SevScience - Physical Science Summer Series #1
Message from Mr. Severino: CK-12 Welcome to your study of Physical Science! This course serves as a solid foundation for courses in Jeanphysics, Brainard, chemistry, Ph.D. technology, and design-process learning. Through these introductory readings, you will gain insight into some of the careers and fields of human endeavor characterized by the physical sciences.
For your summer assignment, please complete the following points:
1) Thoroughly read each chapter.
2) Complete the review questions at the end of each chapter.These review questions are to be completed electronically. To share your answers with me, you may use Google Docs, your Microsoft Office school account, or email.
3) Later this summer, you will receive links for online quizzes related to the readings in this textbook. These quizzes will be compiled as a major test grade.
4) The due date for all summer assignments is Tuesday, September 1, 2020.
Say Thanks to the Authors If you have any questionsClick about http://www.ck12.org/saythanks this assignment, please do not hesitate to contact me at [email protected].(No sign in required)
I look forward to seeing you in the Fall. Have a safe, enjoyable Summer! Contents www.ck12.org
Contents
1 Introduction to Physical Science1 1.1 Nature of Science...... 2 1.2 Scientific Theory ...... 6 1.3 Scientific Law...... 9 1.4 History of Science...... 11 1.5 Ethics in Science ...... 15 1.6 Scope of Physical Science...... 18 1.7 Scope of Chemistry...... 20 1.8 Scope of Physics...... 23 1.9 Physical Science Careers ...... 26 1.10 Nature of Technology...... 28 1.11 Technological Design Process...... 31 1.12 Technological Design Constraints...... 34 1.13 Technology and Science...... 36 1.14 Technology and Society...... 39 1.15 Technology Careers...... 42 1.16 References...... 44
iv www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Physical Science CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Physical Science
Chapter Outline
1.1 NATURE OF SCIENCE
1.2 SCIENTIFIC THEORY
1.3 SCIENTIFIC LAW
1.4 HISTORYOF SCIENCE
1.5 ETHICSIN SCIENCE
1.6 SCOPEOF PHYSICAL SCIENCE
1.7 SCOPEOF CHEMISTRY
1.8 SCOPEOF PHYSICS
1.9 PHYSICAL SCIENCE CAREERS
1.10 NATURE OF TECHNOLOGY
1.11 TECHNOLOGICAL DESIGN PROCESS
1.12 TECHNOLOGICAL DESIGN CONSTRAINTS
1.13 TECHNOLOGYAND SCIENCE
1.14 TECHNOLOGYAND SOCIETY
1.15 TECHNOLOGY CAREERS
1.16 REFERENCES
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Introduction
Are you curious about other planets? Did you ever wish you could explore them like the Mars rover in this picture? If so, then you’re thinking like a scientist. Scientists are curious about things in nature, and they do investigations to better understand them. They often use technology—from microscopes to Mars rovers—to extend their own senses so they can learn even more. In this unit, you’ll read about how scientists think and how they investigate and explore the natural world.
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1.1 Nature of Science
Learning Objectives
• Define science. • State the goal of science. • Describe how science advances.
Does the word science make you think of high-tech labs and researchers in white coats like the ones in this picture? This is often an accurate image of science but not always. If you look up science in a dictionary, you would find that it comes from a Latin word that means “having knowledge.” However, this isn’t an adequate definition either.
What is Science?
Science is more about gaining knowledge than it is about simply having knowledge. Science is a way of learning about the natural world that is based on evidence and logic. In other words, science is a process, not just a body of facts. Through the process of science, our knowledge of the world advances.
The Goal of Science
Scientists may focus on very different aspects of the natural world. For example, some scientists focus on the world of tiny objects, such as atoms and molecules. Other scientists devote their attention to huge objects, such as the sun and other stars. But all scientists have at least one thing in common. They want to understand how and why things happen. Achieving this understanding is the goal of science. Have you ever experienced the thrill of an exciting fireworks show like the one pictured in the Figure? Fireworks show how the goal of science leads to discovery. Fireworks were invented at least 2000 years ago in China, but
3 1.1. Nature of Science www.ck12.org explaining how and why they work didn’t happen until much later. It wasn’t until scientists had learned about elements and chemical reactions that they could explain what caused fireworks to create brilliant bursts of light and deep rumbling booms.
FIGURE 1.1 Fireworks were invented long before sci- entists could actually explain how and why they explode.
How Science Advances
Sometimes learning about science is frustrating because scientific knowledge is always changing. But that’s also what makes science exciting. Occasionally, science moves forward in giant steps. More commonly, however, science advances in baby steps. Giant steps in science may occur if a scientist introduces a major new idea. For example, in 1666, Isaac Newton introduced the idea that gravity is universal. People had long known that things fall to the ground because they are attracted by Earth. But Newton proposed that everything in the universe exerts a force of attraction on everything else. This idea is known as Newton’s law of universal gravitation. Q: How do you think Newton’s law of universal gravitation might have influenced the advancement of science? A: Newton’s law allowed scientists to understand many different phenomena. It explains not only why things always fall down toward the ground or roll downhill. It also explains the motion of many other objects. For example, it explains why planets orbit the sun. The idea of universal gravity even helped scientists discover the planets Neptune and Pluto. The caption and diagram in the Figure explain how. Baby steps in science occur as small bits of evidence gradually accumulate. The accumulating evidence lets scientists refine and expand on earlier ideas. For example, the scientific idea of the atom was introduced in the early 1800s. But scientists came to understand the structure of the atom only as evidence accumulated over the next two centuries. Their understanding of atomic structure continues to expand today. The advancement of science is sometimes a very bumpy road. New knowledge and ideas aren’t always accepted at first, and scientists may be mocked for their ideas. The idea that Earth’s continents drift on the planet’s surface
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FIGURE 1.2 In the early 1800s, astronomers noticed a wobble in Uranus’ orbit around the sun. They predicted that the wobble was caused by the pull of gravity of an- other, not-yet-discovered planet. Scien- tists searched the skies for the “missing” planet. When they discovered Neptune in 1846, they thought they had found their missing planet. After the astronomers took into account the effects of Neptune’s gravity, they saw that Uranus still had an unexplained wobble. They predicted that there must be another planet beyond Neptune. That planet, now called Pluto, was finally discovered in 1930. Of special note, as of 2006, the International Astro- nomical Union (IAU) demoted Pluto from its planet status as it does not meet one of the criteria for planetary standards.
is a good example. This idea was first proposed by a scientist named Alfred Wegener in the early 1900s. Wegener also proposed that all of the present continents had once formed one supercontinent, which he named Pangaea. You can see a sketch of Pangaea in Figure. Other scientists not only rejected Wegener’s ideas, but ridiculed Wegener for even suggesting them. It wasn’t until the 1950s that enough evidence had accumulated for scientists to realize that Wegener had been right. Unfortunately, Wegener did not live long enough to see his ideas accepted. Q: What types of evidence might support Wegener’s ideas? A: Several types of evidence support Wegener’s ideas. For example, similar fossils and rock formations have been found on continents that are now separated by oceans. It is also now known that Earth’s crust consists of rigid plates that slide over molten rock below them. This explains how continents can drift. Even the shapes of today’s continents show how they once fit together, like pieces of a giant jigsaw puzzle.
Summary
• Science is a way of learning about the natural world that is based on evidence and logic. • The goal of science is to understand how and why things happen. • Science advances as new evidence accumulates and allows scientists to replace, refine, or expand on accepted ideas about the natural world.
Review
1. Define science. 2. What is the goal of science?
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FIGURE 1.3 This map shows the supercontinent Pan- gaea, which was first proposed by Al- fred Wegener. Pangaea included all of the separate continents we know today. Scientists now know that the individual continents drifted apart to their present locations over millions of years.
3. Use examples to show how science may advance.
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1.2 Scientific Theory
Learning Objectives
• Define scientific theory. • Compare "theory" to "scientific theory." • Describe important theories of physical science. • Relate the law of parsimony to scientific theories.
The term theory is used differently in science than it is used in everyday language. A scientific theory is a broad explanation that is widely accepted because it is supported by a great deal of evidence. Because it is so well supported, a scientific theory has a very good chance of being a correct explanation for events in nature. Because it is a broad explanation, it can explain many observations and pieces of evidence. In other words, it can help connect and make sense of many phenomena in the natural world.
Examples of Theories in Physical Science
A number of theories in science were first proposed many decades or even centuries ago, but they have withstood the test of time. An example of a physical science theory that has mainly withstood the test of time is Dalton’s atomic theory. John Dalton was a British chemist who lived in the late 1700s and early 1800s. Around 1800, he published his atomic theory, which is one of the most important theories in science. According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all substances consist of tiny particles called atoms. Furthermore, all the atoms of a given element are identical, whereas the atoms of different elements are always different. These parts of Dalton’s atomic theory are still accepted today, although some other details of his theory have since been disproven. Dalton based his theory on many pieces of evidence. For example, he studied many substances called compounds. These are substances that consist of two or more different elements. Dalton determined that a given compound always consists of the same elements in exactly the same proportions, no matter how small the sample of the compound. This idea is illustrated for the compound water in the Figure. Dalton concluded from this evidence that elements must be made up of tiny particles in order to always combine in the same specific proportions in any given compound. Q: Dalton thought that atoms are the smallest particles of matter. Scientists now know that atoms are composed of even smaller particles. Does this mean that the rest of Dalton’s atomic theory should be thrown out? A: The discovery of particles smaller than atoms doesn’t mean that we should scrap the entire theory. Atoms are still known to be the smallest particles of elements that have the properties of the elements. Also, it is atoms—not particles of atoms—that combine in fixed proportions in compounds. Instead of throwing out Dalton’s theory, scientists have refined and expanded on it. There are many other important physical science theories. Here are three more examples:
• Einstein’s theory of gravity • Kinetic theory of matter • Wave-particle theory of light
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FIGURE 1.4 Water is a compound that consists of the elements hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). Like other compounds, the smallest particles of water are called molecules. Each molecule of water (H2O) contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
Keep It Simple
The formation of scientific theories is generally guided by the law of parsimony. The word parsimony means “thriftiness.” The law of parsimony states that, when choosing between competing theories, you should select the theory that makes the fewest assumptions. In other words, the simpler theory is more likely to be correct. For example, you probably know that Earth and the other planets of our solar system orbit around the sun. But several centuries ago, it was believed that Earth is at the center of the solar system and the other planets orbit around Earth. While it is possible to explain the movement of planets according to this theory, the explanation is unnecessarily complex. Q: Why do you think parsimony is an important characteristic of scientific theories? A: The more assumptions that must be made to form a scientific theory, the more chances there are for the theory to be incorrect. If one assumption is wrong, so is the theory. Conversely, the theory that makes the fewest assumptions, assuming it is well supported by evidence, is most likely to be correct.
Summary
• A scientific theory is a broad explanation that is widely accepted because it is supported by a great deal of evidence. • Examples of theories in physical science include Dalton’s atomic theory, Einstein’s theory of gravity, and the kinetic theory of matter. • The formation of scientific theories is generally guided by the law of parsimony. According to this law, the simplest of competing theories is most likely to be correct.
Review
1. What is a scientific theory? 2. Compare and contrast how the term theory is used in science and in everyday language. 3. Identify two physical science theories.
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1.3 Scientific Law
Learning Objectives
• Define scientific law. • Compare scientific laws to scientific theories. • Discuss scientific laws of physical science. • Describe the place of laws in science.
Did you ever drive a bumper car like the one pictured here? As you drive around the track, other drivers try to bump into your car and push it out of the way. When another car bumps into yours, both cars may bounce back from the collision. The harder the two cars collide, the farther back they bounce.
It’s the Law
It may seem like common sense that bumper cars change their motion when they collide. That’s because all objects behave this way - it’s the law! A scientific law, called Newton’s third law of motion, states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Thus, when one bumper car acts by ramming another, one or both cars react by pushing apart. Q: What are some other examples of Newton’s third law of motion? What actions are always followed by reactions? A: Other examples of actions and reactions include hitting a ball with a bat and the ball bouncing back; and pushing a swing and the swing moving away.
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Laws in Science
Newton’s third law of motion is just one of many scientific laws. A scientific law is a statement describing what always happens under certain conditions. Other examples of laws in physical science include:
• Newton’s first law of motion • Newton’s second law of motion • Newton’s law of universal gravitation • Law of conservation of mass • Law of conservation of energy • Law of conservation of momentum
Laws vs. Theories
Scientific laws state what always happen. This can be very useful. It can let you let you predict what will happen under certain circumstances. For example, Newton’s third law tells you that the harder you hit a softball with a bat, the faster and farther the ball will travel away from the bat. However, scientific laws have a basic limitation. They don’t explain why things happen. “Why” questions are answered by scientific theories, not scientific laws. Q: You know that the sun always sets in the west. This could be expressed as a scientific law. Think of something else that always happens in nature. How could you express it as a scientific law? A: Something else that always happens in nature is water flowing downhill rather than uphill. This could be expressed as the law, “When water flows over a hill, it always flows from a higher to a lower elevation.”
Summary
• A scientific law is a statement describing what always happens under certain conditions. Newton’s three laws of motion are examples of laws in physical science. • A scientific law states what always happens but not why it happens. Scientific theories answer “why” questions.
Review
1. Define scientific law. 2. Identify three laws in physical science. 3. Which of these statements could be a scientific law? a. Metals such as copper conduct electric current. b. Metals can conduct electricity because they have free electrons. 4. How is a scientific law different from a scientific theory? 5. Contrast scientific laws with traffic laws or other laws devised by people.
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1.4 History of Science
Learning Objectives
• Explain what is meant by the "evolution of science." • Summarize the evolution of science. • Identify major contributions in the history of science.
Who is this man with the wild white hair?
Could he be an aging rock star? He’s not a famous musician, but he’s just as famous as many celebrities. His name is Albert Einstein, and he’s arguably the most important scientist of the 20th century. Einstein really shook up science with his discoveries in the early 1900s. That may sound like a long time ago, but in terms of the history of science, it’s as though it was only yesterday.
Evolution of Science
People have probably wondered about the natural world for as long as there have been people. So it’s no surprise that science has roots that go back thousands of years. Some of the earliest contributions to science were made by Greek philosophers more than two thousand years ago. It wasn’t until many centuries later, however, that the scientific method and experimentation were introduced. The dawn of modern science occurred even more recently. It is generally traced back to the scientific revolution, which took place in Europe starting in the 1500s.
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In the Beginning
A Greek philosopher named Thales, who lived around 600 BCE, has been called the “father of science” for his ideas about the natural world. He proposed that natural events such as lightning and earthquakes have natural causes. Up until then, people understood such events to be the acts of gods or other supernatural forces. Q: Why was Thales’ idea about natural causes such an important contribution to science? A: Natural causes can be investigated and understood, whereas gods or other supernatural causes are “above nature” and not suitable for investigation. Just a few hundred years after Thales, the Greek philosopher Aristotle made a very important contribution to science. You can see what Aristotle looked like below. Prior to Aristotle, other philosophers believed that they could find the truth about the natural world by inward reflection—in other words, just by thinking about it. Aristotle, in contrast, thought that truth about the natural world could come only from observations of nature and inductive reasoning. He argued that knowledge of nature must be based on evidence and logic. This idea is called empiricism, and it is the basis of science today.
FIGURE 1.5 Aristotle introduced the idea of empiricism around 350 BCE. It is a hallmark of modern science.
Introducing the Scientific Method
In the first 1000 years CE, Europe went through a period called the Dark Ages. Science and learning in general were all but abandoned. However, in other parts of the world science flourished. During this period, some of the most important contributions to science were made by Persian scholars. For example, during the 700s CE, a Persian scientist named Geber introduced the scientific method and experimentation in chemistry. His ideas and methods were later adopted by European chemists. Today, Geber is known as the “father of chemistry.”
Modern Western Science Emerges
Starting in the mid-1500s, a scientific revolution occurred in Europe. This was the beginning of modern Western science. Many scientific advances were made during a period of just a couple of hundred years. The revolution in science began when Copernicus made the first convincing arguments that the sun—not Earth—is the center of what we now call the solar system. This was a drastic shift in thinking about Earth’s place in the cosmos. Around 1600, the Italian scientist Galileo greatly improved the telescope, which had just been invented, and made many important discoveries in the field of astronomy. Some of Galileo’s observations provided additional evidence for Copernicus’ sun-centered solar system.
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FIGURE 1.6 The model on the left shows what people believed about the solar system before Copernicus introduced the model on the right.
Q: Copernicus’ ideas about the solar system were so influential that the scientific revolution is sometimes called the “Copernican revolution.” Why do you think Copernicus’ ideas led to a revolution in science? A: Copernicus’ ideas about the solar system are considered to be the starting point of modern astronomy. They changed how all future scientists interpreted observations in astronomy. They also led to a flurry of new scientific investigation. Other contributions to science that occurred during the scientific revolution include:
• Kepler’s laws of planetary motion • Newton’s law of universal gravitation • Newton’s three laws of motion
Einstein Rocks Science
Another major shift in science occurred with the work of Albert Einstein (the “rock star” scientist pictured in the opening image). In 1916, Einstein published his general theory of relativity. This theory relates matter and energy. It also explains gravity as a property of space and time (rather than a property of matter as Newton thought). Einstein’s theory has been supported by all evidence and observations to date, whereas Newton’s law of gravity does not apply to all cases. Einstein’s theory is still the accepted explanation for gravity today. Q: How might Einstein’s theory have influenced the course of science? A: Einstein’s theory suggested new areas of investigation. Many predictions based on the theory were later found to be true. For example, black holes in the universe were predicted by Einstein’s theory and later confirmed by scientific evidence.
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Summary
• Science has roots that go back thousands of years to Greek philosophers including Thales and Aristotle. • The scientific method was introduced in the 700s by a Persian scientist named Geber. • Modern science began with the scientific revolution in Europe the 1500s and 1600s. The scientific revolution was launched by Copernicus’ new ideas about the solar system. • In the early 1900s, Einstein rocked science with his theory of gravity, which explained the concept in an entirely new way.
Review
1. Why is Thales called the “father of science”? 2. What is empiricism? Who “invented” this important idea? 3. Describe Geber’s role in the history of science. 4. Relate Copernicus’ ideas about the solar system to the scientific revolution. 5. How did Einstein rock science?
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1.5 Ethics in Science
Learning Objectives
• Define ethics. • Identify ethical rules in science. • Describe how scientific knowledge might influence everyday ethical decisions.
Believe it or not, the tree bark in this photo contains a revolutionary anti-cancer drug. For almost a decade after the drug was discovered, the trees, called Pacific yews, were stripped of their bark so chemists could extract the drug for cancer patients. Stripping the bark harmed the trees. This situation posed an ethical problem.
What Is Ethics?
Ethics refers to deciding what’s right and what’s wrong. Making ethical decisions involves weighing right and wrong in order to make the best choice. The ethical problem of the Pacific yew has both right and wrong aspects. It’s right to save lives with the cancer drug that comes from the tree bark, but it’s wrong to endanger the tree and risk its extinction. Q: What do you think is the most ethical decision about the Pacific yew? Should the bark be used to make the drug and possibly save human lives? Or should this be prohibited in order to protect the tree from possible extinction? A: This is tough ethical dilemma, and there is no right or wrong answer. Ethical dilemmas such as this often spur scientists to come up with new solutions to problems. That’s what happened in the case of the Pacific yew. Scientists tackled and solved the problem of determining the chemical structure of the anti-cancer drug so it could
16 www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Physical Science be synthesized in labs. This is a win-win solution to the problem. The synthetic drug is now available to save lives, and the trees are no longer endangered by being stripped of their bark.
Ethical Rules in Science
Ethics is an important consideration in science. Scientific investigations must be guided by what is right and what is wrong. That’s where ethical rules come in. They help ensure that science is done safely and that scientific knowledge is reliable. Here are some of the ethical rules that scientists must follow:
• Scientific research must be reported honestly. It is wrong and misleading to make up or change research results. • Scientific researchers must try to see things as they really are. They should avoid being biased by the results they expect or hope to get. • Researchers must be careful. They should do whatever they can to avoid errors in their data. • Researchers must inform coworkers and members of the community about any risks of their research. They should do the research only if they have the consent of these groups. • Researchers studying living animals must treat them humanely. They should provide for their needs and take pains to avoid harming them. • Researchers studying human subjects must tell their subjects that they have the right to refuse to participate in the research. Human subjects also must be fully informed about their role in the research, including any potential risks. You can read about a terrible violation of this ethical rule in the Figure.
FIGURE 1.7 From the 1930s to 1970s, medical re- searchers (including the one pictured here) studied the progression of a seri- ous disease in hundreds of poor men in Alabama. They told the men they were simply receiving free medical care. They never told the men that they had the dis- ease, nor were the men treated for the disease when a cure was discovered in the 1940s. Instead, the study continued for another 25 years. It came to an end only when a whistleblower made it a front- page story around the nation.
Science and Everyday Ethical Decisions
Sometimes, science can help people make ethical decisions in their own lives. For example, scientific evidence shows that certain human actions—such as driving cars that burn gasoline—are contributing to changes in Earth’s climate. This, in turn, is causing more severe weather and the extinction of many species. A number of ethical decisions might be influenced by this scientific knowledge. Q: For example, should people avoid driving cars to work or school because it contributes to climate change and the serious problems associated with it? What if driving is the only way to get there? Can you think of an ethical solution?
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A: This example shows that ethical decisions may not be all or nothing. For example, rather than driving alone, people might carpool with others. This would reduce their impact on climate change. They could also try to reduce their impact in other ways. For example, they might turn down their thermostat in cold weather so their furnace burns less fuel.
Summary
• Ethics refers to deciding what’s right and what’s wrong. • Scientific investigations must be guided by ethical rules. The rules help ensure that science is done safely and that scientific knowledge is reliable. • Sometimes science can help people make ethical decisions in their own lives, but other factors usually must be considered as well.
Review
1. What is ethics? 2. List two ethical rules in science. 3. Think of a personal decision a young person might have to make. Identify the “rights” and “wrongs” of possible choices, and explain which choice you think is more ethical.
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1.6 Scope of Physical Science
Learning Objectives
• Define physical science. • Define chemistry and physics. • Discuss ways people depend on physical science.
Unless you’re a competitive swimmer like the athletes in the picture, you probably don’t wear a full-body swimsuit. The swimsuit was designed to help a swimmer glide smoothly through the water without restricting body movements. The suit is made of two synthetic fibers: nylon, which is very smooth, lightweight, and durable; and spandex, which is very stretchy. This is just one example of the many ways that sports gear, equipment, and performance have been improved by physical science.
What Is Physical Science?
Physical science is the study of matter and energy. That covers a lot of territory because matter refers to all the “stuff” that exists in the universe. It includes everything you can see and many things that you cannot see, including the air around you. Energy is also universal. It’s what gives matter the ability to move and change. Electricity, heat, and light are some of the forms that energy can take.
Chemistry and Physics
Physical science, in turn, can be divided into chemistry and physics. Chemistry is the study of matter and energy at the scale of atoms and molecules. For example, the synthetic fibers in the swimmer’s suit were created in labs by
19 1.6. Scope of Physical Science www.ck12.org chemists. Physics is the study of matter and energy at all scales—from the tiniest particles of matter to the entire universe. Knowledge of several important physics concepts—such as motion and forces—contributed to the design of the swimmer’s suit. Q: It’s not just athletes that depend on physical science. We all do. What might be some ways that physical science influences our lives? A: We depend on physical science for just about everything that makes modern life possible. You couldn’t turn on a light, make a phone call, or use a computer without centuries of discoveries in chemistry and physics.
Summary
• Physical science is the study of matter and energy. It includes chemistry and physics. • We depend on centuries of discoveries in physical science for just about everything we do.
Review
1. Outline the scope of physical science. 2. Describe some ways that physical science influences your own life.
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1.7 Scope of Chemistry
Learning Objectives
• Define chemistry. • Give examples of chemistry in everyday life.
The Statue of Liberty, pictured above, is an icon of America and freedom. The statue is made of steel and covered with a thin layer of copper, the same type of matter that pennies are made of. Copper is a brownish red metal, so why is the statue green? Chemistry, which is a branch of physical science, has the answer.
What Is Chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of matter and energy and how they interact, mainly at the level of atoms and molecules. Basic concepts in chemistry include chemicals, which are specific types of matter, and chemical reactions. In a chemical reaction, atoms or molecules of certain types of matter combine chemically to form other types of matter. All chemical reactions involve energy. Q: How do you think chemistry explains why the copper on the Statue of Liberty is green instead of brownish red? A: The copper has become tarnished. The tarnish—also called patina—is a compound called copper carbonate, which is green. Copper carbonate forms when copper undergoes a chemical reaction with carbon dioxide in moist air. The green patina that forms on copper actually preserves the underlying metal. That’s why it’s not removed from the statue. Some people also think that the patina looks attractive.
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Chemistry and You
Chemistry can help you understand the world around you. Everything you touch, taste, or smell is made of chemicals, and chemical reactions underlie many common changes. For example, chemistry explains how food cooks, why laundry detergent cleans your clothes, and why antacid tablets relieve an upset stomach. Other examples are illustrated in the Figure. Chemistry even explains you! Your body is made of chemicals, and chemical changes constantly take place within it.
FIGURE 1.8 Each of these pictures represents a way that chemicals and chemical reactions af- fect our lives.
Summary
• Chemistry is the study of matter and energy and how they interact, mainly at the level of atoms and molecules. Basic concepts in chemistry include chemicals and chemical reactions. • Chemistry can help you understand the world around you. Everything you touch, taste, or smell is a chemical, and chemical reactions underlie many common changes.
Review
1. What is chemistry?
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2. Describe three ways that chemistry is important in your life.
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1.8 Scope of Physics
Learning Objectives
• Identify the scope of physics. • Describe ways that physics explains the world around you.
Did you ever look at your reflection in a funhouse mirror? That’s what the person in this picture is doing. This type of mirror distorts your features in silly ways. Do you know how a mirror like this one works? Physics, which is a branch of physical science, can explain it.
The Scope of Physics
Physics is the study of energy, matter, and their interactions. It’s a very broad field because it is concerned with matter and energy at all levels—from the most fundamental particles of matter to the entire universe. Some people would even argue that physics is the study of everything! Important concepts in physics include motion, forces such as magnetism and gravity, and forms of energy such as light, sound, and electrical energy. Q: How do you think physics explains the distorted images formed by a funhouse mirror? A: Physics explains how energy interacts with matter. In this case, for example, physics explains how visible light reflects from mirrors to form images. Most mirrors, such as bathroom mirrors, have a flat surface. Light reflected from a flat mirror forms an image that looks the same as the object in front of it. Funhouse mirrors, like the one pictured above, are different. They have a curved surface that reflects light at different angles. This explains why the images they form are distorted.
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Physics in the World Around You
Physics can help you understand just about everything in the world around you. That’s because everything around you consists of matter and energy. Several examples of matter and energy interacting are pictured in the Figure. Read how physics explains each example.
FIGURE 1.9 Examples of how matter and energy interact.
Q: Based on the examples in Figure, what might be other examples of energy and matter interacting? A: Like the strings of cello, anything that vibrates produces waves of energy that travel through matter. For example, when you throw a pebble into a pond, waves of energy travel from the pebble through the water in all directions. Like an incandescent light bulb, anything that glows consists of matter that produces light energy. For example, fireflies use chemicals to produce light energy. Like a moving tennis racket, anything that moves has energy because it is moving, including your eyes as they read this sentence.
Summary
• Physics is the study of energy, matter, and their interactions. It is concerned with matter and energy at all levels—from the most fundamental particles of matter to the entire universe. • Physics can help you understand just about everything in the world around you. That’s because everything around you is matter and has energy.
Review
1. Outline the scope of physics.
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2. Describe three examples of interacting matter and energy in the world around you.
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1.9 Physical Science Careers
Learning Objectives
• Identify and describe several physical science careers.
Imagine floating in space outside the International Space Station, like the astronaut pictured here. What an exciting career! Did you ever want to become an astronaut? A good place to start is by getting a degree in physical science.
Studying Physical Science
Physical science is the study of matter and energy. It includes the sciences of chemistry and physics. Most careers in physical science require a 4-year college degree in one of these fields. Some careers require more advanced education as well. For example, an astronaut might have a master’s degree or even a doctoral degree. Q: Besides becoming an astronaut, a degree in physical science can prepare you for many other careers. What careers do you think might be available to people with degrees in physical science? A: People with degrees in physical science might become pharmacists, forensic technicians, or research scientists, to name just three possible careers. Four additional careers in physical science are described below.
Careers in Chemistry and Physics
Training in the physical science field of chemistry or physics is needed for the careers described in the Figure 1.10. Do any of these careers interest you?
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FIGURE 1.10 These careers in chemistry and physics vary in the level of education they require.
Summary
• Physical science includes the fields of chemistry and physics. Most careers in physical science require a minimum of 4 years of college in one of these fields. • Examples of careers in physical science include pharmacist, laboratory supervisor, teacher, and surveyor.
There are no review questions for this section.
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1.10 Nature of Technology
Learning Objectives
• Define technology. • Outline how technology evolves.
The odd-looking boat in this picture was made entirely from recycled plastic bottles. That’s unusual enough, but how the boat was made is even more unusual. Would you believe that it was created by a printer? Of course, it wasn’t a printer like the one you might have on your desk to print school papers. It was a special 3-D printer. This type of printer forms an object, layer by layer, by spraying a fine powder of plastic or metal instead of toner. It sprays the powder in a pattern directed by a computer program. A laser beam melts the powder, which then hardens.
What Is Technology?
Printers like the one that made the plastic bicycle are a new type of technology. Technology is the application of science to solve problems. Because technology finds solutions to practical problems, new technologies may have major impacts on society, science, and industry. For example, some people predict that 3-D printing will revolutionize manufacturing. Q: Making products with 3-D printers has several advantages over making them with machines in factories. What do you think some of the advantages might be? A: Making products with 3-D printers would allow anyone anywhere to make just about anything, provided they have the printer, powder, and computer program. Suppose, for example, that you live in a remote location and need a new part for your car. The solution? Just download the design on your computer and print the part on your 3-D printer.
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Manufacturing would no longer require specially designed machines in factories that produce pollution. Another advantage of using 3-D printers to make products is that no materials are wasted. This would lower manufacturing costs as well as save natural resources.
How Technology Evolves
New technologies such as 3-D printers often evolve slowly as new materials, designs, or processes are invented. Solar-powered cars are a good example. For several decades, researchers have been working on developing practical solar-powered cars. Why? Cars powered by sunlight have at least two important advantages over gas-powered cars. The energy they use is free and available almost everywhere, and they produce no pollution. The timeline in Table shows some of the milestones in the evolution of solar-powered cars.
TABLE 1.1: Evolution of Solar-Powered Cars
Milestone 1954: First modern solar cell The first modern solar cell was invented in 1954 by a team of researchers at Bell Labs in the U.S. It could convert light energy to enough electricity to power devices. 1955: First solar car In 1955, William G. Cobb of General Motors demon- strated his 15-inch-long “Sunmobile,” the world’s first solar-powered automobile. Its tiny electric motor was powered by 12 solar cells on top of the car. 1983: First practical solar car In 1983, the first drivable solar car was created by Hans Tholstrup, a Danish inventor who was influenced by the earlier Sunmobile. Called the “Quiet Achiever,” Tholstrup’s car was driven 4000 km across Australia. However, its average speed was only 23 km/h, despite having more than 700 solar cells on its top panel. 1987: First World Solar Challenge Inspired by his success with the Quiet Achiever, in 1987 Tholstrup launched the first World Solar Chal- lenge. This was the world’s first solar car race. The race is now held every other year. In that first race, the winner was General Motors’ “Sunraycer,” shown here. It had an average speed of 67 km/h. Its aerodynamic shape helped it achieve that speed. 2008: First Commercial solar car In 2008, the first commercial solar car was introduced. Called the Venturi Astrolab, it has a top speed of 120 km/h. To go this fast while using very little energy, it is built of ultra-light materials. Its oversized body protects the driver in case of collision and provides a lot of surface area for solar cells.
Q: Why was the invention of the solar cell important to the evolution of solar car technology? A: The solar car could not exist without the solar cell. This invention provided a way to convert light energy to electricity that could be used to run a device such as a car. Q: The 1955 “Sunmobile” was just a model car. It was too small for people to drive. Why was it an important achievement in the evolution of solar car technology?
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A: The car wasn’t practical, but it was a working solar car. It showed people that solar car technology is possible. It spurred others, including Hans Tholstrup, to work on solar cars that people could actually drive. Q: How have the World Solar Challenge races influenced the development of solar cars? A: The races have drawn a lot of attention to solar car development. The challenge of winning a race has also stimulated developers to keep improving the performance of solar cars so they can go faster and farther on solar power alone.
Summary
• Technology is the application of science to solve practical problems. • Technology evolves as new materials, designs, and processes are invented.
Review
1. What is technology? 2. Explain how technology evolves, using examples from the development of solar-powered cars.
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1.11 Technological Design Process
Learning Objectives
• Define technological design. • List the steps of the technological design process.
This giant six-limbed robot is NASA’s Tri-ATHLETE. As the robot’s name suggests, it is very “athletic.” It was designed to do the heavy lifting in explorations of other planets and moons in the universe. The Tri (“three”) part of its name refers to the fact that the robot can split into two separate three-limbed robots. These smaller robots can do things that the larger, six-limbed robot can’t.
What Is Technological Design?
The process in which tri-ATHLETE was created and perfected is called technological design. This is the process in which most new technologies are developed. Technological design is similar to scientific investigation. Both processes rely on evidence and reason, and follow a logical sequence of steps to solve problems or answer questions. The process of designing a new technology includes much more than just coming up with a good idea. Possible limitations, or constraints, on the design must be taken into account. These might include factors such as the cost or safety of the new product or process. Making and testing a model of the design are also important. These steps ensure that the design actually works to solve the problem. This process also gives the designer a chance to find problems and modify the design if necessary. No solution is perfect, but testing and refining a design assures that the technology will provide a workable solution to the problem it is intended to solve.
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Steps of the Technological Design Process
The technological design process can be broken down into the series of steps shown in the flowchart in Figure 1.11. Typically, some of the steps have to be repeated, and the steps may not always be done in the sequence shown.
FIGURE 1.11 This flowchart illustrates the steps of the technological design process.
Consider the problem of developing a solar-powered car. Many questions would have to be researched in the design process. For example, what is the best shape for gathering the sun’s rays? How will sunlight be converted to useable energy to run the car? Will a back-up energy source be needed? After researching the answers, possible designs are developed. This generally takes imagination as well as sound reasoning. Then a model must be designed and tested. This allows any problems with the design to be worked out before a final design is selected and produced. Q: Assume you want to design a product that lets a person in a wheelchair carry around small personal items so they are easy to access. What questions might you research first? A: You might research questions such as: What personal items are people likely to need to carry with them? What types of carriers or holders are there that might be modified for use by people in a wheelchair? Where might a carrier be attached to a wheelchair or person in a wheelchair without interfering with the operation of the chair or hindering the person? Q: Suppose you have come up with a possible solution to the problem described in the previous question. How might you make a model of your idea? How could you test your model? A: First, you might make a sketch of your idea. Then you could make an inexpensive model using simple materials such as cardboard, newspaper, tape, or string. You could test your model by trying to carry several personal items in it while maneuvering around a room in a wheelchair. You would also want to make sure that you could do things like open doors, turn on light switches, and get in and out of the chair without the carrier getting in the way.
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Summary
• Technological design is the process in which new technology is developed. • Steps of the technological design process include: identify a problem, research the problem, generate possible solutions, select the best solution, create a model, test the model, refine and retest the model as needed, and communicate the final solution.
Review
1. What is technological design? 2. How is technological design similar to scientific investigation? 3. List the steps of the technological design process.
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1.12 Technological Design Constraints
Learning Objectives
• Give examples of physical and social constraints on technological design. • Explain why all technological designs have trade-offs.
Look at the colorful kites in this picture. Did you ever fly a kite? Do you think you could make one? What shape would you make it? What materials would you use? How would you design it?
Constraints on Design
The development of new technology—whether it’s a simple kite or a complex machine—is called technological design. The technological design process is a step-by-step approach to finding a solution to a problem. Often, the main challenge in technological design is finding a solution that works within the constraints, or limits, on the design. All technological designs have constraints. Q: Assume you want to design a kite. What might be some constraints on your design? A: Possible constraints might include the shape and size of the kite and the materials you use to make it.
Physical and Social Constraints
Technological design constraints may be physical or social.
• Physical design constraints include factors such as natural laws and properties of materials. A kite, for example, will fly only if its shape allows air currents to lift it. Otherwise, gravity will keep it on the ground.
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• Social design constraints include factors such as ease of use, safety, attractiveness, and cost. For example, a kite string should be easy to unwind as the wind carries the kite higher.
Weighing the Options
All technological designs have trade-offs because no design is perfect. For example, a design might be very good at solving a problem, but it might be too expensive to be practical. Or a design might be very attractive, but it might not be safe to use. Choosing the best design often involves weighing the pros and cons of different options and deciding which ones are most important. Q: What trade-offs might there be on the design of a kite? A: You might want to make a big kite, but if it’s too big it might be too heavy. Then it would fly only on very windy days. Or you might want to make a kite using a certain material that you really like, but the material might cost more than you can afford to spend.
Summary
• All technological designs have constraints, or limits, on the design. • Physical design constraints include factors such as natural laws and properties of materials. Social design constraints include factors such as ease of use, safety, attractiveness, and cost. • All technological designs have trade-offs because no design is perfect. Choosing the best design involves weighing the pros and cons of different options.
Review
1. What are technological design constraints? 2. Give examples of physical and social design constraints. 3. Why do all technological designs have trade-offs? What is an example?
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1.13 Technology and Science
Learning Objectives
• Explain how technology and science are related. • Give examples of ways that technology and science help each other advance.
This incredible image was made by the Hubble space telescope. The image is called Pillars of Creation. It shows the actual formation of stars in distant space. The Hubble telescope is a very powerful telescope that orbits Earth like a satellite. Scientists placed the Hubble telescope into space so it could make clear images like this without background lights on Earth competing with the dim light from distant stars. It has led to many scientific discoveries.
How Technology and Science Are Related
The Hubble space telescope shows that technology and science are closely related. Technology uses science to solve problems, and science uses technology to make new discoveries. However, technology and science have different goals. The goal of science is to answer questions and increase knowledge. The goal of technology is to find solutions to practical problems. Although they have different goals, science and technology work hand in hand, and each helps the other advance. Scientific knowledge is used to create new technologies such as the space telescope. New technologies often allow scientists to explore nature in new ways.
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How Technology Revolutionized Science
The Hubble telescope was put into orbit around Earth in the 1990s, but scientists have been using telescopes to make discoveries for hundreds of years. The first telescope was invented in the early 1600s. The inventor was probably a Dutch lens maker named Hans Lippershey. He and his telescope are pictured in Figure. Lippershey used scientific knowledge of the properties of light and lenses to design his telescope.
FIGURE 1.12 Hans Lippershey is credited with making the first practical telescope in 1608. He is pictured here using his invention to view distant objects. Officials of the Dutch government recognized the importance of Lippershey’s invention. They gave him a generous sum of money for his design.
Lippershey’s new technology quickly spread all over Europe. Almost immediately, the Italian scientist and inventor Galileo started working to improve Lippershey’s design. In just two years, Galileo had made a more powerful telescope. It could make very distant objects visible to the human eye. The Figure shows Galileo demonstrating his powerful telescope. It appears to be focused on the moon. Galileo started using his telescope to explore the night sky. He soon made some remarkable discoveries. He observed hills and valleys on the moon and spots on the sun. He discovered that Jupiter has moons and that the sun rotates on its axis. With his discoveries, Galileo was able to prove that the sun, not Earth, is at the center of the solar system. This discovery played an important role in the history of science. It led to a scientific revolution that gave birth to modern Western science. And it all began with technology!
Other Examples
There are many other examples that show how technology and science work together. Two are pictured in Fig- ure. Another example is the microscope. It may have been invented by Galileo around the same time as the telescope. Like the invention of the telescope, the invention of the microscope also depended on scientific knowledge of light and lenses. Q: How do you think the invention of the microscope helped science advance? A: The microscope let scientists view a world of tiny objects they had never seen before. It led to many important scientific discoveries, including the discovery of cells, which are the basic building blocks of all living things.
Summary
• Science and technology help each other advance. Scientific knowledge is used to create new technologies. New technologies often allow scientists to explore nature in different ways and make new discoveries. • Examples of technologies that have helped science advance include the telescope and microscope.
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FIGURE 1.13 Galileo is shown here presenting his tele- scope to government leaders. They must have been impressed. They gave him a life-long job as a university professor and doubled his salary.
FIGURE 1.14 Seismometers and spectrometers are both technological devices that led to im- portant scientific discoveries.
Review
1. What is the relationship between technology and science? 2. What scientific knowledge was necessary for the invention of the telescope and microscope? 3. Identify a scientific discovery made possible by technology.
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1.14 Technology and Society
Learning Objectives
• Summarize how major advances in technology impact human society. • Describe how the Industrial Revolution affected people’s lives.
The Mars Rover pictured here is a wheeled robot developed by NASA. Its job is to explore the surface of Mars. The rover contains a lot of complex modern technology. But how it moves by rolling on wheels is a very old invention. The wheel was probably invented many times in different cultures, beginning at least 10,000 years ago. In addition to wheeled carts and chariots, early wheels were used for water wheels, grinding wheels, and wheels for spinning pottery. Wheels really changed human life. They revolutionized transportation and made it much easier to do many different kinds of work.
How Technology Affects Society
Important new technologies such as the wheel have had a big impact on human society. Major advances in technol- ogy have influenced every aspect of life, including transportation, food production, manufacturing, communication, medicine, and the arts. That’s because technology has the goal of solving human problems, so new technologies usually make life better. They may make work easier, for example, or make people healthier. Sometimes, however, new technologies affect people in negative ways. For example, using a new product or process might cause human health problems or pollute the environment. Q: Can you think of a modern technology that has both positive and negative effects on people? A: Modern methods of transportation have both positive and negative effects on people. They help people and goods move quickly all over the world. However, most of them pollute the environment. For example, gasoline-powered
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cars and trucks add many pollutants to the atmosphere. The pollutants harm people’s health and contribute to global climate change.
Industrial Revolution
Few technologies have impacted society as greatly as the powerful steam engine developed by Scottish inventor James Watt in 1775 (see Figure). Watt’s steam engine was soon being used to power all kinds of machines. It started a revolution in industry. For the first time in history, people did not have to rely on human or animal muscle, wind, or water for power. With the steam engine to power machines, new factories sprang up all over Britain.
FIGURE 1.15 This is a museum model similar to the steam engine invented by James Watt.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain the late 1700s. It eventually spread throughout Western Europe, North America, Japan, and many other countries. It marked a major turning point in human history. Almost every aspect of daily life was influenced by it in some way. Average income and population both began to grow faster than ever before. People flocked to the new factories for jobs, and densely populated towns and cities grew up around the factories. The new towns and cities were crowded, and soot from the factories polluted the air. You can see an example of this in the Figure. This made living conditions very poor. Working conditions in the factories were also bad, with long hours and the pace set by machines. Even young children worked in the factories, damaging their health and giving them little opportunity for education or play. Q: In addition to factory machines, the steam engine was used to power farm machinery, trains, and ships. What effects might this have had on people’s lives? A: Farm machinery replaced human labor and allowed fewer people to produce more food. This is why many rural people migrated to the new towns and cities to look for work in factories. Steam-powered trains and ships made it easier for people to migrate. Food and factory goods could also be transported on steam-powered trains and ships, making them available to far more people.
Summary
• Major advances in technology have influenced every aspect of human society, usually in good ways but sometimes in bad ways as well.
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FIGURE 1.16 Dozens of factory smokestacks polluted the air in the English city of Manchester in the 1800s.
• Almost every aspect of people’s lives was influenced by the Industrial Revolution that followed James Watt’s invention of a powerful steam engine in 1775.
There are no review questions for this section.
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1.15 Technology Careers
Learning Objectives
• Describe the general career of engineer. • Identify specific engineering careers.
Did you ever wonder who thinks up the designs for roller coasters like this one, or how a roller coaster is built? There are more than 100 large amusement parks in the U.S., and they compete to have the fastest or tallest coasters that give the most thrilling ride. Each year, many of the parks install new roller coasters. Each new coaster is designed for its specific location and the park’s needs. Then it is custom built.
Technology Professionals
Companies that design and build roller coasters employ a range of technology professionals. Technology is the application of science to real-world problems. Professionals in technology are generally called engineers. Engineers are creative problem solvers. They use math and science to design and develop just about everything—from roller coasters to video games. Q: Whether engineers are designing and developing roller coasters or video games, they need many of the same skills and the same basic knowledge. What skills and knowledge do you think all engineers might need? A: All engineers need basic knowledge of math and science, particularly physical science. For example, to design and build a roller coaster, they would need to know about geometry, as well as forces and motion, which are important topics in physical science. In addition, all engineers must have skills such as logical thinking and creativity. The ability to envision three-dimensional structures from two-dimensional drawings is also helpful for most engineers.
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Careers in Engineering
Different types of engineers, such as electrical and mechanical engineers, must work together to build roller coasters and most other engineering projects. You can learn about these and other technology careers at the URLs listed here and in the Figure.
FIGURE 1.17 These are just a few of many possible careers in technology. Do any of these careers interest you?
Summary
• Professionals in technology are generally called engineers. Engineers are creative problem solvers who use math and science to design and build things. • Different types of engineers, such as electrical and mechanical engineers, work together on most engineering projects.
Review
1. What are engineers? What do they do? 2. Describe two careers in technology.
Summary
This unit introduces science and technology, and it outlines the scope of physical science. It describes careers in science and technology, as well as how scientists and engineers do their work. The unit also defines scientific theories and laws, and it gives an overview of basic science skills.
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