International Conference on Arts, Economics and Literature (ICAEL'2012) December 14-15, 2012 Singapore
A Tentative Study on Lexical Characteristics of China English
ZHOU Ying
culture there is western style, while English in the Outer Circle Abstract—With its global spread，English has gradually is greatly influenced by local languages and bears non-western changing its role to serve the purpose of international cultures. The Extending Circle covers a large part of the world communication. A new concept of “Egnlishes” has come into with various cultural backgrounds. It is also where the western existence to refer to different English varieties in non-native speaking culture meets the eastern culture. The development of English countries. China is not free from the influence of the global spread of English. The nativized form of English in Chinese cultural context, in non-native speaking countries has inevitably attached local which is termed as China English, turns out to be inevitable and features to the language, due to its use in different cultural necessary to serve the purpose of international communication. After settings. The localized or nativized forms of English have introducing the concept of “China English”, this paper focuses on the become essential parts of those countries in their characteristics of China English at the lexical level. The author communication with the outside world. categorizes China English vocabulary into two parts, that is borrowed China is not free from the influence of the global spread of words and nativized expressions, with a closer look respectively, then analyzes the semantic changes of these words used in Chinese English. The nativized form of English in Chinese cultural context, and in the last part discusses some problems concerning context, which is termed as China English, turns out to be China English vocabulary. inevitable and necessary[3]. China English serves as a bridge between China and the rest of the world and promote the Keywords—borrowed, China English, Englishes, lexical international exchange; it enriches the ways of expression of characteristics, nativzed the English language and contributes to the development of English as an international language. Studying the proper use I. INTRODUCTION—WORLD ENGLISHES AND CHINA ENGLISH of China English helps the Chinese get better understood by ITH it global spread, the English language today is no the rest of the world. Since words are the most active part and W longer limited to British or American English, but has the basic elements of a language and they best reflect the gradually changing its role to serve the purpose of culture of the people who use it, the most salient international communication. The traditional concept of characteristics of China English present in its lexis. English is facing an unprecedented challenge. Many new names were given to it such as an international language, a II. LEXICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHINA ENGLISH global language and a lingua franca[1], which established the The lexical feature of China English refers to the status of English in world communication. The word vocabulary expressing things unique to China and reflecting “English” also gained its plural form and the last twenty years the Chinese way of thinking. According to Li Wenzhong, the or so have seen a rapid growth of interest in the study of vocabulary of China English contains two parts: one is “World Englishes”, a new linguistic theory focusing on the Chinese borrowings or loan words already absorbed into English varieties used in different parts of the world, English dictionaries home and abroad and widely used in especially in non-native speaking countries. English speaking countries, and the other is those that haven’t The most influential theoretical model—the Three been collected in English dictionaries but used in international Concentric Circles of English, best describes the global publicity, tourism and foreign affairs, expressing the situation of the English languages. The Inner Circle covers the uniqueness of Chinese nation and culture[4]. least population and English in its countries, as the mother A. Borrowed Words tongue, is obtained by natural acquisition and functions in all- Intercultural communication leads to the blend of language round fields. The Outer Circle includes the non-native and culture. Linguistic borrowing embodies the main varieties of English used as a second language. The third and characteristics of the intercultural blend. Borrowing is a the largest circle, the Extending Circle, covers the regions natural process of language change whereby one language where English is used as a foreign language[2]. English in the adds new words to its own lexis by copying those words from Inner Circle is hardly influenced by other languages and the another language[5]. The words borrowed are called loan words or borrowings. One of the initial reasons for borrowing Ying Zhou is with Shanghai University of Enginneering Science, is when one language has semantic gaps in its lexis and needs Shanghai, CO 200336 CHINA (phone: 86-13761627584; fax: 86-21- to borrow a term to express the necessary idea or concept[5]. 62750055*308; e-mail:[email protected]). Therefore, borrowing is a result of language contact and thus a
117 International Conference on Arts, Economics and Literature (ICAEL'2012) December 14-15, 2012 Singapore result of culture contact. According to studies of doufu/tofu 豆腐 sociolinguists, frequently borrowed are brand names, place Cheongsam/Qipao 旗袍 names, greetings, sayings and slang expressions. The types of (5) About botany borrowed words tend to be related to the culture behind the litchi 荔枝 donor language, because the more culturally bound an item, ginseng 人参 the less likely the possibility of a ready synonym in the other longan 龙眼 language. (6) About measurement The Chinese borrowings in English can be traced back to jin 斤 the 17th century. With the opening of the Silk Road, words yuan 元 expressing things unique to China made their way into English Loan translation vocabulary mainly through transliteration and loan translation. Loan translation is defined by Bloomfield as a form of Garland Cannon estimated that Chinese borrowings collected borrowing from one language to another whereby the semantic in the English standard dictionaries and other books had components of a given term are literally translated into their amounted to no less than 979 by the middle of 1970s[6]. The equivalents in the borrowing language[5]. In this case, a main feature of those Chinese borrowings is their uniqueness foreign concept is borrowed and a native term used to express and irreplaceability. Unlike the French borrowings, which it. The native word has no phonological similarities to the offer a large number of synonyms to English vocabulary and foreign word. Cannon collected 49 Chinese loan translations are sometimes complained as the burden of English, Chinese in his article Chinese Borrowings in English in the 1980s[7]. borrowings are irreplaceable because of their lack of English Examples: equivalences. (1)About traditional literature 1. Ways of borrowing Four Books 四书 Fantini recognizes two levels of borrowing—“pure Five Classics 五经 borrowing”, where the word retains all its native features, Analects of Confucius 论语 and “adjusted borrowing”, where the word adapts to the (2) About politics 大跃进 structural criteria of the host language[5]. Generally speaking, Great Leap Forward 长征 Chinese borrowings in English consist of three parts in ways Long March 全国人大 of transliteration (which approximates to the idea of pure National People’s Congress (NPC) borrowing), loan translation and the combination of both (3) About food and cuisine 莲子 (which can be regarded as equal to adjusted borrowing). lotus seeds 燕窝 Transliteration bird’s nest 醉虾 Transliterated words are phonetically similar to the donor drunken shrimp language form and the borrowing language form. They are (4) About history 战国 used in the borrowing language with the closest possible Warring States 天子 sounds and the closest possible meanings to the original Son of Heaven 龙袍 words. Transliteration is the most commonly used method to dragon robes translate proper nouns especially geographical names and (5) Others 纸老虎 people’s names. It is also the easiest and the best way to paper tiger 封建迷信 bridge lexical gaps in intercultural communication. Here are feudal superstition 丢脸 some examples of Chinese borrowings in English，which are lose face 工分 basically from Putonghua and Cantonese dialect. work point (1)About history and culture Combination of transliteration and loan translation xiucai 秀才 The combined way of transliteration and load translation yamen 衙门 incorporates the linguistic elements of both languages. This kowtow 叩，磕头 kind of borrowing has greatly enriched the English (2)About geomancy and philosophy expressions. fengshui 风水 Examples: yin and yang 阴阳 teacake 茶点 (3) About recreation and sports Beijing opera 京剧 erhu 二胡 Confucianism 孔子 /儒家学说 wushu 武术 Taoism 道家学说 tai chi 太极拳 Maoist 毛泽东思想追随者 mahjong 麻将 (4) About food, drink and clothing 2. Channels of Borrowing baozi 包子 Katamba distinguishes between direct and indirect ketchup 番茄酱 borrowing[5]. Indirect borrowing is when language B receives chowmein 炒面 a loan word from language A by way of languages C, D, E,
118 International Conference on Arts, Economics and Literature (ICAEL'2012) December 14-15, 2012 Singapore etc. Direct borrowing occurs when the borrowing is According to the textual research, “fuyun” reflects Confucius' transferred directly from language A to language B. Words attitude toward wealth, for he is known to have said: borrowed directly undergo less phonological change from one “不义而富且贵，于我如浮云 ”, m e a n in g th-gotten a t ill gains are transliteration than from the multiple transliterations in nothing but drifting clouds to him. Nowadays, the popular indirect borrowing. expression of “Everything is fuyun” reflects people's Indirect borrowing disappointment and disillusionment at the uncertainty of life At the early stage, Chinese borrowings didn’t come into and their current circumstances, when facing increasing English directly from Chinese, but through the third language pressure of life and work. or even more languages. Though the English and Chinese In some cases, Chinese borrowing is used as a substitution languages both have a long history, they seldom had the for the English equivalent to emphasize the connotative chance of coming into contact with each other until the 18th meaning of the Chinese word. For example, hukou somewhat century due to far geographical location and less developed means “registered residence” in English. In A Chinese-English traffic facilities. The earliest Chinese borrowing into English Dictionary by Wei Dongya, hukou bu (户口簿)is translated might be the Chinese specialty----silk[8]. According to the as “residence booklet”. However, in the Chinese context, Oxford English Dictionary, the word first appeared in English hukou bu means more than just a certification of your in 888 by way of the Latin word “sericus”, which was derived permanent residence. It means many social benefits such as from Greek. It traveled a long way along the Silk Road from medical service, house purchase subsidy, advantages in Chang’an (in Tang dynasty) through the Takla Makan Desert, children’s education and the like. Therefore, the transliteration over the Pamirs, across the Mediterranean Sea, via Greece and “hukou” can better express what it really is. finally to Britain. The complicated movement almost deprived it of its native feature of Chinese. Another similar example is B. Nativized Expressions “tea”, which is borrowed from Fujian dialect through Dutch. As well as the borrowings that have already entered the Besides other foreign languages, Pidgin English is also found English vocabulary, some creative uses of English constitute as a transmitter[7]. Chinese Pidgin English took shape in the the indispensable part of the vocabulary of China English. The 18th century after the British established their first trading post nativized expressions are not included in the standard English in Guangzhou in 1664. With a limited vocabulary, deviant dictionaries but can be understood through explanation. grammar and phonology, it was a mixed language as a result Expressions for things and ideas unique to China should be of the need for communication between English-speaking created by people who best understand the culture. China is traders and the local Chinese. It declined in the 19th century one of the four great ancient civilizations with rich and and now is virtually dead, but some words survived and were splendid history and culture. There are many special things absorbed in the English vocabulary, such as typhoon and concepts in Chinese culture that have never been (台风 )，jo ss(菩萨，神像)， described in English. That needs the efforts of Chinese people chopsticks(筷子 )，c h o w c h o w (酱菜)，e tc . to make them known to the world. What’s more, China is Direct borrowing developing at an unprecedented speed; new things and Two sources of direct borrowing are Putonghua (the standard concepts are springing up like mushrooms. Since international spoken form of modern Chinese) and some dialects in exchanges won’t cease for a day, it’s impossible to wait for southeast coastal cities. Words deriving from the former being introduced to the outside world; instead, the Chinese usually adopt pinyin (the Chinese phonetic transcription) or should take the initiative to develop new China English words. once used Wade-Giles system[ The Wade-Giles romanization Here are some examples generally accepted and used in system for the Chinese language was produced by two British media at home and abroad: scholars Thomas Wade and Herbert Allen Giles in the 19th (1)About custom and 20th centuries and ever used in China before pinyin was the Spring Festival 春节 invented as the official system for putonghua in 1958. ] as the Lantern Festival 元宵节 their spellings, for example, renminbi or RMB (人民币 ), m aotai gift money 压岁钱 (茅台酒 )，Kuomintang(国民党), kungfu (功夫), etc. Owing to (2)About traditional food frequent business contact with foreigners on China’s southeast spring roll 春卷 ports and Hong Kong as the British colony for a long time, rice noodles 米粉 Cantonese and Fujian dialect also lent themselves to English moon cake 月饼 vocabulary. Those from Cantonese are words such as dimsum (3)About art and science (点心 ), yamsha (饮茶), wonton (云吞), chop suey (杂碎), etc. and shadow plays 皮影戏 from Fujian dialect are usually words concerning tea, such as Chinese herbal medicine 中草药 congou (功夫茶 and) oolong (乌龙茶 ). Heavenly Stems 天干 Chinese borrowing is mainly used when there is no suitable Earthly Branches 地支 English equivalent and is inevitable in conveying what is (4)About thoughts and ideas unique in China. It reflects the Chinese culture and social the way of the mean 中庸之道 changes. Take “fuyun(浮云 )” as an example from the three cardinal guides 三纲 Confucius Institution Online. It literally means drifting clouds. five constant virtues 五常
119 International Conference on Arts, Economics and Literature (ICAEL'2012) December 14-15, 2012 Singapore
(6) About politics Chinese intelligent game, now is generalized to a wider range one China policy 一个中国政策 of things very difficult and intricate. Still some have already three represents 三个代表 been assimilated by English without any exotic trace and three emphases education 三讲教育 developed their own derivatives or compounds, which have (7) About reform and opening up largely enhanced their expression capacity. Four Modernizations 四化 Similarly, some original English words have undergone special economic zone 经济特区 semantic regeneration when used in the Chinese context. In township enterprises 乡镇企业 other words, the regeneration process of English in a new self-employed economy 个体经济 cultural environment will bring about not only new words but expanding domestic demand 扩大内需 also new meanings of the original words. For example, (8) About social phenomena and government projects intellectuals (知识分子 ) in C hina generally includes teachers, laid-off workers 下岗职工 students, and such people as doctors, engineers, journalists---- migrant workers 民工 those who have relatively high education and usually take re-employment project 再就业工程 brainwork as their occupation. In the U.S. and Europe, anti-poverty project 扶贫工程 however, intellectuals only refer to people of high academic status such as professors[9]. So the term covers a much C. Coined words smaller range of people. Another example is With the changing attitude of Chinese people to cross- liberalism(自由主义 ), w h ic h is o rig in a lly a p o litic a l th e o ry cultural communication and open-minded translation view, favoring the freedom and autonomy of individuals and some coined words have appeared as new forms of China obviously positive in the United States, while in China it’s English in recent years. For instance, many buzzwords have totally derogatory because of its association with selfishness popped up in Chinese recording development of the society and egoism. All these are attributed to the two different and changes of people’s way of life, among which cultural contexts the languages used. “geili(给力)” is an typical example. Originated from Fujian dialect, it has become popular since two years ago, used to III. PROBLEMS CONCERNING CHINA ENGLISH VOCABULARY describe something cool or supportive. After the wide spread of the expression among Chinese netizens and across China, Since reform and opening to the outside world, there has its English version was soon created--gelivable. Combining been a dramatic increase in the number of China English the form of pinyin and the English word formation, it keeps words. A Concise Chinese-English Dictionary of Chinese the real meaning in Chinese context best and conforms to the Proper Names and Terms with Zhang Zhengjiu & Yuan English rules, and now widely accepted by Chinese and Xianjun as chief editors published in 1994 has collected overseas media. 30,000 words[10]. For lack of theoretical studies and guidance Another example is the expression “不折腾” in President norms in China English words, the use of them is quite Hujintao’s speech on the 30th Anniversary of Reform and confusing at present. For example,饺子 has different versions Opening up. Several English versions like “don't get in different Chinese-English dictionaries. It is rendered as sidetracked”, “don't sway back and forth”, “no major “dumpling (with meat and vegetable)” in Modern Chinese changes”, “avoid futile actions”, were used by Chinese and English Dictionary (published by Foreign Language Teaching overseas media. Then, it was transliterated as “bu zheteng”, and Research Press in 1988) and Chinese English Dictionary keeping the original form of pinyin, by the press conference (published by Shanghai Jiaotong University Press in 1997), of the State Council. However, a coined phrase “no Z-turn” by but the Chinese English Dictionary (published by Chinese brainstorming of Chinese netizens seemed to be more creative. Dictionary Press in 1997) equates the traditional Chinese food Not only does it keep a similarity in pronunciation between to the Italian “ravioli”. Since the Italian borrowing ravioli can Chinese and English, but it also conveys the connotation of the be accepted by English, why not “jiaozi”? Besides,风水 is Chinese expression vividly. translated as “the location of a house or tomb, supposed to have influence on the fortune of a family; geomantic D. Semantic Changes omen”[11]. However, the Oxford Dictionary of New Words The meanings of words usually don’t remain unchanged (1997) simply use “feng shui”. Another case in point is 太极拳 . whether in a long period of time or in different contexts they It is almost unexceptionally rendered as “shadow boxing” in are used. The changes can result in semantic broadening or China. But as this translation has nothing to do with the narrowing, amelioration or pejoration. These can first be Chinese太极拳 , it seem s hard to be accepted by B ritish and found in many borrowed words. The word “shanghai” with the American people. In contrast, the recently published initial in small letter is used as a verb that means to trick or dictionaries in England and America have included it as “tai force somebody into doing something. It’s from the former chi”[10]. We can see that efforts still need to be made in practice of kidnapping men for compulsory service on a ship solving the above problem. in Shanghai in the days of foreign invasion. Another word First, we should study carefully the word-formation of “cumshaw” borrowed from Fujian dialect with its original English and find the best way to express Chinese culture- meaning “thanks” gradually shifted its meaning to “a tip or bound words so as to realize the value of China English. gratuity”. And “Chinese puzzle”, which originally refers to a
120 International Conference on Arts, Economics and Literature (ICAEL'2012) December 14-15, 2012 Singapore
Chinese scholars have never ceased to explore the ways of REFERENCES Chinese-English translation to introduce Chinese culture to [1] Todd, L. & Hancock, I., International English Usage, Kent: Mackays of foreigners. As for Chinese culture-loaded words, Chinese Chanham Ltd., 1986. Scholars developed several translation methods: translating [2] Kachru, B.B., “The Sacred Cows of English”, English Today, 1988,(16) ,pp.3-8. literally to keep the original image, adopting similar [3] Ge Chuangui, “A Discussion of Problems concerning Translation from expressions in English, solely keeping the meaning and Chinese to English”, Translation News, 1980,(2). translating with annotation. Annotation is applied to the [4] Li Wenzhong, “China English and Chinglish”, Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1993,(4). translation of unique terms especially formed in the Chinese [5] Lauren Asia Hall-Lew, English loan words in Mandarin Chinese, history, like the name of a person, place, time, customs, Standford University, 2002, viewed July 20 2005,
English, or to be more exact, for the standardization of China English.
IV. CONCLUSION
China English results from the combination of Chinese culture and the English language. China English vocabulary provides a vivid picture of Chinese culture, which contributes to cross-cultural communication and enriches the English language. However, further systemization and standardization is still needed to improve our communicative abilities and achieve more intelligibility. Although China English is still in its infancy and there is a long way to go, it is generally accepted and has great significance in both cross-culture communication and linguistic study.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study is supported by Shanghai’s Special Research Fund of Selecting and Cultivating Excellent Young Teachers of Higher Education(No. Gjd10006). Sincere thanks also go to all the authors listed in the reference, which has provided enlightenment and supporting materials to this study.
121