heuristic tools for capturing and analyzing collabora- Processes eration to match specifications or tive decision processes. A decision template can con- and limits; to predict response to control Activities actions; to maintain and repair equip- sist of the following components: a) what is the ment. situation we are dealing with?; what are the options?; Categories according to underlying and what are the constraints?; b) what kinds of plans physical processes and equipment. can we make on the basis of this analysis?; and c) Properties necessary and sufficient what do we want or do not want to do, based on the for classification, identification and result we got? (see for instance, Brehmer, 1992; Physical re- recognition of particular material ob- Richardson, G. P and J. Rohrbaugh, 1990). Based on sources jects and their configuration for navigation in the system. Pejtersen’s principles for analyzing communicative Categories in terms of objects, their ap- interaction in information seeking (e.g., Pejtersen, pearance and location. 1994, 1989, 1986), Pejtersen and Albrechtsen (2002) defined the following decision template with three Figure 2 The means-ends abstraction hierarchy components for analysing the collaborative negotiation of an information need: 218 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 H. Albrechtsen and A. M. Pejtersen: Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design of Classification Schemes

Component 1: Situation analysis An important finding of the study was that col- The situation analysis is initiated by the activation of laboration is at the core of research and mediation the actor’s attention to the possible aspects of an in- practice in the archives. It was observed that collabo- formation need, and it involves observations, ques- ration happens in proximity, whether it be in teams tions, problem identification, exchange of perspec- of collaborating indexers, or in stable patterns of tives, conceptualizations and identification of op- communicative interaction amongst staff and archive tions. These are all analytical processes. users (Pejtersen et al, 2001). While the archives are based on different cultural and historical traditions Component 2: Evaluation of options of collection building and mediation, they share the The implications of the actual state of affairs with re- goal of making visible the use potentials of the col- spect to current goals and constraints must be evalu- lections for a broad spectrum of target audiences. ated. This analytical process involves prediction, The archives deal with use potentials in different value judgement, possible reassessments and the ac- ways. A recurrent pattern is to either enroll users in tors’ priority making when they consider choice acquisition and interpretation of materials in an ar- among options and possible actions. chive, and/or enroll users in continual proximity in an archives’ search activity. In both cases, the pur- Component 3: Planning actions pose of user enrollment is not only to facilitate ac- Based on the state of affairs from evaluation and cess to and circulation of materials, but also to en- choice among possible solutions to the identified courage their participation in production and inte- problems, a proper sequence of actions must be se- gration of film knowledge. User enrollment in sub- lected. This revolves around the process of planning ject analysis in collaborative film indexing is explored and scheduling and involves the decisions of actors by Albrechtsen, Pejtersen and Cleal (2002) and Pe- and work situations that will be engaged in the exe- jtersen and Albrechtsen (2002), and a classification cution of a decided action. scheme based on means-ends modeling and analysis of decision processes is suggested as a new symbolic These components do not reflect a linear sequence of artefact to support the collaborating actors’ integra- decisions. The decision processes iterate through the tion of knowledge throughout all steps of indexing. evolution of an information need. The following introduces a different case of collaborative integration of film knowledge, in terms of 6. Empirical analysis of semantic structures – a prototypical task situation of collaborative infor- an example case mation searching. The example is based on the analysis of the data gathered in the study of the three na- This part of the article illustrates how cognitive work tional film archives, introduced above (Pejtersen et analysis can be applied for analyzing the semantic al, 2001). The intention is to show how cognitive structures of a work domain, through an example work analysis can be applied to reveal evolving se- case of knowledge integration in a film research ar- mantic structures in the work domain. Section 6.1 in- chive. The example case builds on results from field troduces and explains a means-ends representation of studies and cognitive work analysis of cross-cultural the territory of work, in which the activity of col- film research for the creation of a web-based collabo- laborative information searching takes place. Section ratory to support decision-making in production, as- 6.2 introduces an example prototypical decision task sessment and integration of knowledge in the film in collaborative information searching, which is car- domain (Keiper et al, 2002; Pejtersen and Albrecht- ried out within this territory of work. Section 6.3 sen, 2002; Albrechtsen, Pejtersen and Cleal, 2002). presents the main recurrent patterns in the collabora- The field studies were carried out in three European tive decision task. Based on these analyses, the need film archives during 2000-2002. A team of domain for a classification scheme is discussed in section 6.4. analysts conducted the field studies. The field studies An identification of semantic structures of the evolv- made use of participant observation, interviews, fo- ing integration of knowledge in the collaborative de- cus groups and workshops (Pejtersen et al, 2001). All cision task is given in section 6.5. collected data were recorded on tape and transcribed. The data were analyzed by use of the framework for cognitive work analysis.

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6.1 Means-ends analysis of the territory of work in film The archive has the overall goal (level 1) of contrib- research archives uting to national and international film research and to mediating national cultural heritage. The con- Figure 3 illustrates a simple means-ends representa- straints (level 1) for mediation comprise the lack of a tion of the territory of work for information services comprehensive central register for locating external activity in the national archive: materials and limited funds for acquisition of materials. The archive gives priority (level 2) to enrolling MEANS users in proximity for integration of knowledge, ENDS PROPERTIES REPRESENTED rather than, for example, to integration of knowledge LEVELS through a dedication to comprehensive collection

building. An additional priority is production and Goals Contribute to preservation and mediation of national and international cultural film distribution of documentaries on video to the public heritage; contribute to national and inter- about Austrian culture. The archive’s collaboration national research on films with domain experts as well as lay users is very im- Constraints portant for identifying and gathering films and film Lack of a comprehensive central register clips to produce the documentaries. Both priorities for locating external materials; opening are linked to the overall goal (level 1) of contributing hours; lack of film content information in to national and international film research. The func- archive’s databases; limited funds for acquisition of materials tions (level 3) in the work domain to serve this priority comprise information services in proximity and continual arrangements of film retrospectives, lec- Priorities To reach broad and diverse target group of tures and seminars for the users. Processes (level 4) of users; research; efficiency in finding in- information services embrace, for example, face-to- formation and locating materials; produc- face meetings and continual follow up contact on in- tion and distribution of documentaries about Austrian culture from the 1930s formation needs amongst users and staff, mainte- onwards. nance of a paper file with descriptions of users’ long term research or study projects, and acquisition, cataloguing and indexing of materials donated by us- Functions User services; arrangement of retrospec- ers. The physical resources (level 5) that support these tives; external collaboration with institu- processes comprise an open archive environment tions and persons; document national re- where the users can browse collections’ material research through colloquia, seminars and publications sources, use the archive’s computer-based information systems to access databases and the Internet, and where the users can go visit the staff in an in- Processes Communicate with users face to face and formal manner during opening hours. The physical by phone and e-mail; communicate with resources also comprise collection materials, com- journalists and film distributors; write ar- puters and staff. ticles; watch and analyze films; staff coor- The means-ends analysis of the archive’s territory dination of user requests; registration of researchers' and students' projects of work reveals that the staff and their professional networking, locally and externally, are crucial resources for integration of knowledge. The means- Resources Staff offices and spaces; users' workspaces; ends analysis also discloses that the archive’s internal and physical reading room; collections; films, photos, constraints of limited funds for acquisition of mate- configura- posters, videos, users (different categories; rials impacts local regulations of work. Because the tions collaborating institutions; Internet, e-mail, archive is not obliged to hold all national films and telephone, fax; paper file with research and student projects film-related materials, little priority is being given to comprehensive registration of films and film-related materials, which can function as an ordering system Figure 3: Means-ends representation of the territory of work for horizontal information flow amongst the actors, for information services in the national film archive staff and users.

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6.2 Prototypical collaborative task situation to visit the film archive and also hinted what staff he might want to talk with in the beginning of his ex- In cognitive work analysis, means-ends analysis of ploration of film knowledge. In other words, the work domains is applied to capture the structure of student’s research problem is formulated within a re- the territory of work. The corresponding means- search area that is characterized by a high degree of ends representation stands for the context in which strategic uncertainty (Whitley, 1989). The high de- work activity takes place. Activities are addressed gree of strategic task uncertainty in the student’s through analysis of prototypical task situations. Task project implies that it is difficult for the student to situations are directed to solving a particular work formulate an explicit information need and a search problem within the territory of work. As an analyti- request when he meets up with the staff member of cal unit, a task situation is dealt with in terms of what the archive. The student introduces his project to the the actors do, how they do it, and what actors are in- staff member, and they create a description of his volved in decisions to solve the problem at hand, and project in the archive's paper file of research and stu- how they concert their activities with one another dent projects. The staff member suggests an initial (see, e.g., Rasmussen, Pejtersen and Goodstein, browsing of the collection. They browse the collec- 1994; Vicente, 1999). The below description of a tion together during their first encounter. prototypical task situation in a film research archive The browsing activity yields some exemplars of is an example taken from the study of the three na- films and film-related materials, which the student tional national archives (Pejtersen et al, 2001). It in- analyzes. At a later visit to the archive, the student troduces a prototypical task situation of collabora- talks with another staff member. The student now tive information seeking within the national archive, has a clearer picture of what he is looking for. The whose means and ends were analyzed in section 6.1. staff member, who has heard about the student pro- Description of a collaborative task situation: A uni- ject from her colleague during an informal staff versity student of women’s studies visits a film re- meeting, listens to the student’s ideas and insights. search archive to find materials and seek inspiration These ideas and insights are important for the ar- for an essay on socio-political conditions for chive’s current emphasis on building up a more com- women’s lives in Austria during the 1940s. He is es- prehensive network and collection to support pecially interested in how national feelings and knowledge production and exploration for the new women’s values are represented in films from this pe- research field. The staff member’s background is in riod. The student is a newcomer to film studies drama studies, and so, she has some background in where the essay is going to be submitted for exams. text analysis, but not from a gender studies perspec- His education background is in literary studies. Dur- tive nor from a critical hermeneutic perspective. ing his literary studies, he specialized in socio- From the outset, then, diverse and apparently incon- cultural perspectives of gender and became inspired gruent perspectives characterize their communica- to work with critical discourse theory of literature, tion. The staff member tries to translate some of the including Kristeva’s notion of intertextuality. The student’s need formulations into search strategies. new research area of socio-cultural perspective of One strategy is to proceed from exemplars that the gender is presently gaining interest within the aca- student found relevant for the problem and discuss demic curriculum and research of film studies in his possible implications of search results. Another country. Yet so far, the knowledge production is strategy is to negotiate dimensions and properties of fragmented, with a high degree of diversity in con- the student’s information need. cepts and terminology and research paradigms. The associated research area is characterized by a high 6.3 Recurrent patterns in the decision task degree of strategic dependence between experts, who are in contact in informal professional networking in Using the template for decision processes introduced order to move the field forward; there are no jour- in section 5.2, the collaborative task situation de- nals or textbooks dedicated to the field. In addition scribed above, can be analyzed into the following to this interdependence in the research community, components: students and researchers are dependent on expert in- termediaries of collections, whose insights into dif- Component 1: Situation analysis ferent kinds of media is important to inspire the re- The student and staff member exchange perspectives search. The student’s supervisor has encouraged him and conceptualizations about the student’s project. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 221 H. Albrechtsen and A. M. 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Decision analysis: Oral communication is the main other national archives. This is one background for medium for exchange of perspectives, and for the ac- the policy (priority) of extensive professional net- tors’ joint decisions about evaluation and re- working and continual education for the staff. Be- evaluation of the situation. cause the archive does not give priority to indexing all materials in the collection (function, level 3), the Component 2: Evaluation of options searches (processes, level 4) cannot be solely carried Decision processes: The student screens some films out in in-house databases and catalogues, but must and reads materials in the archive and discusses his involve searching in external databases as well as in- assessments with staff members. The student and teraction with knowledgeable staff as information re- staff member decide on what main dimensions and sources. Because there is no classification scheme properties are most important to resolve the stu- available for browsing topics of the collection and dent’s information need, e.g., availability of original for formulating search criteria, the staff and users materials like films (fragments, descriptions, full- have no available representation of possible orderings length films) and/or accessibility to literature about of the collection to refer to in their communication. film directors’ affiliation with particular paradigms Semantic support: Obviously, subject access to ma- and values. terials through keywords would contribute to im- Decision analysis: Evaluation of the state of affairs proving collaborative knowledge integration during throughout the search is primarily dependent on all decision processes in information searching. screenings and readings of materials, constrained by However, the current keywords in the archive’s da- the archive’s opening hours. tabases and genre lists do not support exchange and integration of perspectives in the decision process of Component 3: Planning actions situation analysis in a collaborative task situation of Decision processes: The staff member suggests brows- information searching. Presently, there exist very ing of the collection. Planning of actions is con- few classification schemes for the film domain (cf. strained by the lack of explicit information corre- Rasmussen, 1997; Turner, 1994; O’Connor, 1985). sponding to the search criteria that the actors negoti- The structures and contents of the existing schemes ate. address the concepts and categories of film research Decision analysis: Planning of actions is mostly from a scholarly and educational point of view. The dependent on browsing of the collection, but there is films potential for cultural and/or emotional experi- a need for the actors to define explicit dimensions of ence are rarely made explicit in the classification the information need. This can, for instance, be seen schemes through pertinent concepts. A recent Ger- in the communication about the most important di- man project on film documentation, Amphore, has mensions negotiated for the information need: the addressed thesaurus building for indexing of film se- theme and plot of films and originators’ affiliation quences (Süllow, 1996). However, Amphore’s film with particular socio-cultural paradigms. indexing addresses the factual contents of the action taking place in film sequences and the objects or 6.4 The need for a classification scheme humans appearing in the films, not the films’ or sequences’ subject content, from a cultural or an emo- The cognitive work analysis of the example situation tional experience perspective. gives rise to a number of considerations for how to Semantic multiplicity: Collaborative knowledge in- improve the possibilities for collaborative integration tegration in the example is bounded by dialogue and of knowledge in the archive. negotiations amongst actors, which concern the Means and ends: The goals, constraints and priori- higher means-ends levels of goals, constraints and ties, levels 1-2 of the means ends representation in priorities. This involves not only the higher means- figure 3, constitute the overall possibilities and limi- ends levels of the archive’s domain, but also the tations for the student to gain the necessary material higher means-ends levels of the actors’ domains. For for his essay within this specific archive. Because the instance, the goals of the student’s domain (academic archive is not obliged to hold all films and film- education in film studies) would comprise contribu- related materials produced in the country, the stu- tion to research, and the internal constraints, regulat- dent cannot find all relevant materials at the archive. ing the curriculum and hence his studies, could be Hence, many user requests to the archive involve in- particular research paradigms and research methods. ter-lending and ongoing networking by staff with Likewise, as shown in the means-ends analysis of the 222 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 H. Albrechtsen and A. M. 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archive (figure 3), some of the staff member’s goals The list of properties in the student’s information could be in alignment with the student’s goals, i.e. to needs above could be regarded as constituting five contribute to research, but the constraints, priorities, dimensions of the information need, or, in cognitive functions, processes and physical properties would work analysis terms, the properties of the semantic be different. Collaborative integration of knowledge territory that the student and staff member explore amongst actors from different domains proceeds as together. The properties of these dimensions are in- confrontation, negotiation and translation of per- terrelated, and each property is important for deci- spectives, directed to solving the problem at hand, in sions about the search. If films or film-related mate- order to get the work done. rials are not available within the constraints of the student’s deadline, then the student may decide to 6.5 Towards overall design of a classification scheme ask for a short description or abstract of the materi- based on an evolving semantic structure als. If the career of a key actor has reflected leaps in the kinds of characters that an actor has embodied in In the prototypical task situation of collaborative in- films, then that aspect may be relevant, but not cru- formation searching in the film archive, the actors’ cial for the essay. Findings of intertextuality in a film knowledge is not merely reflected in the available can ease the student’s formulation of a methodology means and ends in a macro-social perspective. It is for the essay, due to his background in studies of equally reflected in the dynamics of collaborative ac- Kristeva’s theory. The dimension of subject content tivities, that is, in the actors’ ongoing experience and like theme and plot is important for finding as many activity. The empirical analysis of the actors’ decision films as possible from where the student can decide tasks can be taken to a systematic representation of an empirical focus. The aspect of the film director’s the information that is needed to fulfil a task suc- affiliation with particular views and paradigms about cessfully, in this case an information retrieval task. gender in society and culture is vital to the search. The properties that the student and staff member This is the highest interpretive value, as seen from formulate together are illustrated in figure 4: the student’s point of view and his background in critical hermeneutic literary theory.1 The staff mem- 1. A film’s promotion of particular understand- ber contributes the idea of censorship history to re- ings of gender roles and liberation versus tra- flect the degree of provocation of a film’s overall dition. The film director’s explicit or implicit message or elements, which may mirror the direc- affiliation with particular socio-cultural values. tor’s affiliation with paradigms or values vis-à-vis the Censorship. socio-cultural values at a particular time. 2. The plot of a film; the heroes and villains; the Provided that the five dimensions of the proper- ending; the socio-cultural setting of the plot, ties in the student’s information need (figure 4) can including place and time; the theme of the be regarded as prototypical semantic structures for film. collaborative construction of work content, they can 3. A film director’s narrative techniques, includ- inspire overall design of classification schemes, ing inter-textual elements, like allusions to which can be used to support knowledge integration other films, myths and texts or intersecting in collaborative indexing and searching of films. The plots. example case also reveals explicit structures in the 4. The public reception of the film; contributions shape of ordering systems, which already support the by film critics; the film’s national or interna- collaborative practice of knowledge integration, such tional impact; the career and life of one or two as the archive’s register of research and student pro- main characters in a film, i.e. how the ‘em- jects. Such ordering systems are important explicit bodiment’ of the plot contributes to the message of the film. sources for analyzing recurrent properties of infor- 5. A film’s version, i.e. exists in full or as a frag- mation needs. This implies that initial needs analysis ment; a film’s availability or the accessibility of for design of a work-centred classification scheme film-related materials within the constraints of must consider explicit as well as latent structures in the student’s time to write and submit the es- order to capture the work domain semantics and the say. way these semantics are constructed, interpreted and integrated in order to solve the work problems at

hand. Figure 4: The semantic structure

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7. From the construction of a semantic structure tantly, do not know. As Cleal et al (2004) observe, of user needs to overall design from an empirical evaluation study on collaborative annotation of films in a cross-national film collabora- The above description and analysis of a prototypical tory, novice users do not yet possess integrated do- task situation of collaborative integration of film main knowledge, nor do they have a tacit practice of knowledge in a national film research archive, illus- scientific analysis and argumentation. Nonetheless, trated the application of cognitive work analysis for their need formulations and negotiations with ex- identification of a semantic structure, reflecting the perts are important elements in an analysis of seman- evolving content of work. The analysis focused on tic structures for design of information systems and the work domain territory and decision processes, classification schemes that can mediate the actors’ followed by an analysis and a preliminary sketch mutual sense making and discussions. However, a (figure 4) of the semantic territory within which an precondition for the analysts to understand the evo- information need evolved. This analysis reflects the lution of semantic structures of work is the study of semantics of the actors’ mutual process of explora- high-level interpretive values in the domain, such as tion and integration of knowledge, which is neces- policies for cultural mediation and scholarly research sary to make a common decision about an archive paradigms, in addition to more general domain stud- user’s information need. ies (cf., e.g., Hjørland, 2002). The example illustrated the following perspectives Furthermore, the prototypical task situation ana- of cognitive work analysis for work centered design lyzed in this article represents only one type of col- of classification schemes: laborative task situation, from where work domain semantics can be identified. Work-centered design of 1. Actors’ joint formulations of semantic structures classification schemes embraces an analysis of the of a common territory of work, in terms of the full spectrum of prototypical task situations. For the archive user’s and staff members’ iterative crea- film archive domain, this entails analysis of collabo- tion of search criteria; rative indexing, classification and information 2. Actors’ joint formulation and reformulation of searching. Furthermore, work centered design con- information needs in their negotiations about siders the interdependencies between such recurrent how to conceptualize the topic of the search as collaborative task situations. That is, how their input they shifted between different strategies, mani- and output are related to one another, and what fested in their exploration of materials; kinds of social interactions exist within the social 3. Actors’ joint oral formulations of a semantic ter- system of work to get the work done. An additional ritory of work, which constitutes a symbolic ter- problem is how to transform identified semantic ritory for navigation in knowledge and negotia- structures into a classification scheme. Transforma- tions about the state of affairs. This semantic ter- tion of semantic structures, identified through cogni- ritory was derived from analysis of recurrent de- tive work analysis, corresponds to developing a cision processes, shaping the evolution of the in- model of a work centered classification scheme. For formation need. the creation of such a model, the analysis perspective shifts. In this analysis perspective, the identified se- Design of classification schemes for work domains, mantic structures will constitute a new unit of analy- based on empirical analysis of collaborative work is sis. The overall cycle of designing a work centered difficult. A key challenge for the analysis is that the classification scheme by use of cognitive work analy- semantic structures are evolving. We have argued sis can be summarised as follows: that evolving semantic structures of work can be identified through cognitive work analysis of proto- i) Empirical studies of knowledge integration in typical task situations, framed within a means-ends the work domain, guided by the framework of perspective. This argument does not imply that we cognitive work analysis. The empirical studies regard empirical analysis as a stand-alone approach to should be accompanied by studies of high-level the analysis of work domain semantics. The strength interpretive values influencing the work do- of empirical analysis is the capture and formulation main. of structures evolving amongst the collaborating ac- ii) Analysis of prototypical task situations of tors, irrespective of their knowledge levels and ability knowledge integration, by use of the means- for articulating what they know, and, just as impor- ends abstraction hierarchy and templates for 224 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 H. Albrechtsen and A. M. Pejtersen: Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design of Classification Schemes

analysis of decision processes, and identification advantages and disadvantages vis-à-vis existing ge- of semantic territories for knowledge integra- neric detailed design guidelines. Thus, the current re- tion. search on classification schemes by use of framework iii) Analysis of the identified properties of the se- for cognitive work analysis is not directed towards mantic territories and transformation of the re- development of generic detailed design guidelines, sults of the analysis into multidimensional clas- but rather towards an exploration of the possibilities sificatory models. for grounding the entire design and evaluation cycle for classification schemes in the semantic dynamism Additionally, detailed analysis of the actors’ needs of work domains. for classificatory structures and concepts in individual and shared workspaces is necessary in order to Acknowledgements assess what kinds of structures and concepts are suitable and how they should be displayed. Finally, the This study was supported by the Department of Sys- design cycle for work centered classification schemes tems Analysis, Risø National Laboratory, Denmark, comprises empirical evaluations in order to ensure and the European Commission’s Information Soci- that they are in alignment with the evolving seman- ety Technologies Programme through its funding of tics of their work content. the Collate project on collaboratories for annotation, indexing, and retrieval of digitized historical archive 8. Conclusion and future work material (IST-1999-20882). We would also like to extend our gratitude to two anonymous referees for This article has presented and exemplified a new ap- their very insightful criticisms of an earlier draft of proach to work centered design of classification this paper. schemes, based on cognitive work analysis. The approach introduces a new unit of analysis for the plan- Note ning and overall design of classification schemes: collaborative task situations. The application of this unit 1 The importance of representing high-level inter- of analysis for the planning and overall design of clas- pretive values in classification schemes for subject sification schemes was illustrated through an example access to information has been addressed by, case from a cognitive work analysis of three national Hjørland, 1998; Hansson, 1999; Pejtersen, 1994; film research archives. The taxonomy of cognitive 1986 and Albrechtsen, 1992. work analysis was introduced in terms of the means- ends abstraction hierarchy and a simplified model for References analyzing decision-making. It was shown how an application of these elements in the framework for cog- Albrechtsen, H. (2003). Classification Schemes for nitive work analysis supported identification of ex- Collection Mediation: Work-centred Design and plicit, as well as latent, semantic structures of work Cognitive Work Analysis. Aalborg University content. The key challenge in work centered design is (PhD thesis) the dynamics of work domain semantics. The dynam- Albrechtsen, H., Pejtersen, A.M. and B. Cleal ics are not only reflected in evolving semantic struc- (2002). Empirical Work Analysis of Collaborative tures, such as the structures evolving in existing or- Film Indexing. Proceedings of the 4th International derings of knowledge like universal and domain- COLIS conference, edited by H. Bruce, R. Fidel, specific classification schemes, but they are equally P. Ingwersen and P. Vakkari. Greenwood Village reflected in the collaborative concept development in (CO): Libraries Unlimited, pp. 85-107 the work domain. In order for the analysts to under- Albrechtsen, H. and E. Jacob (1998). The Dynamics stand such evolutionary semantics, empirical studies of Classification schemes as Boundary Objects in and analyses must iterate studies of high-level inter- Electronic Libraries. Classification in the Elec- pretive values influencing the work domain. Future tronic Environment, edited by S.L. Star and work will address the complexity of collaborative G.Bowker. Library Trends 47 (2), pp. 293-312 concept development through field experiments in Albrechtsen, H. (1992). Domain Analysis for Classi- the film archive research domain. The intention is to fication of Software. Copenhagen: Royal School refine the approach of work centered detailed design of Library and Information Science (Master’s based on cognitive work analysis, and to identify its Thesis). Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 225 H. Albrechtsen and A. M. Pejtersen: Cognitive Work Analysis and Work Centered Design of Classification Schemes

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228 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science: Hobby Domains

Jenna Hartel

Department of Information Studies, Graduate School of Education and Information Studies University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA, E-mail: [email protected]

Jenna Hartel is in the Ph.D. program in Information Studies at the University of California, Los An- geles, (UCLA). Her areas of research and publication are the theory and history of information science and the nature and use of information in everyday life. In 2003 she was a visiting researcher at the department of Information Studies at the University of Tampere, Finland, and in 2004-2005 she will return there on a Fulbright Fellowship. Prior to becoming a graduate student she held information- based jobs such as Exhibit Developer and Educator at a children’s museum and Director of Knowledge at a business consulting firm.

Hartel, Jenna. (2003). The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science: Hobby Domains. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 228-238. 45 refs.

ABSTRACT: The library and information studies (LIS) field conducts a minority of research into leisure realms while favoring scholarly and professional contexts as subjects. Such is the case despite compelling evidence of the desirability and profundity of leisure in human life. This article introduces one popular form of leisure, hobbies, as a potentially provocative topic for LIS scholarship. To facilitate research on information within hobbies, the article discusses two conceptual devices: Serious leisure (Stebbins, 1982) describes essential characteristics of leisure, establishes that some types are information-rich, and provides a framework to study leisure systematically; The collectivist theory of domain analysis (Hjørland and Albrechtsen, 1995) orients research to the hobby milieu and its objective information forms, recasting them as “hobby domains.” As an example of the application of both devices, a case study is reviewed of the information resources in the hobby of cooking. The article closes with a call to action and suggested research program for the study of hobbies in LIS.

Introduction are these settings favored? Bates (1996) and Case (2002) point out that during the middle of the 20th Mirroring the diversity of life, an infinite number of century, the social, political, and economic impor- environments are possible for examining information, tance of the sciences generated funds for LIS investi- yet the LIS field favors academic contexts as research gations. As a result, pioneering work in bibliometrics subjects. A review of the 93 PhD dissertations in LIS and retrieval emerged in the context of the scientific awarded since 2000, shows a majority of attention to process of knowledge production and communica- information within such settings. Skimming the tation, grounding LIS research in these arenas. Later in bles of contents of one dozen top research journals in the century such inquiries were extended to the so- the discipline reveals the same scholastic bias. Reflect- cial sciences and humanities, and recently into pro- ing this orientation, White and McCain’s 1998 co- fessions. As research subjects, academic and profes- citation study of information science concludes that sional realms may seem appealingly structured and the field’s primary concern is literatures, establishing accessible compared to the nebulous and varied hap- an implicit academic epicenter to scholarship. penings in everyday life. What is more, such situa- Since academic settings are only one area of life tions may appear most information intensive and, where information exists, it seems fair to ask: why correspondingly, the highest priority for LIS. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 229 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

Bucking this tradition, the information seeking manifestation: hobbies. To that end, an argument is behavior (ISB) community of LIS has become in- made for the importance of leisure for LIS scholar- creasingly curious about information outside of aca- ship. To enable research design, two conceptual de- demic and work contexts. In the past decade, this vices, serious leisure and domain analysis, are dis- substantive area has been coined “everyday life in- cussed. A case study of information resources in the formation seeking,” or ELIS, (Savolainen, 1995) and hobby of cooking exemplifies this approach. The ar- its champions herald it as an important frontier ticle concludes with a call to action and research pro- (Tuominen and Savolainen, 1997). Advocates of gram to widen the scope of subjects in LIS to include ELIS research assert that the traditional focus of LIS leisure realms, beginning with hobbies. is too narrow and overlooks the informational issues within the mainstream of human experience. The Case for Leisure Though young, the emergent ELIS research project already has a personality, which could be de- First, what is leisure? For most people, a typical day scribed as somber. Investigations tend to focus on involves four types of activity: paid work, unpaid situations in which access to information is perceived work, self-care, and free time (Robinson and Godbey, as compromised or there is a major life challenge like 1997, p. 11). Leisure occurs in the last category and is an illness. In this spirit Chatman reported the “in- defined as the, “uncoerced activity undertaken in free formation poverty” of elderly women in a retirement time” (Stebbins, 2002). The concept of having choice community (1996) and the “small-worldness” of fe- underlies the notion of leisure, which is pleasurable in male prisoners (1999). Research on life challenges part because it is what we want to do. In Stebbins’ includes that on transitions (McKenzie, 2001), breast carefully worded definition, the term uncoerced ac- cancer (Manaszewicz, Williamson, McKemmis, counts for the reality that leisure feels unrestricted 2003), lupus (Carey, 2003), and multiple sclerosis but is never carte blanche. Some boundaries always (Baker, 1994). These studies generate insights of exist within leisure, such as physical limitations, fi- high value because the findings can palliate difficult nancial restraints, or social and cultural norms. situations. A drawback is that on account of focusing The relative lack of consideration of leisure within on experiences that are troubling, little is known LIS disregards evidence of its historical, personal, so- about information in the predominant parts of eve- cial, and economic significance. More than a century ryday life that are ordinary or pleasant. ago, Thorstein Veblen’s landmark, The theory of the One of life’s great joys is leisure and it has received leisure class (1899), introduced the notion of “con- little attention across LIS. To my knowledge, only spicuous consumption” and legitimized leisure as a two studies of information seeking during leisure ex- scholarly subject. Over the course of a thirty year re- ist. Ross (1999) looked at the information encounter search program, psychologist Csikszentmihalyi during pleasure reading and Kari (2001) probed in- (1975, 1997) has illuminated that play, a variety of lei- formation seeking activities in the context of the sure, is what makes people truly happy. In surveys, paranormal. Both are groundbreaking and suggest many individuals value leisure above all else in life, on that the experience of information during pastimes par with the well being of family and home. As con- differs markedly from other contexts. For example, trast, work ranks as a first priority for only a quarter Ross explained how readers encounter information of adults. On a social level, leisure creates fraternity without any expressed need for it, while Kari estab- and vitality. It is the, “... space of friendship, of much lished that some people experience supernormal in- parenting and nurture, of community interaction and formation sources that they consider helpful. of the family itself.” (Kelly, 1983, p. 23) The impor- Presently, barriers limit the proliferation of LIS tance afforded leisure is likewise mirrored in eco- scholarship into leisure. Foremost, since information nomic data. Leisure spending has been calculated in is not known to be critical to leisure, there is no man- the neighborhood of one trillion dollars in the United date to take up leisure as a research subject. Second, States (Academy of Leisure Sciences, 2004). since the essential features and forms of leisure are Leisure may be important, but is it informational vague and undifferentiated, leisure is a challenging and an appropriate subject for LIS? The concept of empirical research topic. Likewise, LIS has few theo- serious leisure suggests it is both. Serious leisure was ries or methodologies tested within leisure contexts. first described in 1982 by sociologist Robert A. This article aims to encourage and facilitate in- Stebbins. It is based upon the insight that leisure is quiry into leisure in general, and specifically, one not homogenous in character and that some forms 230 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

are particularly intense and enduring. Such experi- Several long-standing tenets within LIS fail to ence Stebbins coined serious leisure and defined as, conform to serious leisure contexts2. For example, “the systematic pursuit of an ... activity that partici- the “principle of least effort” (Zipf, 1949; Mann, pants find so substantial and interesting that, in the 1993, pp. 91-101), is invoked in LIS to explain a lack typical case, they launch themselves on a leisure ca- of perseverance during information seeking. Yet se- reer centered on acquiring and expressing its special rious leisure participants, by definition, willingly skills, knowledge, and experience.” (2001, p. 3) To make significant effort acquiring knowledge. Various quickly grasp the essence of serious leisure it helps to conceptions of the experience of information as reflect upon one’s own favorite non-work activities “gappy” (Dervin, 1983), “uncertain” (Kuhlthau, that have been cultivated over a lifetime and which 1993), or “anomalous” (Belkin, 1980) seem alien to generate feelings of pleasure, challenge, and accom- the upbeat and confident knowledge acquisition plishment. These experiences may involve perform- process within serious leisure. In library contexts, se- ing in community theater, being an unpaid docent in rious leisure participants likely have more expertise an art museum, or climbing mountains. There are than reference staff, a reversal of standard authority. three general forms of serious leisure: amateurism, The scientific tradition encourages the study of ex- volunteering, and hobbies. ceptions to the rule, making serious leisure an impor- The obverse of serious leisure is casual leisure, ac- tant, even required, site for inquiry. tivity that is done passively and requires no expertise, such as daydreaming, chatting with friends, or being Hobbies a couch potato. It is the more ubiquitous and common type of leisure. Watching television is the most Hobbies are the most popular of the three forms of familiar experience of casual leisure, but there are six serious leisure and are the focus of this paper. Other varieties: play, relaxation, passive entertainment, ac- forms of serious leisure, amateurism and volunteer- tive entertainment, sociable conversation, and sen- ing, are put aside for others to take up. A hobby is sory stimulation (Stebbins, 1997, p. 17). Casual lei- the systematic and enduring pursuit of a reasonably sure may not be a fruitful subject1 for LIS inquiry, evolved and specialized free-time activity (Stebbins, but is mentioned to bring the distinct nature of seri- 2003, forthcoming). In America, popular hobbies are ous leisure into sharper focus. reading, fishing, gardening, and team sports (Taylor, Of greatest significance to LIS, participants in se- 2002). Surfing the Internet or visiting any bookstore rious leisure must make significant personal effort provides convincing evidence that hobby-related in- based on specially acquired knowledge, training, or formation is plenteous. There is an inestimable num- skill. Hence, information and the proactive seeking ber of hobbies, but Stebbins’ research has generated a and use of it are central to serious leisure. The pursuit taxonomy of five kinds: collectors, makers and tinker- of expertise is lasting and intense enough to have the ers, activity participants, players of sports and games, qualities of a career. The course of the serious leisure and liberal arts enthusiasts (2003, forthcoming). The career typically follows a sequence: beginning, devel- classes and popular examples are reviewed in Figure 1. opment, establishment, maintenance, and decline. The The hobby classes are self-explanatory, with the first two stages are focused on learning, the middle is exception of the liberal arts enthusiast, who per- a heyday marked by mastery; decline involves a dete- forms, “the systematic and fervent pursuit during rioration of interest or a loss of the physical ability to free time of knowledge for its own sake” (Stebbins, continue. Doing a serious leisure activity outside of 1994, p. 174). Such hobbyists enjoy the process of the commitment of a career is called dabbling. Par- developing expertise but do not further implement ticipants in serious leisure identify strongly with their their knowledge. An example would be someone activity, as expressed, for example, in myriad bumper who reads about orchids but does not grow them; or stickers (“I Love Dalmatians!”) or clever vanity li- a lay-expert on World War II airplanes, baseball his- cense plates (“10SNE1”). Finally, there is a unique tory, or Eastern religions. The liberal arts enthusiasts ethos to serious leisure. The activities happen in cul- may be of particular interest to LIS, for they have tures with histories, values, and performance stan- turned information seeking and use into a hobby. dards, among other social forces (Stebbins, 2001, pp. The boundaries of the hobby classes are some- 6-10). Information resources and shared representa- times blurry and may overlap. For instance, an activ- tions like discourses, vocabularies, and classification ity participant might also collect items related to the systems, are elements of this ethos. pastime; such as when a birdwatcher owns many Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 231 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

Figure 1: Hobby classes and examples of types

Hobby Classes Examples of Popular Hobby Types Collectors Collecting of objects such as: stamps, coins, dolls, cameras, but- tons, antiques, license plates, postcards, rubber duckies… Makers and Tinkerers Gardening, breeding or raising animals, knitting, model building, leather crafts, cooking, home brewing… Activity Participants Birdwatching, hiking, bellydancing, skateboarding, scuba diving, aerobics, camping, fishing, boating, sightseeing/traveling… Players of Sports and Games Chess, basketball, golf, card games, gambling, soccer, softball, darts, Scrabble®, Monopoly®... Liberal Arts Enthusiasts Developing knowledge of: languages, politics, history, cultures, cuisines, poetry, music, genealogy... pairs of binoculars. Or, a sportswoman may also of information. Yet findings provide a glimpse of tinker regularly with the equipment of her game. how information is central in shaping hobbies. To il- This hybridization is especially possible in the liberal lustrate, Stebbins has proposed that the difference arts pursuit, which may serve as the intellectual com- between the maker and tinkerer and the liberal arts plement to the other four classes of hobbies. enthusiast is the nature of knowledge acquisition. Hobbies exhibit social organization and according The former pursue specific and technical knowledge, to Stebbins, are social worlds, a concept which sup- while the latter seek broad and humanizing knowl- plies additional precision to describe information edge (Stebbins, 1994, p. 175). Research into the phenomena. A social world is a “...constellation of hobby of genealogy has established the breadth of actors, organizations, events and practices which information resources used, and that the favored have coalesced into a perceived sphere of interest and genre is stories (Lambert, 1996). It seems likely that involvement for participants” (Unruh, 1979, p. 115). each class and individual type of hobby involves dis- Social worlds are voluntary, have no formal bounda- tinct information phenomena, which could be ries, and people often enjoy more than one in their chronicled and serve as useful insights for library ref- lives. An example that will be revisited later in this erence. It is equally likely that some common ground paper is the social world of hobby cooking, which exists among sets of hobbies such that generaliza- includes hobby cooks, their dinner guests, kitchens, tions concerning information forms and activities cooking equipment, grocers, cookbooks, cooking will be possible. websites, and holiday feasts among other elements. What does the constellation of ideas around seri- Of interest to LIS, information plays a critical role in ous leisure provide for LIS scholarship? Foremost, it hobby social worlds. The lack of any centralized bu- demarks a segment of everyday life that is informa- reaucracy causes a dependence on mediated commu- tion-rich, where people happily make significant ef- nication, namely: books, magazines, chat rooms, fort to be informed. Multiple well established tenets newsgroups, and various other information forms. of LIS may be disaffirmed in serious leisure contexts. Unruh (1979, 1980) proposes four roles for partici- This produces a mandate for research. Second, it lays pants within social worlds: strangers, tourists, regulars, out the central elements of leisure, serious leisure, and insiders. Librarians, oddly enough, are strangers, and hobbies, such that they are no longer vague hap- who perform an intermediary role to resources. The penings. Key features are presented in Figure 2: A information seekers and users within social worlds model and summary of the serious leisure concept. are the regulars and insiders. The roles and other ele- Researchers within LIS can now navigate leisure ments of social worlds cannot be fully explained here realms, adopt hobby classes or individual types as but are introduced to convey their potential as ana- subjects, and explicate informational phenomena lytic tools and to point out the foundation that has therein. already been laid for information research. Thus far, serious leisure and hobbies have been Outside of LIS, scholarship on hobbies has thus presented outside of an explicit metatheory or the- far aimed to explicate the meaning and nature of ory. Both are required for empirical work and are various types, without sustained attention to the role discussed next. 232 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

Figure 2: A model and summary3 of the serious leisure concept

LEISURE

Casual Leisure Serious Leisure

Relaxation Amateurism Volunteering Hobbies

Play Collectors

Passive Makers Entertainment & Tinkerers

Active Activity Entertainment Participants

Sociable Players of Conversation Sports & Games

Sensory Liberal Arts Stimulation Enthusiasts

• Leisure is, "uncoerced activity undertaken in free time." It includes casual leisure and serious leisure. • Casual leisure is, "the immediately intrinsically rewarding, relatively short-lived pleasurable activity requiring little or no special training to enjoy it." It has 6 forms: play, relaxation, passive entertainment, active entertainment, sociable conversation, and sensory stimulation. • Serious leisure is "the systematic pursuit of an ... activity that participants find so substantial and interesting that, in the typical case, they launch themselves on a career centered on acquiring and expressing its special skills, knowledge, and experience." It has 3 forms: amateurism, career volunteering, and hobbies. • All serious leisure has six specific characteristics: proactive knowledge and skill acquisition, a career, a need to perse- vere, durable benefits, a strong identification with the community, and a unique ethos • Doing a serious leisure activity outside of the commitment of a career is dabbling and is done by dabblers. • The serious leisure career typically progresses through five stages: beginning, development, establishment, maintenance, and decline. • A hobby is one of the three forms of serious leisure and is, "the systematic and enduring pursuit of a reasonably evolved and specialized free-time activity." (Stebbins, 2003, forthcoming). • Hobbies have five classes: collectors, makers and tinkerers, activity participants, players of sports and games, and liberal arts enthusiasts. • Hobbies are social worlds, "...constellation of actors, organizations, events and practices which have coalesced into a perceived sphere of interest and involvement for participants."

Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 233 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

An approach to hobbies: Collectivism and Domain case they are cast as “hobby domains.” Conveniently, Analysis serious leisure divides myriad hobbies into domains of various sizes from which a researcher can pick and In empirical research, metatheory provides, “suppo- choose her subject. The unit of analysis could be a sitions of a very general nature...not so much about whole hobby class (i.e., makers and tinkerers) or a processes of information seeking ... [but] ... about specific type (i.e., home brewers). ways of thinking and speaking about these proc- My exploratory study of the hobby of cooking has esses” (Vakkari, 1997, p. 452). Hobbies can be ap- convinced me that accounts of objective hobby in- proached from any metatheoretical perspective. formation resources are the logical starting point for Talja, Tuominen, and Savolainen (2004, in press) LIS scholarship on hobbies. A question of the first name three main metatheories in LIS: constructiv- order is: what are a hobby’s information resources ism, collectivism (elsewhere called sociocognitivism), and forms? To that end, one strength of domain and constructionism. Including also the traditional analysis is that it directs inquiry to objective, not information systems perspective, provides research- subjective, features. This is apropos because much of ers with at least four metatheoretical options for the essence and capital of hobbies is found in the set- considering hobbies. When employed in a research ting and paraphernalia. Hobby sailing, for instance, is project, each metatheory would bring a different as- purely a daydream without a boat, the sea, and a pect of hobbies into view. Here, the metatheory of strong wind. Of concern to LIS and domain analysts, collectivism and the allied theory of domain analysis sailing requires maps, navigation systems, and docu- are recommended. mented knowledge of sailing. Domain analysis fo- Detailed coverage of the collectivist metatheory is cuses analytical attention on these latter items, as an beyond the scope of this article, but is available in alternative to popular theoretical options that ex- Talja et. al (2004, in press) or Jacob and Shaw (1998). plore cognition, affect, or technologies. The core belief of collectivism is that the human ex- The research program of domain analysis has been perience of reality is shaped by the social and cultural stated by its architect, Birger Hjørland, in the form forces manifest within communities. As a result, like of eleven approaches: its name suggests, the unit of analysis in collectivism is always a group, not an individual. Attention during the research process is focused externally onto the Figure 3: Eleven Approaches to Domain Analysis characteristics of the environment. Domain analysis is one collectivist theory in LIS 1. producing literature guides and subject gateways that has thus far been applied to the study of infor- 2. producing special classifications and thesauri mation within academic disciplines or professions, 3. research on indexing and retrieving specialties which are referred to as domains. Domain analytic 4. empirical user studies inquiry aims to describe what constitutes knowledge 5. bibliometrical studies and information within a domain and who produces, 6. historical studies distributes, and consumes it. The genres, documents, 7. document and genre studies mediums, and information channels within the do- 8. epistemological and critical studies main are mapped. Knowledge bearing structures such 9. terminological studies, LSP (language for special as practices, vocabulary, and classification systems purposes) are articulated and analyzed. The social, cultural, and 10. studies of structures and institutions in scien- historical dynamics that influence these information tific communication phenomena are identified and explicated. 11. domain analysis in professional cognition and Serious leisure establishes that hobbyists, much artifical intelligence like scholars, have a career in knowledge acquisition and operate within collectives known as social (Hjørland, 2002) worlds. Even cursory reflection on any hobby brings to mind a body of practices, knowledge, roles, and resources that are not unlike the substance and so- Domain analytic research on hobbies means applying ciality of an academic field. Consequently, nothing one, a series (in any order), or a combination of the prevents the extension of domain analysis from aca- eleven lines of inquiry. What unifies the eleven ap- demic discourse communities to hobbies, in which proaches is a steadfast focus on information forms or 234 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

conceptual structures within the chosen domain, used in U.S. libraries. To that end, the conceptual with the exception of #4 that examines human use structure of each cuisine may be mapped, utilizing of information. This provides a way to do systematic seminal cookbooks or treatises from each cuisine. research through a single hobby (by application in a This reveals how French cuisine turns on classic concatenated, or chaining, fashion). Alternatively, sauces (such as Béarnaise); while Italian cuisine is or- any single approach can be done in a series of differ- ganized by local specialties (like the famous Par- ent hobby domains, to discover similarities and dif- migiano Reggiano cheese). Evidence of such charac- ferences per domain. Two brief, illustrative, hypo- teristics (i.e., highly standardized versus regionally thetical examples of individual approaches are varied) would be sought in major classification sketched next, both set within the domain of hobby schemes. This could generate a culturally informed, cooking. The proceeding section then chronicles the and potentially critical, explication of the culinary author’s broader domain analytic study of hobby classes of the major classification systems. To recap, cooking that amalgamates several of the eleven ap- the key design aspects of approach #2 are that the proaches. subject is the classification systems (specifically their Approach #7 analyzes documents or genres with- culinary areas) and that the research method is an in a domain. This could be manifested in a sweeping analysis of those systems against various national survey of extant documents and genres used in a cuisines (as drawn from their seminal works). hobby, or deeper analysis of any single entity. An ex- It should be clear that while Hjørland’s eleven ap- ample of the latter within hobby cooking would be a proaches encourage paths of inquiry, whether into study of its central genre, the recipe, asking: What is genre (#7) or classification (#2), there is freedom to a recipe and why is it that way? In the contextual explore a wide range of questions, based upon the re- terms of domain analysis: What are the cultural, so- searcher’s fancy. Investigators can also proceed in cial, and historical shapers of recipes? To execute this the general domain analytic spirit, with a commitment investigation, recipes from circa 1900, 1950, and 2000 to explore the informational features of a hobby, as may be compared for their distinctions. It is immedi- done in the case study described next. ately apparent that earlier recipes were short narratives that often lacked precision whereas nowadays The Hobby of Cooking the recipe contains an exact ingredients list and detailed, consecutive, instructions. Literature on the Cooking is a prominent hobby within post-industrial social history of cooking would explain how house- nations, with an estimated 5.6 million participants in hold cooking routines at the turn of the 19th century the U.S. alone (Taylor, 2002). Characteristics of generated tacit cooking knowledge in children and hobby cooking make it potentially fascinating to LIS. obviated the need for detailed recipes. Yet today, This activity involves vivid genres such as the recipe, cooking knowledge is not always transmitted during menu, and cookbook. Such materials tend to accu- upbringing and has been relocated into the genre of mulate over the years, or even generations, into the modern, highly technical recipe. This investiga- home collections that pose unique classification, re- tion produces a statement on the evolving features of trieval, and use challenges. The information re- recipes and a social and historical explanation for sources of hobbyist cooking are abundant, cut across these qualities. To recap, key design aspects of ap- all media channels, and stimulate every sense. The proach #7 are, that the subject is a genre (the recipe) first culinary-minded information scientist may have and that the research methods are comparative his- been Paul Otlet, who held that “the gustatory” (i.e., torical analysis of recipes and readings in the social a taste of something) was a document (Otlet, 1934). history of cooking. More recently, though ten million cookbooks are Approach #2 explores classification systems sold per year in the U.S., the LIS literature contains within a domain. This means analysis of knowledge few mentions of the informational issues surround- organization within subject areas of major systems ing food and cooking. As one curious exception, such as the Dewey Decimal or Library of Congress, Chatman (2000) looked at geophagy (i.e., the surrep- taking either a comparative or historical tack. Con- titious consumption of dirt) as a means to under- cerning hobby cooking, a domain analyst may harbor standing information secrecy. The most sustained an interest in culture and explore the extent to which work on cooking-related information comes from major national cuisines (i.e., French, Italian, or the Culinary Indexing special interest group of the Asian) have influenced the classification systems American Society of Indexers. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 235 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

In 2001-2003 the author conducted an exploratory details were elicited through probes, such as: what is study into the nature of information in the hobby of this? how is this used? is this organized in some cooking. General questions guided the project: What way? During the tour, photographs were taken; information resources exist in hobby cooking? What some were shot close-up, to capture the titles of qualities do these resources have? How are they books or file tabs with subject headings. The inter- used? Returning to Hjørland’s eleven approaches for views and tours were audio taped and transcribed. domain analysis, the project amalgamated approach #1 (literature guides), #4 (user studies), #7 (document and genre studies), and #10 (studies of structures and institutions). The subject was defined as the serious leisure activity of hobby cooking and the unit of analysis was the “domain” of hobby cooking, technically a social world. Drawing upon these concepts, the related tasks of professional cooking and subsistence meal preparation were ruled out. Data gathering was multimethod and included secondary research, interviews (with hobbyists and information providers), and the unobtrusive analysis of sites (i.e. homes, bookstores, markets, cooking clubs, cook- ware stores, libraries). The project also tapped the author’s fifteen years of experience as a hobbyist Figure 4. This hobbyist cooks explains how she places favorite cook. recipes into files and folders in the kitchen cupboard. The Early in the exploratory research process, cook- recipes are parsed from a collection of more than 1,000 cookbook and recipe collections kept in the home jumped books. out as important components of the hobby. These resources could contain thousands of items per household and were maintained by the hobbyist. Ex- ploratory research allows for refocusing, and the home collections were isolated and prioritized as a distinct segment of the larger project. Due to space limitations, only this part of the research will be described here. Fitting with the concerns of collectivism and domain analysis, the questions about the collections were: What subjects, media, and genres make up these collections? How are they created, used, and managed? What physical (storage equipment) and conceptual (classification systems) devices exist? To answer these questions, the researcher conducted a “tour” of the homes, kitchens, and information resources of twelve hobby cooks. Following a warm-up discussion of the hobby, the tour began with the researcher saying, “Now I’d like you to take me on a tour, pointing out and describing items that are used in the hobby of cooking.” This proved a bountiful technique; subjects became ebullient and authoritative as they moved through their houses de- Figure 5. A closer look at the classification system. scribing the infrastructure of the hobby. The researcher managed the pace of the tour, directing at- The twelve household tours generated a data set of tention to information forms, such as a shelf of 70 single spaced pages of narrative and 125 photo- cooking magazines or a refrigerator door covered graphs (see Figures 4 and 5). These materials shed with recipes. At these highly informational points, light on the substantive content of hobby cooking; 236 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

its genres; the process of information acquisition, duct fieldwork on individual types of hobbies. The storage, organization, management, and use; the in- collectivist approach of domain analysis synchro- tegration of multi-media resources; lay classification nizes with serious leisure and advantageously places systems; and the role of information within the attention on the objective information forms in hobby. Analysis and synthesis will occur in 2004. hobby domains. Description of these resources and Preliminary but striking observations from the their use is the logical first order in any unchartered tours can be briefly reported. The information re- space. sources that cooks keep in their homes are more The primary reward of such a research enterprise than functional in nature. Cookbooks and recipes is new knowledge. Since all empirical research should represent family legacies, important occasions, aspi- deliver that same return, what makes serious leisure rations, and past experiences. Such collections can be better than other subjects? Simply put, research in distributed throughout the home so that the house such settings is fun. It allows the study of dynamic itself functions as the central hub of an information information forms in a wide range of private and system. Libraries, bookstores, restaurants, and mar- public environments. It enables engagement with kets make up wider-area nodes of this information human subjects who are more often than not pas- system. The practice of the hobby and engagement sionate, skilled, and thoughtful about their chosen with the information resources varies widely and ap- pursuits. More practically speaking, a serious leisure pears shaped by personal experiences, family tradi- research program may benefit LIS information pro- tions, situational factors (i.e. seasons, holidays), vision, education, and public identity. popular cooking trends, professional cooking stan- Significant public library traffic is tied to leisure dards, and cuisines. Of these historical and contex- and hobby purists (Collins and Chandler, 1997). In- tual elements, cuisines (i.e. French, Italian, Asian) creased understanding of information phenomena seem to bring the most unity to the discourse, tech- within a diversity of leisure and hobby domains en- niques, folk classification, and information forms of ables better information provision to these commu- hobby cooking, and may function akin to the para- nities. Rather then providing resources based upon digms of academe. universals, hobby classes or types can be precisely served. As a result, frequency of library use and satis- Conclusion faction levels may increase. Inquiry into leisure and hobbies is a boon to LIS A research program into hobbies would expand LIS education, for it provides students with friendly set- scholarship beyond its present stronghold of aca- tings to engage the difficult conceptual material of demic and professional contexts. This raises two the discipline. Drawing on 30 years of teaching, questions: How should a research program into hob- Marcia Bates has remarked that it takes students a bies proceed? And what are the benefits of exploring semester to adjust to the “orthogonal” orientation this new territory? that LIS takes to patterns of information (Bates, Research into leisure should be efficiently orches- 1999). Leisure and hobby settings are informational, trated, not scattershot, drawing upon the conceptual familiar, and engaging, and make ideal introductory devices presented here. Serious leisure explains the contexts. As evidence of this, Jonathan Furner of cardinal elements of leisure and divides it into realms UCLA begins his course on Subject Classification that can be prioritized and approached systemati- with a lively discussion of the facets of a recipe for a cally. The most fruitful starting point is serious, not British “pasty.” In a variety of other courses, a prime casual leisure, because it is information-rich and assignment would be to survey the information re- poses direct challenges to LIS orthodoxy. Of the sources of a hobby. These are apt tactics to indoctri- three forms of serious leisure, hobbies are the most nate newcomers and to animate LIS pedagogy. popular and familiar, making them a sensible entree A final reward of this extension could be an im- and base.. Although all hobby classes are of interest proved public identity for the LIS field. Today, the to LIS, liberal arts hobbyists seem of greatest interest discipline bemoans the reputation it has of being on account of their pure love for knowledge acquisi- dowdy (see Adams, 2000 for a review of the issue). tion. Empirical research can proceed concurrently on This status may be because the nexus of our exper- hobby classes and individual types. One integrated tise is in academic settings and topics of limited pub- strategy would be for academics in LIS to focus on lic understanding or enthusiasm. Building authority synthesis at the class level, while their students con- in everyday life experiences like leisure relocates LIS Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 237 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

acumen to the epicenter of personal and social life. Bates, M.J. (1996). Learning about the information With this shift, public perception may change also. seeking of interdisciplinary scholars and students. Library Trends, 45(2), 155-164. Acknowledgements Bates, M.J. (1999). The invisible substrate of information science. Journal of the American Society for Many people have helped with this project and de- Information Science, 50, (12), 1043-1050. serve acknowledgement. At UCLA, Marcia Bates Belkin, N.J. (1980). Anomalous states of knowledge supplied advice, encouragement, and inspiration. The as a basis for information retrieval. Canadian article was written while a visiting researcher in the Journal of Information Science, 5, 133-143. Department of Information Studies at the University Carey, R. (2003). Narrative and information: an eth- of Tampere, Finland where Jarkko Kari, Reijo nography of a lupus support group. (Doctoral dis- Savolainen, Sanna Talja, and Pertti Vakkari were sertation, University of Western Ontario, 2003). thoughtful counselors. Robert Stebbins generously Case, D. (2002). Looking for information: A survey of offered materials and insight on serious leisure. research on information seeking, needs, and behav- Birger Hjørland gave steady encouragement for the ior. New York: Academic Press/Elsevier Science. extension of domain analysis into everyday life, lei- Chatman, E.A. (1996). The impoverished life-world sure, and hobbies. Christine Borgman and Leah Liev- of outsiders. Journal of the American Society of In- rouw contributed invaluable research design skill to formation Science, 47(3), 193-206. launch the project. Chatman, E.A. (1999). A theory of life in the round. Journal of the American Society for Information Notes Science, 50 (3), 207-217. Chatman, E. A. (2000). Framing social life in theory 1 Alternatively, casual leisure may a valuable sub- and research. In L. Hogan and T. Wilson (Eds.), ject for LIS for its un-informational quality or as New Review of Information Behavior Research: a site of information avoidance. Stebbins has de- Studies of Information Seeking In Context: Vol. 1, scribed casual leisure as doing what comes in- (pp. 3-17 ). London :Taylor Graham Publishing. stinctively, with no special knowledge acquisi- Collings, M. and Chandler, K. (1997). User of Public tion. LIS may want to study casual leisure to bet- Library Services by Households in the United ter understand these distinct features. States, 199, National Center for Education Statis- 2 These observations are based upon two years of tics, Washington, D.C. research into information within serious leisure Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and contexts, including fieldwork with hobbyist anxiety: The experience of play in work and games. cooks. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 3 Except where noted, summary is drawn from Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psy- Stebbins, 2001, which provides an overview of se- chology of engagement with everyday life. New rious leisure and references to related writings. York: Basic Books. Dervin, B. (1983, May). An overview of sense-making References research: Concepts, methods, and results to date. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the In- Academy of Leisure Sciences. Leisure, the new cen- ternational Communication Association, Dallas, ter of the economy? Retrieved January 4, 2004, TX. http://www.academyofleisuresciences.org/ Hjørland, B. & Albrechtsen, H. (1995). Toward a alswp3.html. new horizon in information science: Domain Adams, K.C. (2000). Loveless frump as hip and sexy analysis. Journal of the American Society for In- party girl: A Reevaluation of the Old-Maid formation Science, 46(6), 400-425. stereotype. Library Quarterly, 70, 287-301. Hjørland, B. (2002). Domain analysis in information Baker, L. M. (1994). The information needs and in- science. Eleven approaches – traditional as well as formation-seeking patterns of women coping innovative. Journal of Documentation, 58(4), 422- with and adjusting to multiple sclerosis. (Doc- 462. toral dissertation, University of Western Ontario, Jacob, E.K., & Shaw, D. (1998). Sociocognitive per- 1994). Dissertation Abstracts International. AAT spectives on representation. In M. E. Williams NN9319. (Ed.), Annual Review of Information Science and 238 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 J. Hartel: The Serious Leisure Frontier in Library and Information Science

Technology, vol. 33 (pp. 131-185). Medford, NJ: Stebbins, R.A. (1997). Casual leisure: a conceptual Information Today for the American Society for statement. Leisure Studies, 16, 17-25. Information Science. Stebbins, R. A. (2001). New directions in the theory Kari, J. (2001). Information seeking and interest in and research of serious leisure, Mellen Studies in the paranormal: Towards a process model of in- Sociology, Vol. 28, Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen formation action. (Doctoral dissertation, Univer- Press. sity of Tampere, 2001). Stebbins, R. A. (2002, November). Choice and expe- Kelly, J.R. (1982). Leisure. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: riential definitions of leisure. LSA Newsletter, 63, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 15-17. Kelly, J.R. (1983). Leisure identities and interactions. Stebbins, R. A. (2003). Hobbies. In Encyclopedia of London and Boston: Allen & Unwin. leisure and outdoor recreation. London: Kuhlthau, C.C. (1993). A principle of uncertainty Routledge. for information seeking. Journal of Documenta- Talja, S., Tuominen, K. and Savolainen, R. (2004, in tion, 49(4), 339-355. press). “Isms” in information science: Construc- Lambert, R.D. (1996). Doing family history. Fami- tivism, collectivism, and constructionism. Paper lies, 35, 11-25. accepted for publication in Journal of Documenta- Manaszewicz, R., Williamson, K., McKemmish, S. tion. (July, 2002). Breast Cancer Knowledge Online: Taylor, H. (2002). Annual work and leisure poll Towards meeting the diverse information needs of shows lowest level for hours Americans spent the Breast Cancer Community. Paper presented at working since 1987. Harris Interactive. Retrieved Electronic Networks – Building Community: January 6, 2004, http://www.harrisinteractive. Fifth Community Networking Conference, Mel- com/. bourne, Australia. Tuominen, K. and Savolainen, R. (1997). Social con- Mann, T. (1993). Library research models: A guide to structionist approach to the study of information classification, cataloging, and computers. New use as discursive action. In P. Vakkari, Reijo York: Oxford University Press. Savolainen & Brenda Dervin (Eds.), Information McKenzie, P. (2001). Negotiating authoritative Seeking in Context. Proceedings of an International knowledge: Information practices across a life Conference on Research in Information Needs, transition. (Doctoral dissertation from the Uni- Seeking and Use in Different Contexts: (pp. 81- versity of Western Ontario, 2001). Dissertation 96). London: Taylor Graham. Abstracts International. AAT NQ58408. Unruh, D. R. (1979). Characteristics and types of Otlet, P. (1934). Traite de Documentation. Section participation in social worlds. Symbolic Interac- 53. Editiones Mundaneum; Bruxelles: Palais tion, 2, 115-130. Mondial. Translated by W. Boyd Rayward. Unruh, D. R. (1980). The nature of social worlds. Robinson, J.P. & Godbey G. (1997). Time for life: Pacific Sociological Review, 23, 271-296. The surprising ways Americans use their time. Uni- Vakkari, P. (1997). Information seeking in context: a versity Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University challenging metatheory. In P. Vakkari, Reijo Press. Savolainen & Brenda Dervin (Eds.), Information Ross, C. (1999). Finding without seeking: the in- Seeking in Context. Proceedings of an International formation encounter in the context of reading for Conference on Research in Information Needs, pleasure. Information Processing and Management, Seeking and Use in Different Contexts: (pp. 451- 35 (6), 783-799. 465). London: Taylor Graham. Savolainen, R. (1995). Everyday life information Veblen, T.B. (1899). The Theory of the Leisure Class: seeking: approaching information seeking in the An Economic Study of Institutions. New York: context of way of life. Library & Information Sci- MacMillan. ence Research, 17(3), 259-294. White, H. D., and McCain, K. (1998). Visualizing a Stebbins. R.A. (1982). Serious leisure: a conceptual discipline: an author co-citation analysis of in- statement. Pacific Sociological Review, 25, 251- formation science. Journal of the American Society 272. for Information Science, 49(4), 327-355. Stebbins, R. A. (1994). The liberal arts hobbies: A Zipf, G.K. (1949). Human behavior and the principle neglected subtype of serious leisure. Society and of least effort. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley Leisure. 17 (1), 173-186. Press. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 239 B. Hjørland, J. Hartel: Afterword: Ontological, Epistemological and Sociological Dimensions of Domains

Afterword: Ontological, Epistemological and Sociological Dimensions of Domains

Birger Hjørland and Jenna Hartel

Hjørland, Birger, and Jenna Hartel. (2003). Afterword: Ontological, Epistemological and Sociologi- cal Dimensions of Domains. Knowledge Organization, 30(3/4). 239-245. 30 refs.

ABSTRACT: Domains are basically constituted of three kinds of theories and concepts: (1) ontological theories and concepts about the objects of human activity; (2) epistemological theories and concepts about knowledge and the ways to obtain knowledge, implying methodological principles about the ways objects are investigated; and (3) sociological concepts about the groups of people concerned with the objects. There are complicated relations between these elements. Basic theories about those relationships are, for example, forms of philosophical realism and social constructivism. In this paper these concepts and theories are introduced, and their implications for knowledge organization outlined, with illustrations drawn from this special issue of Knowledge Organization.

Ontological dimension phenomena. It has been argued that the attempts of Ontology has been defined as “the science of what is, positivism to avoid meta- of the kinds and structures of objects, properties, physical and ontological issues events, processes, and relations in every area of real- resulted in a complex system ity” (Smith, 2004, 155). Theories of ontology imply of assumptions of the kind it assertions of what constitute the world and its ob- was meant to avoid. We cannot go into details here, jects. Ontological theories describe or explain reality but we want to say that attempts to avoid ontological and how it is structured. If, for example, one believes issues in science were counterproductive. Science in the existence of God as something different from stands to benefit by raising difficult questions about the material world, then God and the material world the kinds and nature of its objects of study. It should form different areas or dimensions of reality. Ontol- be said that ontology is not just a priori philosophi- ogy is closely related to metaphysics (some authors cal speculation. The chemical and physical discovery define them in an identical way, other authors make that everything in the world consists of about 1001 some distinctions). Ontology and its cousin meta- chemical elements is probably the most important physics got a bad reputation during the positivist pe- advancement in our ontological knowledge. Impor- riod of influences. Today ontology has regained its tant ontological theories are, for example, the many status as an important field both in its own right and versions of idealism, constructivism, materialism, in relation to the construction of ontologies in com- nominalism, phenomenalism and realism. puter science, which function in a similarly organiza- An introduction to ontological problems in many tional capacity as classification systems in library and domains such as chemistry, music and psychology information science (cf. Soergel, 1999). Metaphysics can be found, for example, in Burkhardt & Smith and ontology should not be taken just for issues re- (1991). When issues of ontology are addressed lated to God or other religious entities. These con- within domains, it often involves explication of cepts extend beyond mysticism or superstition to terms like these: engage important questions in every field of science, e.g., to the question of whether social science phe- – “areas” nomena can or cannot be reduced to psychological – “domains” 240 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 B. Hjørland, J. Hartel: Afterword: Ontological, Epistemological and Sociological Dimensions of Domains

– “elements” theoretical analysis, languages, traditions, sex and – “fields” values in the production of knowledge. Among the – “kinds” epistemological theories discussed in standard ency- – “objects” clopedias such as Routledge Encyclopedia of Philoso- – “problems” phy (1998) are: – “subject matter” (“substance” / “substantial differentiation”) – [Social] Constructivism – “topics” – Critical rationalism (Karl Popper) – Critical theory Epistemological dimension – Eclecticism – Empiricism Epistemology is the study of knowledge and how to – Epistemological anarchism (Paul Feuerabend) obtain knowledge, e.g., the roles of observation, – Feminist epistemology & Standpoint epistemology theoretical analysis, languages, traditions, sex and – Hermeneutics values in the production of knowledge. If knowledge – Historicism is defined, following Plato, as “verified, true belief,” – Marxist philosophy of science then knowledge must reflect parts of reality. Knowl- – Paradigm-theory (Th. Kuhn) edge is true if there is a correspondence between a – Phenomenology claim and reality. Knowledge (and science) is seen as – Postmodernism and poststructuralism a verified system of true claims corresponding to re- – Positivism ality. The implication is that our knowledge (as rep- – Pragmatism resented in scientific literature) should map onto- – Rationalism logical structures. – Social epistemology Today, however, the general tendency among scholars is skepticism regarding scientific literature Epistemology is of course a complicated field to en- as verified true belief. It is far more common to be- ter. It seems, however, to be very important for li- lieve, as did Karl Popper, that science produces theo- brary and information science, and is a central con- ries, which are subject to revision by other scientific cern of domain analysis. To illustrate this, Hjørland theories. Science is not cumulating “facts” but is try- (2002b) outlines four basic epistemologies and their ing to construe better theories. There are today dif- varying expression in a matter that shapes informa- ferent theories about the (best) methods to attain tion phenomena, “relevance.” knowledge. Different epistemologies have different This figure is of course a simplification of the views about the roles of, for example, observation, complex field of epistemology. It provides, however,

Figure 1 (Hjørland, 2002b, p.269) Simplified relevance criteria in four epistemological schools

Empiricism Rationalism Historicism Pragmatism

Relevant: Observations, Relevant: Pure thinking, Relevant: Background Relevant: Information about sense-data. Induction from logic, mathematical models, knowledge about pre- goals and values and conse- collections of observational computer modeling, systems understanding, theories, quences both involving the data. Intersubjectively con- of axioms, definitions and conceptions, contexts, his- researcher and the object of trolled data. theorems. torical developments and research (subject and ob- evolutionary perspectives. ject).

Non-relevant: Speculations, Low priority is given to em- Low priority is given to de- Low priority (or outright knowledge transmitted from pirical data because such contextualized data of which suspicion) is given to authorities. “Book knowl- data must be organized in the meanings cannot be in- claimed value free or neutral edge” (“reading nature, not accordance with principles terpreted. Intersubjectively information. For example, books”). Data about the ob- which cannot come from controlled data are often feminist epistemology is servers' assumptions and experience. seen as trivia. suspicious about the neutral- pre-understanding. ity of information produced in a male dominated society. Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 241 B. Hjørland, J. Hartel: Afterword: Ontological, Epistemological and Sociological Dimensions of Domains

a basis for understanding some of the primary epis- universal, that theories can or must be translat- temological positions and their undeniable influence able into observational terms, and that reduc- on the work of library and information science. The tion to physics is the way to unify the sciences. chart could be extended to illustrate the determina- These criticisms have undercut the motivations tive force of epistemology not just on relevance, but for behaviourism and methodological individu- on other matters in LIS such as classification sys- alism in the social sciences. (Kincaid, 1998). tems, genres, and documents. There are connections between ontological and We see that there have been connections between epistemological assumptions. Classical empiricism positivism (an epistemology) and ontological views; maintained that all knowledge derives from the that social reality may be studied via individuals, thus senses. If taken seriously (as did Berkeley and Hu- reducing and limiting the meaning of the term “some), the implication is called phenomenalism: that cial” (cf. Danziger, 2000). In other words, in an at- only observations exist. From this view, talk about tempt to live up to some beliefs, ideals or ideologies any reality beyond sense impressions is talk about concerning scientific methods, positivists have ten- the unknowable and hence unnecessary and unscien- ded to reduce their ontological understanding of so- tific. Consequently, empiricism can be taken to an cial phenomena. extreme ontological view known as “subjective ideal- How various epistemological views influence the ism” or “solipsism.” In this perspective the only definition of a domain, its culture and practices, and thing that really exists is in one's own mind, all other its information forms is clearly demonstrated in things are subjective constructions. This may seem Ørom’s and Abrahamsen’s papers in this issue. strange to many readers, for normally empiricism Abrahamsen (2003) states: and positivism are seen as realist theories that assert the existence and primacy of the physical world. This Each paradigm tends to develop, to some ex- is, however, not the case. [This afterword is not the tent, its own terminology, its own system of place to go deeper into this issue. Readers are re- periods, its own system of musical genres, as ferred to Hjørland (2004a) for further information well as its own theoretical view on the causes about this question.] The point is (surprisingly) that that have formed the history of music, the empiricism and positivism implies ontological views functions that music have, the value of different related to anti-realism. kinds of music, what music is considered worthy of study and – in the end – different defini- Key positivist ideas were that philosophy tions of what music is. should be scientific, that metaphysical speculations are meaningless, that there is a universal This quotation may be interpreted as a kind of anti- and a priori scientific method, that a main func- realism, that researchers construe their own objects. tion of philosophy is to analyze that method, Hjørland (2004), however, defends a version of real- that this basic scientific method is the same in ism based upon, among others, an interpretation of a both the natural and social sciences, that the statement by Thomas Kuhn (1970). While Kuhn various sciences should be reducible to physics, emphasized how our ontologies are implied by our and that the theoretical parts of good science theories and paradigms, he nevertheless pointed out must be translatable into statements about ob- that we cannot freely invent arbitrary structures: servations. In the social sciences and the phi- “nature cannot be forced into an arbitrary set of con- losophy of the social sciences, positivism has ceptual boxes. On the contrary . . . the history of the supported the emphasis on quantitative data developed sciences shows that nature will not indefi- and precisely formulated theories, the doctrines nitely be confined in any set which scientists have of behaviourism, operationalism and methodo- constructed so far” (Kuhn, 1970, p. 263). The world logical individualism, the doubts among phi- provides “resistance” to our conceptualizations in losophers that meaning and interpretation can the form of anomalies, i.e., situations in which it be- be scientifically adequate, and an approach to comes clear that something is wrong with the struc- the philosophy of social science that focuses on tures given to the world by our concepts. In this way conceptual analysis rather than on the actual Kuhn’s view may be interpreted as (pragmatic) real- practice of social research. Influential criticisms ist, although he is often interpreted as anti-realist have denied that scientific method is a priori or (e.g., Niiniluoto, 1991). 242 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 B. Hjørland, J. Hartel: Afterword: Ontological, Epistemological and Sociological Dimensions of Domains

Different epistemologies are connected to the dif- art. Although his own view is related to the material- ferent schools of thought that populate academe. ist view, he carefully describes other definitions as The following list of terms may be considered help- well. Any attempt to bypass such analysis by direct ful as query terms for locating epistemological issues empirical or logical studies is a kind of positivism in domains: based on a naïve realism that confuses phenomena with reality. People in general, as well as researchers, – “approaches” tend to find the dominant view as the natural and the – “metatheories” only possible or serious view. It is important to con- – “movements” sider different horizons. What we are claiming here – “paradigms” can be seen as a kind of hermeneutical approach to – “philosophies” (of discipline X) ontology and to the research process: That the most – “regimes” (e.g., treatment regimes) informed way of construing ontologies is by the fus- – “schools” (of thought and research)) ing of horizons, considering the different views of – “systems” (of thought and research) the field (cf. Fonseca & Martin, 2004). – “traditions” (academic) – “trends” (in a field) Sociological dimension – “views” (“points of view”) The third dimension is about the groups of people Epistemological dimensions may be uncovered by working with some objects by applying some ap- studying historical developments in a domain (as proaches. This dimension may be expressed by con- Hjørland, 1998 and Ørom, 2003) or they may be un- cepts such as: covered and visualized by bibliometrics (Chen, 2003; Hjørland, 2002b). Attempts to classify a domain in – “disciplines” (of research, of teaching) knowledge organization without considering how – “subdisciplines” different “paradigms” have considered the field may – “discourse communities” be problematic. Tennis (2003) demands that – “epistemic communities” – “professions” the notion of domain must be defined in a – “specialties” transferable definition – one that can be used – “social system of science” by more than one researcher, to allow for a – a variety of everyday life collectives (i.e. “hob- shared understanding of what the object of bies,” “amateurs,” “enthusiasts”) domain analysis is. Thus a domain analyst must provide a standardized definition of a domain, a Disciplines are educational units as well as organiza- definition that is easily understood by other tional units in universities and also an important or- domain analysts. ganizing factor among publications such as journals. Disciplines and professions are social divisions of la- However, while it seems easy to select one “turn- bor. They are very often competing, while a given key” definition of a domain, such a definition will classification is often the result of stronger disci- always be more related to one view or paradigm, and plines and professions dominating weaker ones (cf. relatively unsatisfactory for other paradigms. In our Hjørland, 2002a, p.427). In this issue Sundin (2003) view, quality research in the spirit of domain analysis emphasizes such professional aspects and draws on should begin with a high-level interpretive study of a theory of professions. subject or community of interest. An early require- The sociological dimension is central in domain ment is to uncover the interests underlying different analysis, as revealed in the formulation by Hjørland conceptions of that area and then negotiate for an & Albrechtsen (1995. p. 400): “This approach [do- ideal definition of the domain. In this process, the main analysis] states that the most fruitful horizon researcher entertains various contemporary notions for IS is to study the knowledge-domains as thought of the domain, as well as their recent histories, before or discourse communities, which are parts of soci- coming to a conclusion of the domains substance ety’s division of labor.” The structure of social do- and boundaries. Ørom's article in this issue is an il- mains is explored by Mattei Dogan, who finds that lustration of this approach. He did not start by de- few researchers today master a whole discipline while fining art, but considered different conceptions of the important units are the specialties, which are very Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 243 B. Hjørland, J. Hartel: Afterword: Ontological, Epistemological and Sociological Dimensions of Domains

often cross-disciplinary: “There is more communica- zation based on scientific theories. They are not re- tion between specialties belonging to different disci- flecting social structures (although some social con- plines than between specialties within the same dis- structivists might claim an indirect social influence cipline” (Dogan, 2001, p. 14852). He also states that even on such systems). specialties are constructed ‘‘along substantive, epis- In library and information science, disciplines temological, methodological, theoretical, and ideo- have often been used as organizing units in classifica- logical lines . . .The division of disciplines into spe- tion. As stated in the DDC: cialties should be distinguished from their fragmen- tation into schools and sects. The term ’school’ re- .. A work on water may be classed with many fers to a group of scholars ’who stress a particular disciplines, such as metaphysics, religion, eco- aspect’ (Dogan, 2001, p. 14852). nomics, commerce, physics, chemistry, geol- The dynamics of specialties and disciplines is ad- ogy, oceanography, meteorology, and history. dressed by Tengström (1993 p. 12), who emphases No other feature of the DDC is more basic that cross-disciplinary research is a process, not a than this: that it scatters subjects by discipline state or structure. He differentiates three levels of (Dewey Decimal Classification, 1979, p. xxxi). ambition regarding cross-disciplinary research: The importance of this principle is discussed in 1. The “Pluridisciplinarity” or “multidisciplinarity” Hjørland & Albrechtsen (1999). Another view re- level garding the importance of the social dimension has 2. The genuine cross-disciplinary level: “interdisci- been put forward by Jesse Shera: plinarity” 3. The discipline-forming level “transdisciplinarity”. Thus it is the external relations, the environment, of the concept that are all important to the act of What is described here is a view of social fields as classifying. A tree is an organism to the bota- dynamic and changing. Library and information sci- nist, an esthetic entity to the landscape archi- ence, for example, can be viewed as a field that tect, a manifestation of Divine benevolence to started as a multidisciplinary field based on literature, the theologian, a source of potential income to psychology, sociology, management, computer sci- the lumberman. Pragmatic classification, then, ence, etc., which is developing towards a discipline in denies the existence of the “essence” of the its own right. This might illuminate what Albrecht- tree… (Shera, 1951, p. 85, emphasis in original). sen & Mark Pejtersen (2003) say about the work centered design approach, which focuses on the ac- Given the importance of disciplines and other social tual dynamics in a work situation for the construc- organizations as units of knowledge organization, it tion of classifications based on the “deep semantics” is strange that this perspective is almost totally ab- of the work group. Such work groups may be seen as sent in knowledge organization. There are no at- more or less multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary or tempts to list the disciplines or to describe trends in transdisciplinary fields, and their “deep semantics” their developments as a basis for designing and up- should reflect the actual stage of development of the dating classifications. work group. In the pluridisciplinary stage the seman- The relation between ontology and sociology is tics should reflect the different disciplines from considered in theories of realism and social construc- which the team has been recruited. In the transdisci- tivism. Both positions exist in many versions. The plinary level, a new semantic structure has possibly extreme version of social constructivism maintains evolved. that the world is a social construction (i.e., ontologi- Whitley (1984) named his book The Intellectual cal antirealism). The realist position claims the oppo- and Social Organizations of the Sciences, implying site: that the world exists independent of human that there are two different ways of organizing sci- minds, and that the scientific theories and the social ences. We might say that an ontological principle organization of the sciences cannot be freely con- constitutes an intellectual way of organizing knowl- structed because the world provides resistance to edge, while a sociological principle constitutes a so- human conceptualization. Human knowledge is thus cial way of organizing knowledge. A biological tax- a product of both the world itself and of human in- onomy and the periodical system of chemical ele- terests and capacities. It may be the case that differ- ments are examples of intellectual knowledge organi- ent kinds of sciences may be more influenced by ei- 244 Knowl. Org. 30(2003)No.3/No.4 B. Hjørland, J. Hartel: Afterword: Ontological, Epistemological and Sociological Dimensions of Domains

ther the world or by human interests. If we compare (ununtrium) and 115 (ununpentium) were made the development of computer science with the de- in February 2004. Such new elements are very velopment of library and information science (LIS), it unstable and live for a small fraction of a second. looks as if the founders of computer science (such as Everything on earth outside physical laboratories Church, Gödel, Kleene, Post, and Turing) discovered consists of less than 100 elements. principles which established not only computer science and the computer industry, but a new organiza- References tion of society (globalization, outsourcing, etc.). LIS on the other hand seems to be based on the social in- Abrahamsen, K. T. (2003). Indexing of Musical Gen- stitutions of libraries and library schools. Its content res. An Epistemological Perspective. Knowledge seems much more “constructed” to fit the profes- Organization, in this issue. sional interests of the library profession (e.g., the con- Albrechtsen, H & Mark Pejtersen, A. (2003). Cogni- struction of cataloging rules). Particular professional tive work analysis and work centered design of groups use research methods and epistemologies to classification schemes. Knowledge Organization, construe knowledge of importance to that profession. in this issue. Another example of a combination of a specific Burkhardt, H. & Smith, B. (eds.). (1991). Handbook of group of people and a specific epistemology is the ex- Metaphysics and Ontology. Vol. 1-2. Munich: Phi- istence of specific national traditions in some fields losophia. (cf. Crothers, 2001). Regional traditions are impor- Chen, C. (2003). Visualizing scientific paradigms: tant to consider in information science. An introduction. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 54(5), Conclusion 392-393. Crothers, C. (2001). National traditions in the social It is critical to realize that domains are dynamic. sciences. (Pp. 10323-10328) International Ency- Knowledge production and knowledge organization clopaedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences. Edited are not just about the addition of new elements into by Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. London, Perga- a pre-established classification. As knowledge devel- mon-Elsevier Science. ops and evolves, the view of structures of the world Danziger, K. (2000). Making social psychology ex- and the relations between different concepts changes perimental: A conceptual history, 1920-1970. symbiotically. Parts of the world that were previ- Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences, ously regarded as unconnected may suddenly turn 36(4), 329-347. out to be strongly related. In this way, ontological Dewey, M. (1979). Dewey Decimal Classification and theories change as conceptual and social structures relative index (19th ed., Vol. 1). Albany, NY: For- (e.g., by the development of new interdisciplinary est Press. fields) change. It is an old rationalist dream to un- Dogan, M. (2001). “Specialization and Recombina- cover the structure of the world as well as the struction of Specialties” (pp. 14851-14855). Interna- ture of our knowledge in an a priori way, once and tional Enclyclopaedia of Social and Behavioral Sci- for all. This is related to the dream of a perfect lan- ences. Edited by Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. guage and perfect systems of knowledge organiza- London, Pergamon-Elsevier Science. tion. Few people today regard this dream as based on Eco, U. (1995). The Search for the Perfect Language solid grounds (cf. Eco, 1995). The implication for li- (Translated from Italian: Ricerca della Lingua brary and information science and knowledge or- Perfetta Nell a Cultura Europea). Oxford: Black- ganization is that studies of domains should consider well. the complex interaction of ontological, epistemo- Fjordback Søndergaard, T.; Andersen, J. & Hjørland, logical and sociological factors influencing the devel- B. (2003). Documents and the communication of opment of fields of knowledge. scientific and scholarly information. Revising and updating the UNISIST model. Journal of Docu- Note mentation, 59(3), 278-320. Fonseca, F. and Martin, J. (2004) Toward an Alter- 1 The exact number of chemical elements is un- native Notion of Information Systems Ontolo- known as new elements are still discovered in gies: Information Engineering as a Hermeneutic physical laboratories. Claims for elements 113 Enterprise. Journal of the American Society for In- Knowl. Org. 30(2003) No.3/No.4 245 B. Hjørland, J. Hartel: Afterword: Ontological, Epistemological and Sociological Dimensions of Domains

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