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Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power 25 - (Redacted Pictures, 2008), videorecording. Pictures, (Redacted I was surprised by his question. For me, secrecy secrecy me, For question. his by surprised was I 1 Secrecy As he was contemplating theAs subjecthe ofwas contemplating his critically future acclaimed , Secrecy filmmaker Robb Moss told that me he worriedwas that 1 Galison and Robb Moss, Galison and Robb 1 Peter to this issue. I am indebted contribute to the invitation for Klumbytė * I thank Neringa on an commentary thoughtful for Klumbytė and Neringa Klimova, Natalia Kliger, Ilya to contribut Marinescu and Nicoleta Koustriokova, Anastassia Emma Hamilton, earlier draft. movie movie something film you can how for movie, a for subject ideal an not was secrecy invisible? be to meant is that for thank Kiki Pop-Eleches to pleasure me great It gives assistance. research ed excellent of the graphs. help with the creation expert [email protected] at: be reached The author may had never seemed invisible: instead, it had been a rather showy presence everyday since childhood. Images of secrecy popped before my eyes ready red out in crossed dramatically signs cameras with photo Robb: contradict to paint; massive buildings housing secret institutions that we passed by right in the center of town, pretending not to see; was What after press. the in published routinely secret’ were seals ‘strictly 1989,various documents with side no was aural silent movie, in brain either: a was playing my there strong Cristina Vatulescu, New York University* University* York New Cristina Vatulescu, Translating Secrecy:ViewedCurtain Iron Birthof the The Translating the East, Right and Under the West, from

Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives Spring 2015 Spring 45 Volume 1 Issue Perspectives on Perspectives European European Studies Council for Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power

6 26 - Per (Berkeley: (Berkeley: The Covert Sphere: The Covert Michael Taussig Michael Taussig 8 The Politics of Duplicity: The Politics Police Police , Aesthetics I “It is a marvelous thing, The Covert Sphere. The spectacle of secrecy was histrionic 5 Tim Melley’s contribution in this volume 7 In my first book, builds an overarching theory of the theatricality theorytheatricality of the builds an overarching of the secret partly based Theater,” on “Instant a sub-chapter, his study starts of He Indians. Yamana with the observation: this secret, the way it as theatricalizes if with everything a magic wand,” and breathtaking concludes with insight: a “This theatricality emerges persons as made by the secret in the ‘leap’ from to the secret, in its turn, making persons. It is this in surrender to the thing made, to the creation taking over the creators, that we find the pathos links links to an illuminating chapter on the “Spectacles of Secrecy” of the national security monograph state in his (John Jay College of Criminal Justice, of Criminal Justice, College (John Jay and Justice formance book-length part of Peters’s speech was 2014). This keynote fraught the ’s and performance of legal study “historical own theatricality.” to its relationship in of Secrecy,” “Spectacles 8 Tim Melley, (Ithaca: State Fiction, and the National Security Secrecy, 2012). Press, Cornell University University of California Press, 1998). Press, of California University Film, and Literature, Aesthetics: Police Vatulescu, 5 Cristina 2010), Stanford, Times (Stanford: in Soviet Police the Secret 1–5. 6 Ibid., 46–54. “Theatres Deterrence, of Policing: Peters, 7 Julie Stone from of Interrogation Dissembling, and the Dramaturgy in to Abu Ghraib,” Polizeiwissenschaft 17th-Century Controlling Reproduction in Ceausescu’s in Ceausescu’s Reproduction Controlling , anthropology has followed the “social and cultural cultural and the “social has followed anthropology realm, , 90. The and Truths Secrets Verdery, of secrecy.” relations of with other methods – together of condoms outlawing pregnancy bodies, such as obligatory of women’s control in of the ways – is one example Romania in socialist tests such clear boundaries between challenged which secrecy For the classic the public, and the political. the private, see Gail Kligman, of the topic, study described the Soviet and Eastern European brand brand European and Eastern the Soviet described police as secret the era’s by epitomized of secrecy “a spectacle of secrecy” whose varied with . the has also been at of secrecy The theatricality law Western and of of center investigations recent policing. in the Soviet , when the purges were at times at were purges the when 1930s, Soviet the in showcased in public trials, and in hyper-realist the 1970s due to changing politicalconditions and to the explosion of new surveillance technologies.

3 Adults, as 2 par excellence,

4 (condom) instead of a preserve. Thus of a preserve. instead (condom) ței. This was a public-private secret that children, children, always have secrets. There were in the back of and condoms and curtains, doors, likely However, Curtain. Iron the of sides both on drawers even this kind of secrecy has its own twists in the Soviet bloc. A British friendtold me of her school exchange visit to USSR, when opening she found, apartment family’s host in her fridge the a with jar a pickles, of jars the among camouflaged prezervativ had been turned the condom preserved, carefully multi-use. Thecondom, the cover was carefully encased in the particular jar and then and jar particular the in encased carefully was in the collection of preserves, itself hidden in the giant a created that effect nestling a in refrigerator, Perestroika Matryoshka doll. In Romania, where I grew up, condoms both were a and private a state secret, as they, and all forms were of outlawed in contraception, 1964. You can of call us who the were many born as a contraception result the literal illustrations of of Foucault’s that lack of and the secrecy dictum that goes that with power, it, is productive, in this case, reproductive. even Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives 2 Katherine Verdery reviews ethnographic literature where where literature ethnographic reviews Verdery 2 Katherine A fundamental with hierarchy.” coupled is always “secrecy elders between is that secrecy by ensured type of hierarchy youth. and the uninitiated knowledge in possession of secret in the Ethnography and Truths: Secrets Verdery, Katherine - Central (: Police Secret Archive of Romania’s 2014), 92. Press, pean University Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the 3 Michel Foucault, 1979), 194. Books, Vintage York: Prison (New science and political as opposed to that, explains 4 Verdery in the private placed secrecy generally which have sociology, In Romania, we were decre more humorously called everyone knew, and whose as with together humor cutting its baby”loses decree “little of the original. the brevity to secrecy. I discovered that secrecy still sounds like like sounds still secrecy that discovered I secrecy. to staticgovernment-produced to me: now crackling sounds high-pitched strangely now monotonous, or covering over forbidden foreign I radio wondered stations. if Robb’s and my envisioning secrecy different spoke ways to cultural of differences, in steeped memories seemed since my imagery. Or maybe our differences in envisioning secrecy were personal. Yet childhood and secrecy cultures. in many together go surely Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power . 27 : Iron Curtain: ’s Churchill’s theatrum mundi audience in Fulton, audience in Fulton, as well the enormous as audience of his for immediately widely translated the term speech, “iron curtain” was associated strongly with the material in found curtains theaters. metaphorical . I then focus . on I the then focus In 1915, Vernon Lee, 11 However, for most of Churchill’s most for of Churchill’s However, 13 theatrum mundi Soviet Soviet critics found great satisfaction in 12 usage usage of the term iron fact, curtain this use was of striking. the term In was so raised striking that it unexpected translationthis article Istart by following quandaries. theways in which In Churchill mobilized what to us are largely buried theatrical connotations of the term new post-war create to a peculiar translation choicesregarding “Iron Curtain” made term in the the Soviet press following Churchill’s speech and the the design of his rearranged ways those choices 11 A readable and thoroughly researched history of the iron of the iron history researched and thoroughly 11 A readable Wright, use is Patrick Churchill’s prior to curtain Press, University Oxford (Oxford: Cold War to Stage From 2007). 12 Ibid., 76–82. , Gebbel’sa,” Lobyzanie “Fel’eton. Zaslavskii, 13 D. 1, 1946, 4. August us after arduousresearch. pointing out that Goebbels spoke of an iron curtain curtain iron an of spoke Goebbels that out pointing separating the Soviets from the Churchill. before rest Europe of a woman pacifist, firstreferred to aniron curtain lowered by the Great War between and the the Germans, British despite the Christmas during Bach deeper appreciating of connections aesthetic service. Last Last I move to Romania, the country that topped of Eastern list percentage infamous Churchill’s European nations in terms I follow Soviet of the influence. textual as well and as of theterm visual from English, French, quotations and Russian, to show the perception of the very special effects used on stage. stage. used on special effects Iron curtains first existed, as material as material existed, first Iron curtains Do these spectacles spectacles Do these

introduced after disastrous theater fires theater disastrous after introduced 9 in the nineteenth century, to separate the separate to century, in the nineteenth audience from the flammable objects and audience objects, in theaters. These curtains made of These curtains objects, in theaters. strong screens of metal, originally iron, were screens of metal, strong To To most of us, the Iron Curtain 10 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), Press, University Stanford (Stanford: This article argues that an archeology of the of archeology an that argues article This Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives Defacement: Public Secrecy and the Labor Public Defacement: 9 Michael Taussig, of the Negative 118, 21. and Churchill, America, Harbutt, The Iron Curtain: 10 Fraser University Oxford York: (New the 1986), 210. Press, of the real as really made up.” made really as real the of of secrecy have anything in common? If so, what are the meeting points between in the has been envisioned secrecy theatricalized the ways this spheres abstract and in the more in the west, east, of theory? Iron Curtain as a meeting point betweenEast and questions. these on light new some throw can West In particular, on the decisive focus I will in the history moment of this topos when the turned curtain iron into the metaphor powerful recognize: we Churchill’s all of “Sinews Peace” speech of , 1946, and its immediate translation on the other side of the Iron Curtain that he had just named. Widely known as Iron Churchill’s Curtain speech, “The Sinews of Peace” as the most including Churchill, many, by was considered also it considered was speech of his life; important as the beginning including , many, by of the Cold War. is one of those curious combinationsan abstract figure, a of metaphor without awords, material referent. Yet, iron curtains existed Churchill made long his before famous speech. Iron These curtains objects, in theaters. as material existed, first originally of metal, screens made of strong curtains fires theater disastrous after introduced were iron, separate to century, in the nineteenth used effects special and objects flammable the from a had been used metaphorically The term on stage. inform scholars as Churchill, before times of handful Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power to 28 so Despite significant 15 ,” 8,3. ,” around his key topos, topos, his key around Indeed, at the actual time of time actual the at Indeed, 17 throughout his speech. Thus, throughout shadow shadow has fallen on the scenes Churchill’s “Iron Curtain Churchill’s While carefully positioning himself in the

16 lighted by the Allied victory,” so that “As theatrum mundi differences,however, bothin accounts West the was placed in the position of Europeans spectator, were the Eastern victims, and the Soviets were of the the Iron Curtain. Churchill operators sinister up this theatrum set mundi the Iron Curtain, and thus the theatricality of his rhetoric appears much more muffled to than us to his audiences, for whom the iron curtain was not yet primarily a metaphor but much was still associated very with Furthermore, Churchill the bolstered his theatrical creation of this firewall. in preparationfor the Iron Curtain paragraph, he warned: “a quiet American Midwest at the time of the speech, the of time the at Midwest American quiet Churchill was, in fact, as Larry Wolff aptly puts it, “a far from entirely innocent befell observer the Eastern what states of of Europe,” for been he to “eager play a part in had drawing the line and curtain.” the hanging War the argued: the Cold “Throughout 15 Thus Larry Wolff as a barrier of quarantine, be envisioned would Curtain Iron whatever from civilization of Christian light the separating was all the and such a conception in the shadows, lurked lands at the too closely for not looking justification more Europe: The Map Eastern Inventing Larry Wolff, behind.” (Stanford: Enlightenment on the Mind of the of Civilization 1994), 2. Press, University Stanford 16 Muller, , 2. Europe Eastern Inventing 17 Wolff, dropping, dropping, that the the Iron show was over, and Curtain it was time was to go home. There lowered, was not much to see and thus worry or feel their and Soviets the as time in just for, responsible local allies were preparing to murder rig political oppositions. elections and the drawing of the Iron Curtain, in , in had been on the other side of the stage, Churchill where at a meetinglate-night withMoscow, Stalin in the Kremlin, it was Churchill who proposed the infamous portioning ofEastern Europe according percentages. to lately lately I stand here on this quiet afternoon I shudder visualize what is actually now…” to millions

14 Let Let us then start with the beginning, with Churchill Churchill traveled all the way to Fulton, From Stettin in the Baltic to in the Trieste to Baltic the in Stettin From Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the continent. Behindthat states of the ancient lie all the capitals line of Central and . Warsaw, , , , Bucharest and Sofia; all these Vienna, famous Budapest, cities around them andlie in what I must call the the subject, in and all are sphere, Soviet populations Soviet not only to or another, one form influence butto avery high and in some from of control measure increasing cases . (Columbia: University of Press, 1999), 8–9. of Missouri Press, (Columbia: University Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” Speech Fifty Years Speech Fifty “Iron Curtain” Churchill’s 14 James Muller, Later Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” as the axis of a new post- new a of axis the as Curtain” “Iron Churchill’s theatrum mundi war Churchill’s quote that instantly propelled the Iron fame: international to Curtain moment of the Iron Curtain’s descent not just from from just not descent Curtain’s Iron the of moment In under. right from also but East, the and West the well as I the hope process, show to the differences as mutual shaping influences in theways secrecy was envisioned at a key relations. moment in East-West Missouri, deep into the heart of the American the heart of American the Missouri, deep into Midwest to give his momentous speech in order to place himself in the positionparticipant ofdistantobserver non- announcing world that to the the whole Soviets were gradually an dropping Iron Curtain over Eastern accounts, Europe. he By hoped some to action from the wingsby turning stop allgazes toward this albeit shine the lights, surreptitious to He intended the stage. however which, capitals, those all on momentarily, “ancient,” Westerners had a legendary hard time pronouncing and an unusually easy timeup. mixing By other accounts, Churchill audience, theafter to tell his brief excuse Western found a good names- number featuring eye-catching Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power

- 20 . 29 The 23 zanaveski Izvestiia informs us. informs Oxford Russian Dictio Oxford Zavesa is “obs[olete Tolkovyi slovar’ russkovo slovar’ russkovo Tolkovyi Pravda and , 197, 203, 9–41). , March 11, 1946, 4. Pravda, March , zanaves while

21 “Universal Database of Russian “Universal Database Of these 15, 8 appear in 1946, in appear 8 15, these Of 24 Tolkovyi Tolkovyi slovar’ gave a translation of relevant relevant of a translation Pravda gave

zheleznyi only once zheleznyi appears , zanaves (Minneapolis: East View Publications, 1999). Publications, View (Minneapolis: East and (udb-com+) Newspapers Russian Central Zavesa was already obsolete for curtain

22 This is a most peculiar choice, then as then peculiar choice, This is a most One of the first discoveries allowed by refers refers to domestic curtains. for] curtain,” and used “fig[uratively forscreen.” veil or now. now. In Russian, there are two terms that usually translate the English “curtain”: regular theatrical curtains as well as theatrical fire curtains are and were then translated as parts of Churchill’s speech, Curtain citation, including where the term the is translated Iron as . , not zanaves zavesa 21 “Rech’ Cherchillia v Fultone,” v Fultone,” Cherchillia 21 “Rech’ in al., “zavesa,” Wheeler et 22 Marcus 2000). Press, University Oxford nary (Oxford: in al., “zavesa,” et Vinokur 23 G. O. OGIZ, 1935). (Moscow: iazyka using the search 24 I ran Newspapers,” This includes 20 Harbutt notes the week of panicked anxiety in the anxiety week of panicked the 20 Harbutt notes diplomatic the Soviet mostly Union and then follows Soviet speech, based on English language to Churchill’s reaction Harbutt, The Iron Curtain sources. security, and appearances, three terms closely closely terms three andappearances, security, Curtain. Iron in Churchill’s folded II. The Iron Curtain and the smoke screen: Soviet translations searching for the translation of the Ironspeech Curtain in Soviet newspapers is a that drawn there was out hesitationtranslation of concerning the term. the common The translation official of the term, in the text of any central Soviet newspaper in the three months following Churchill’s Fulton speech. It is not that the speech was not commented on. After aweek of silence panicked andfor search an officialreaction, many full articles were dedicated newspapers, main the in it to 11, On March zheleznyi zheleznyi for preference general over zanaves zheleznaia zavesa as a translationfor Iron Curtain in the each term for running a search by is evident Russian central newspapers database – the first search yields more than 10,000 results, while the 15. of total a latter in 1935, as the -

PREM 18 s 10% s 25% Britain’s Public Re Britain’s

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Published in 1959, this passage of Churchill’s Churchill’s of passage this 1959, in Published : Bulgaria: While While this paper: of half-piece a on wrote [Churchill] was being Rumania: translated, I 10% 90% - Russia Britain Great : 50:50% Yugoslavia: : After this therewas a long silence. The penciled paper was in the center of the table. At length, I said: “Might it not be thought rather cynical if it seemed we issues, so fateful had disposed these of off-hand an such in people, of millions to manner? Let us burn the said Stalin. paper.” it,” “No, keep you Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives 18 Churchill’s copy of the paper is kept in of the paper is kept copy 18 Churchill’s cord Office, and available for view following this link: this link: following for view available Office, and cord 3/66/7 (169). Churchill, 19 Winston my emphasis. Mifflin, 1959), 885–86; Houghton (Boston: memoirs memoirs allows his readers a glimpse behind the scenes, where the two masterminds are in shown the act of pulling may him worried that hand of slеight a performing the strings, with Churchill have seemed so off-hand to the larger half-paper.” “the of burning a audience warrant would it that It bears recalling that it was precisely because of iron that on stage this kind of incendiary gestures the While place. first the in designed were curtains Fulton speech depicted the Iron Curtain as being the purposes of hiding for the Soviets placed by memoirs Churchill’s Europe, their doings in Eastern show him in performing incendiary fact tricks, and masterminding the pulling curtain himself. He the down shows himself doing it all show, audience the shielding of purposes classic the with from the fire and from the unwanted spectacle of the destruction of those caught behind The tricks. stage but also hiding negligent curtain, the iron regard Churchill’s ending suggests of the scene for his demos was just strong enough to hiding the deal, the idea of burning the papers, inspire and lowering the iron curtain. Stalin appears, this in case, to be above this concern with secrecy, Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power 30 Russian East View View East Digital Archives and Count of "zanaves" in central newspapers Count of "zanaves" in central newspapers Count of "zavesa" Digital Archives ) that is dropped is dropped ) that zanaves The difference in the use 26 and (udb-com+) Newspapers Central Archives Digital Universal Services, including Fig. 1. Data Source: Fig. 1. Data and Digital Archives Count of "zanaves" in central newspapers "zanaves" in Count of in central newspapers Count of "zavesa" and Curtain : Count of "zanaves" in central newspapers Count of "zavesa" in central newspapers Tarle, like all other writers who choose 27 Mar-­‐48 to to translate the term “Iron Curtain” three in months after the Churchill’s speech, all first refused term. theatrical of Churchill’s the high drama than rather theatrical burying the term’s However, Tarleconnotations, knowingly reassigned themto the British-madeIron Curtain, thusreversing the of the two terms gives us a clue to the translation enigma. 26 Ibid. For similar turns from defense to attack, where where attack, to defense similar turns from 26 Ibid. For the behind which be a screen to is shown Curtain the Iron republics in to the true relationship hides its States United temy,” mezhdunarodnye “Na Nabliudatel’, see America, Latin Ibid., June 13. 3. Cherchillia,” rechi povodu “Po 27 E. Tarle, that that would become a standard Soviet response. While deriding the accusation of the Eastern Europe by a fencing Soviet “Iron Curtain” ) (zavesa of as traded for defense ridiculous, attack asTarle he accused of having recourse to its ) in Curtain” Iron (zanaves and , “own “an Iron Curtain (again, so quickly in front of the curious that it may well hit them on the head.” Curtain: Russian Central Newspapers (udb-com+) Mar-­‐48 Curtain: Nov-­‐47 Nov-­‐47 Nov-­‐47 Nov-­‐47 , including Zanaves Zanaves vs. Zavesa zanaves , March , March . As zavesa Aug-­‐47 Aug-­‐47 Russian Central Newspapers (udb-com+) Russian Central Newspapers (udb-com+) , Tarle polemicized polemicized , Tarle Transla'on choices for Iron for choices Transla'on May-­‐47 May-­‐47 , including The two translations are Zanaves vs. Zanaves Zavesa Izvestiia , including Zanaves vs. Zanaves Zavesa

25 Feb-­‐47 Feb-­‐47 Feb-­‐47 Feb-­‐47 East View Universal Services Universal East View . zavesa Transla'on choices for Iron for choices Transla'on Oct-­‐46 and five mentions of mentions five and zanaves Transla'on choices for Iron for choices Transla'on Oct-­‐46 So what happened in those three months Data Source: Jul-­‐46 , for a total of 6,500 publications between between of 6,500 publications a total Archives, for Digital Jul-­‐46 not interchangeable versions of each other, but are but are of other, each versions not interchangeable different very two to refer to contrast in used rather things. In the March 12 in detail with the term Iron Curtain, initiating a move move a initiating Curtain, Iron term the with detail in Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives its 1900 and 2015. Izvestiia Cherchillia,” rechi povodu “Po 25 E. Tarle, 12, 1946, 3. the months and then years went on, the standard translation, already in useby 1930to refer to the as a political twist on the theatrical out. won prop, of translation anomaly? Ifwe investigate the one appearance of the translation of standard in the first three monthsafter Fulton, we findthat it appears in the same articleby Tarle, right next the atypical to while the other 7 are dispersed over Furthermore, a century! for the speech, that balance of firstbetween power Churchill’s threemonths after the two translations of mention was reversed, with one East View Universal Services Universal East View

Sep-­‐45 Dec-­‐45 Apr-­‐46 Jul-­‐46 Oct-­‐46 Feb-­‐47 May-­‐47 Aug-­‐47 Nov-­‐47 Mar-­‐48 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

-­‐1 Apr-­‐46 East View Universal Services East View

Apr-­‐46

Data Source: Dec-­‐45 Dec-­‐45 Data Source: Dec-­‐45 Dec-­‐45 Sep-­‐45 Sep-­‐45 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 -­‐1 Sep-­‐45 Sep-­‐45 1 0 2 4 3 6 6 5 7 -­‐1 Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power 31 - , from from , – smoke zheleznyi zheleznyi , and zanaves referred not to not to referred refers to rapid, rapid, to refers Furthermore, the Furthermore, 31 , 2nd edition, vol. 16 , 2nd edition, has a short has a zavesa - evi have , we zavesa The second entry for for entry The second , 30 as “thick curtain” to the to as “thick curtain” zavesa dymovaia dymovaia zavesa Bol’shaia sovetskaia entsiklope sovetskaia Bol’shaia , and the idiom it readily , and the idiom it readily zavesa dymovaia zavesa, zavesa, dymovaia idiomatically in English, to military military to English, in idiomatically Russian already had then a word for for word a then had already Russian However, However, 32 or more , and all other Soviet-era dictionaries I consulted, consulted, dictionaries I , and all other Soviet-era , , 65 vols., vol. 25 (Moskva: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, entsiklopediia, Sovetskaia 25 (Moskva: vol. , 65 vols., zavesa in Soviet dictionaries and encyclopedias screen. smoke with up paired routinely was which curtain/screen, adjectives referring to fire. search А reveals that “smoke screen” (dymovaia ) zavesa was about ten Russian the in expression an as popular more times press between 1900 and 1947 than . zanaves conjures to mind, to conjures zavesa is about five times more voluminous, and it refers to the military terms “ (kavaleriiskie screens,” part of the ), the foremost zavesy (riding cavalry, in front of the with avant-garde), a mission of reconnaissance and protection. In the Encyclopedia Soviet Great the of edition next 1952, the theatrical sense of the word completely into moved zavesa and the cavalry disappeared, detail. position with added first diia 1932). entsiklopediia sovetskaia 31 Bol’shaia 1952). While it entsiklopediia, sovetskaia Bol’shaia (Moskva: from of the turn exactly the moment to pinpoint is difficult meaning of the old theatrical sense of and metaphorical military 1946, as a dictionary entry this happened before dence that 1935 already from iazyka slovar’ russkovo the Tolkovyi from defi- first its Instead, “anachronistic.” meaning the first calls the 1932 Like view.” hides from covers, which nition is “that Bolshaia sense of the military also mentions entry this much shorter ). zavesa (dymovaia screen smoke of Russian Newspapers.” Database 32 “Universal 30 Otto I. Ulevich Schmidt, I. Ulevich 30 Otto be used in the first translations of Churchill’s speech speech Churchill’s of translations first the in used be ? zavesa by be replaced and instead A closer look at of the time mightcontain Great Soviet a clue. Encyclopedia In the 1932 second and the third meanings build on the military meanings build on military the and the third second fire,” curtain “Artillery adjectives. two adding sense, ognevaia artilereiiskaia zavesa, continuous artilleryfire on a designated line. The sends us to entry third curtain also for theatrical “wings.” entry, where it appears entry, first as“a theatricalterm,” to referring piecesthe of“different canvas serving as part of the decorative design of thestage.” As for as synonym a such, it appears

29 - article, The author’s The author’s 28 Literaturnaia Literaturnaia gazeta The British Architect zheleznyi zheleznyi not zanaves recommended that “6 inches 28 (1887): 206. So, if the term, in both its literal and in both its literal if the term, So, The previous graph (Fig. 1) suggests that had argued was the best design for theatrical iron curtains: “two screens of wrought-iron plate” (in this case, one Western, one Soviet- wrought). purpose was to announce that an Iron Curtain was was announce purpose Curtain to an was that Iron West. the Russia from separate to being created Delving into a drawn-out parallel theatrical iron curtain between and the the metaphorical Iron the point from that he then explained Curtain, of view of the bourgeoisie, decade; in past the for burning Russia been had the fire of thus the bourgeoisie and its press had decided to put up an Iron Curtain toward Russia. In this account, the Iron Curtain was created the by West. However, writing fromParis in the last “reckless that warned also author the 1929, of days and unwise people have tried to push the levers as side Soviet the on curtain” iron the lower to and well, for example, by attacking Soviet writers who travel abroad. The 1930 articlepresented already by what 1887 the journal Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives , gazeta Literaturnaia zanaves,” “Zheleznyi 28 L. Nikulin, January 13, 1930, 1. The Brit and Protection,” “Theatre29 William White, Panic ish Architect The British Architect of air space” be left in between the two screens. In the 1930 article, therewas notyet any mention of air space between and the the Western Eastern screens of the double-paneled Europe. Iron Eastern called be would Curtain, 1946 by that space the figurative,Western Soviet, and versions, existed already in 1930, why would direction of the spectatorial gaze from East to West. West. to East from gaze spectatorial the of direction this moment of translation tension may placed Izvestiia strategically Tarle’s beyond well go and as such it asks for further investigation.Why, despite all linguisticcommon sense,was the Iron Curtain briefly translatedby anobsolete term for in screen for term and a contemporary curtain the Soviet translations of 1946?We can rule out ignorance. The term and the fireproof iron link curtain in theaters and between the political the metaphor is already documented in 1930, when a striking front-page article in was titled “Zheleznyi zanaves.” Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power

32 his anti- his mask position with his cries about , tyranny, and policing.” Because of inappropriate these was was turning communism. toward Wanting to conceal his political loss, Churchill “sounds the alarm,” himself in placing a “comical ) truth,” that the world - According According to Stalin, Churchill’s “ridiculous the phrase, catchiest Churchill’s out Leaving responses, Churchill’s personal tragedy of being tragedy personal Churchill’s responses, on the losing side of world history turned into an of and in the paragraph last tragicomedy, “absurd” the Stalin interview, portrayed him as a ridiculous “Don Quixote.” poses” “masked” not only tragedy but something England’s While appealing to dangerous. more with treaty the USSR, Churchill, Stalin explains, did not understand that his actions make that treaty “an empty littleand “hide pieceto like have would Churchill of paper” behind which of the the mention again Repeating stance.” Soviet “empty little piece of paper” (pustuiu ), bumazhku and his audience Churchill also reminded Stalin such as the borders, the decision regarding that borders of , was taken by Stalin “not alone but together with the British.”Stalin mentioned the conference in Berlin, but the mention of “the little piece of paper” and reminder the and thus countries European of Eastern borders that the the Iron Curtain was not just USSR’s doing could have well been meant as veiled allusions . to and Kremlin to in meeting October the imagery fire uses craftily instead Stalin Curtain, Iron to allude to it and undermine it. While “sounding real his hides fact, in speech, Churchill’s alarm,” the maximum maximum effect.Rather, all theatrical metaphors were carefully used to refer to Churchill and Eastern and to Soviets the to and never camp, his Europe. Thus, Stalin, “is Churchill’s that, as an [having inveterate , just “tragedy,” lost elections], explains he does understandnot a simple (ochevidnoi and evident Besides 33 to include the phrase “Iron Curtain.” to Although Stalin quoted Churchill word Churchill quoted Although Stalin Iron Curtain, he cut the quote so as not so as not he cut the quote Iron Curtain, tals of Eastern Europe fallen behind the behind the fallen Europe of Eastern tals for word in his enumeration of the capi of the word in his enumeration for ) the smoke ) the smoke maskirovka It from from Slovar’ iazyka russkova 34 , 16. of March 12, 1946, worked in the First, although Stalin quoted Churchill The main Soviet response to Churchill’s Churchill’s to response The main Soviet 35 Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives 33 Vinokur et al., “zavesa.” al., “zavesa.” et 33 Vinokur as “the artificial creation of a creation as “the artificial zavesa dymovaia 1957 defines serving as a mode of masking.” band of dust, Bol’shaia 34 Vvedenskii, “Pravdy” s korrespondentom Stalina I. V. 35 “Interv’iu tov. 14, 1946, 1. Pravda, March g. Cherchillia,” rechi otnositel’no the curtain which protected the audience in the theater from stage fires butto the curtain/screen of actual smoke that actions the one’s “mask” or hide” “to order in created” military “intentionally or “secret intentions”from theenemy. word word for word in his enumeration of the capitals of Eastern Europe fallen behind the Iron Curtain, he cut the quote so as not to include the translated the interview his Instead, phrase Curtain.” “Iron phrases “Soviet sphere” and “Soviet speech, of Churchill’s coinage successful The most influence.” his theatrical metaphor, was excised from Stalin’s rendering of the quote, and did not appear at all in the long interview. It is not that Stalin did contrary, the on not metaphors: theatrical of use make the speech was replete with them, used to its first usefor “masking” ( screen was also deemed useful in “attracting the attention of enemy the away” from the actual of troops. movement may be that rather than rather be that may a clumsy translation, the translation Soviet central the by preferred newspapers first in after three the Fulton’s expressed months speech a and perils of of the uses, forms, understanding different edifice, rhetorical Harnessed a to complex secrecy. the translation may have triedto shift the public perception of the divide betweenEastern Europe screen. smoke a to Curtain Iron an from Russia and speech, Stalin’s interview published on the of Pravda page first same direction. Muchlike contemporary and East Europeans Soviet citizens,we can lookfor clues as to where the wind was blowing by closely. reading it Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power 33 The fire aswell as the smokecomes from successful most Churchill’s to Responding So that no one from the sides no one from So that know Would from comes the smoke Where war of the All the instigators war!” – “War, Scream … carries brigade The garish are they in fact hydrants…no, Fire flamethrowers! the flamethrowers of the instigators’ brigade. The epicenter of the fire is Churchill whose and his mouth, speech, just produces a smoke like screen behind which well his as , hide belligerent his – intentions his real proverbial pipe, as his being on the losing side of history. flight ofrhetoric with his rhetorical own tour de force, Stalin’s interview and the verbal as well Under the title “The 36 (See Fig. 2.) , 7 November 1946. , 7 November Wanting to start yet again a fire again yet start to Wanting in the ashes creeps still That a speech makes Churchill Mister peace. About world … Fig. 2.: Churchill leading “The War Instigators Brigade,” Brigade,” leading “TheFig. 2.: Churchill Instigators War Pravda War War Instigators/Arsonists Brigade,” the caricature poem: up with a humorous paired was Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives 36 Kukryniksy and S. Marshak, “Komanda podzhigatelnei podzhigatelnei “Komanda and S. Marshak, 36 Kukryniksy 7, 6. November Ibid., voiny,” intentions, imperialist warmongering. Stalin started started Stalin warmongering. imperialist intentions, placed Churchill out by announcingthe article that himself, through this speech, “in the positiona of war Ininstigator.” Russian, thefirst meaning of the term “instigator” A ) is arsonist. (podzhigatel’ up on Stalin’s picked later that Pravda caricature term shows Churchill leading out turn look, a closer at who, firefighters, pretend a detachment of arsonists be to Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power Digital Archives and 34 - Tear Tear ) ) , zanaves Count of zheleznyi zanaves in Russian and Soviet press Digital Digital Russian Central Russian Central East View Univer View East Digital Archives and Critical Terms for Religious Religious for Terms Critical Digital Archives instead of instead zavesa ) ) Count of zheleznyi zanaves in Russian and Soviet press and Archives and (udb-com+) Newspapers sal Services, including Fig. 3. Data Source: Fig. 3. Data zheleznyi zanaves zheleznyi ) ) Russian and Soviet press Count of zheleznyi zanaves in , 133. Sheila Fitzpatrick, , 133. Sheila Fitzpatrick, and Truths Secrets 38 Katherine Verdery further argues that “in that argues further Verdery Katherine 37 Russian Central Newspapers (udb-com+) Once launched on the international stage , ed. Mark C. Taylor (Chicago: Chicago University University Chicago (Chicago: , ed. Mark C. Taylor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005). Press, University NJ: Princeton (Princeton, move move that, according to Michael Taussig, defines secrecy. by Churchill, the Iron Curtain metaphor underwent underwent metaphor Curtain Iron the Churchill, by a brief period of unidiomatic Soviet translation Union. By using in the Public Secrecy and the Defacement: 37 Michael Taussig, Press, University Stanford Labor of the Negative (Stanford: in 1999), 50; “Transgression,” Studies 1998), 355. Press, 38 Verdery, this dialectic took on a characteristic form characteristic a on took dialectic this socialism … in practices of unmasking which, as and denunciation,” Sheila Fitzpatrick shows, culminated in . off the Masks! Identity and Imposture in Twentieth-Century Twentieth-Century in and Imposture Identity off the Masks! Russia the central press may have intended to displace to intended have may press the central the metaphor by calling the to switching and screen, smoke , zavesa dymovaia mind the idiomatic the military. to the theater from of reference area Untenable in the long run, this curious translation , including

zheleznyi zanaves zheleznyi that that in Russian and Soviet press in Russian and zheleznyi zanaves zheleznyi Russian Central Newspapers (udb-com+) Russian Central Newspapers (udb-com+) theatrum mundi theatrum Count of Iron Curtain ( Curtain Iron of Count , including theatrum theatrum mundi , including in Russian and Soviet press in Russian in Russian and Soviet press in Russian and Soviet East View Universal Services East View Count of Iron Curtain ( Iron of Count Count of Iron Curtain ( Iron of Count Data Source:

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Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives as visual rhetoric that it Churchill’s spawned not just rejected categorically press in the Soviet Iron Curtain, but the whole Churchill had built around his powerful metaphor. It metaphor. powerful his around built had Churchill of the idea rejected Stalin is notthat itself; his on it. interview the propagated contrary, However, Stalin reversed the architecture of the the theater, direction of thegaze, the distribution and spectacle, the audience, the who – roles the of the iron curtain operators were. Instead of having the from watching himself, and Churchill the West, Soviets the as town Midwestern quiet a of distance lowered the Iron Curtain Stalin over cast Eastern a very Europe, different scene. In was Churchill shown it, to have been in the heart of the East European problem, in Berlin, deciding the borders with the Soviets. Showing himself in his defining through see of unmasking, claimed to Stalin gesture Churchill’s smokescreen of inflammatory rhetoric and reveal Churchill “fixing the here cards.”generating his “fund of power” Stalinby a dialectic is of “concealment and revelation,” a dialectical

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Data Source: Data Source: 0 20 40 60 80 -­‐20 100 0 20 40 60 80 -­‐20 100 d d Digital Archives and Count of zheleznyi zanaves Count of zheleznyi Soviet press in Russian and Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power Digital Archives 35 and Count of zheleznyi zanaves Count of zheleznyi Soviet press in Russian and . “Presa . “Presa , Scânteia zheleznyi zanaves) zanaves) zheleznyi noted noted Scânteia Russian Central Newspapers (udb-com+) 1961-­‐2014 1961-­‐2014 , including zheleznyi zanaves) zanaves) zheleznyi in Soviet and Russian press Russian and Soviet in Russian Central Newspapers (udb-com+) However, Churchill’s Iron Curtain did Curtain Iron Churchill’s However, 39 1961-­‐2014 1961-­‐2014 Count of Iron Curtain ( Iron of Count The Romanian press immediately immediately press The Romanian , including construction of the materialized version Iron Curtain, the of the , in 1961, as well the as term’s significantlowering, disappearance almost from relative the officialthe horizon Brezhnev during era (1964–1982), startingthe invasion around of in 1968. and of publishing venues of Instead, interest the explosion the popularity raised Perestroika on by brought of the term sharply until 2000, when a noticeable downward trend continued of and through when the invasion 2014, until years, the Putin the war in propelled the possibility of debate. of feverish in the midst Curtain” Iron “new a The Iron Curtain and the illustrations and translations Romanian : speech. of Churchill’s importance the perceived The communist party newspaper that both speech Churchill’s and interview Stalin’s were “amply commented publications. on” in five leading Timpul, Națiunea, Scânteia, Drapelul, Semnalul 39 Timpul, Națiunea, Scânteia, Stalin,” generalissimului și declarațiile română in Soviet and Russian press and in Soviet East View Universal Services East View Count of Iron Curtain ( Iron of Count Data Source: theatrum East View Universal Services East View d 0 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 -­‐100 - Data Source: Digital Digital

gave place after three three after place gave zavesa 0 Russian Central Russian Central 300 200 100 700 600 500 400 -­‐100 East View Univer View East Digital Archives (See Fig. 3, 4.) and Among the most striking features is the features striking Among the most , where it shielded Western wrongdoings in Count of zheleznyi zanaves Count of zheleznyi Soviet press in Russian and Archives sal Services, including and (udb-com+) Newspapers Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives months months to other undermining techniques already sketched out in interview Stalin’s and in the other attendant responses in the Soviet press. To start with, there was straight-out censure, modeled in and Fulton following silence tense of week first the about interview Stalin’s in term the of erasure the in the speech. Yet in the same interview, Stalin also undermining of the modeled the art of rhetorical against theatricality of accusation the turning term: spectatorial the of direction the reversing West, the putting revealed was that West the is it that so gaze curtain. infamous the behind show unsavory an up Once the Iron Curtain “British,” “imperialist,” received and the “capitalist,” adjectives be it could easily displaced in a very mundi different Latin America or Indonesia. While a close analysis of scope the beyond is term the of peripetias the of this essay, the graphs below present a suggestive roadmap. of the Iron Curtain as Curtain Iron the of Iron Iron Curtain’s brief fall from grace around the Fig. 4. Data Source: Fig. 4. Data zheleznyi zanaves) zanaves) zheleznyi Russian Central Newspapers (udb-com+) 1961-­‐2014 1961-­‐2014 , including in Soviet and Russian press Russian and Soviet in Count of Iron Curtain ( Iron of Count East View Universal Services East View Data Source: 0 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 -­‐100 Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power 36 has

42 the tip of tip the eat Soviet bread and In the course of this translation commentary, commentary, translation this of course the In Indeed, the whole phrase, as the larger Mr. Mr. Churchill – playing although at being constantly “particular” – however however searched and as possible the thoughts to faithfully synthesize countries all of as the of plans … His Romania. Bucharest finds itself … in his has opinion not … beyond forgotten the (perdeaua de “iron puts Churchill fier)… Mr. curtain” and Central in East on trial the freedoms direction this in aiming Europe, Churchill his will … not Mr. be able to make anyone forget that we beyond the “iron curtain” that we gained our independence and Union. the Soviet liberty aided by - Scân și Romania,” Stalin generalissimului 42 “Declarațiile emphasis. 16, 1946; 4, my , March teia the Iron Curtain gained quotation marks,then which became one canonical way The Europe. it Union andEastern Soviet in the was printed quotation marks the marked phrase as the speech it, weaken Curtain, Iron so-called the as another, of discourse. it part of a false make discourse initiated in commentaries and translations the byin developed Stalin’s interview the or reverts either rejects press, the Romanian and positions of the watcher watched,and audience and spectacle, life and that fiction, Churchill’s Iron Curtain all had set dichotomies up. Thus, in this paragraph, it is Churchill who “plays at being ‘particular’” – being faithfultip “the aims a to he ideology, as pose fictive theatrical overly an striking of his spade” to Eastern Europe. On the contrary, at not playing are Europe the people of Eastern their by reality going through they anything; prove from anyone applied check to reality the age-old – ghosts to they extraterrestrials eat bread, with a twist, Soviet bread, and engage in political action, gain their freedom and independence, with quite the twist, independence with the aid of the Soviet clearly more even article another of title The Union. -

cortina România România The one perdeaua perdeaua 40 Iorga’s choice Iorga’s Dicționarul limbii 41 . The difference perdeaua de fier, perdeaua de fier) belongs to Nicolae Nicolae belongs to is of Italian extraction, extraction, Italian of is , published two pieces. , published two perdea , vol. III (Bucharest: Editura Editura III (Bucharest: , vol. Semnalul Dicționar universal al limbei române , of Turkish extraction,was usedfor This was not the case for the translator of , ed. Gh. Buzatu Basarabia 1941–1944, ed. Gh. Buzatu pentru Bătălia perdea published 11 and 7 articles, respectively, on the respectively, published 11 and 7 articles, notable use of perdeaua de notable fier Iorga, Romania’s most well-known the time, who historian met the news of the Soviet Union’s at occupation of thenwriting: “From Romanian now the iron ( curtain will descend over the whole even over life, by to its intimate.” most life, domestic Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives March 27, 1946, 1. It is significant that the pro-Western the pro-Western that 1946, 1. It is significant 27, March - the speech, while the pro-Sovi silenced by largely was press and Scânteia Thus, the Party’s railing. was press et Liberă of the the newspaper whereas speech in March, Fulton opposition, democratic – and window curtain – not travel well to Romania either. Of the more than more the Of either. Romania to well travel not 20 articles that Ifound covering the speech in the contains one only 1946, March in press mainstream in appears Curtain” “Iron times two The phrase. the awkward the by translated is it article the de fier. In Romanian, words there for are curtain, two theatrical different curtain – seems justifiedgiven stronghis emphasis on the domain. domestic Churchill’s phrase. In choosing to translate “Iron Curtain” by the anachronistic the writer turned away from the strong theatrical place himself and his country to refusing metaphor, theatrical use not did he that not is It stage. the on his Soviet like He did, but, just vocabulary. describe Churchill: he used it to counterparts, (Bucharest: Mica Valahie), 23–4. Valahie), Mica (Bucharest: es. Traian Lazăr, “1940. Perdeaua de fier precede cortina de de fier precede “1940. Perdeaua Lazăr, es. Traian in fier,” Academiei, 1957). Academiei, Neamul “Ce se duce cu noi din Basarabia,” 41 N. Iorga, that notes briefly Lazăr , no. 147 (1940): 1. Traian Românesc and wonders Churchill’s precedes use of the term Iorga’s seemingly unaware Iorga, by inspired was Churchill whether in English and other languag uses of the phrase of previous 40 Lazăr Șăineanu, 40 Lazăr 1929); Scrisul Românesc, Editura (Craiova: contemporane române literare between between the two words is than much in Russian, as the more words do not share marked a root Cortina resemblance. or any while window window curtain and was considered anachronistic for theatrical curtain already by 1927. Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power - 37 , October , October edits a selection of selection a edits , 11 October 1946. , 11 October A large suited suited large 5.) A Fig. (See

46 Contemporanul Contemporanul Contemporanul cartoons from the international press to express its express to press international the from cartoons Conference, Peace about the Paris disappointment then in its closing days. man sprawls over the globe, The laughing only writing that is satisfied. visible the “Adriatique,” is one end of the Iron Curtain named in Churchill’s și întreaga lume nu au nici un viitor fără o înțelegere cu o înțelegere fără lume nu au nici un viitor și întreaga Churchill 10, 1946. Mr. , March Scânteia Uniunea Sovietică,” … Bucha in which Warsaw (sfera) … of “the sphere” speaks 11, 1946. rest, and Sofia, would find themselves.” Also see “Conștiința Also see “Conștiința would find themselves.” and Sofia, rest, 17, 1946. , March Scânteia de veghe,” lumii stă Contemporanul străină,” de presa văzută 46 “Pacea sphere being the favorite. This is most likely likely This is most being the favorite. sphere because sphere was the synonym Churchill used, almost in the same breath, in his Fulton speech. While in the West “sphere” was eclipsed by success the of his metaphorical coinage of Curtain, in the Romania the Iron reverse was true. Part of the reason seems linked with irresistible soft the spot caricaturists’ for parallelism the between Churchill’s outward appearance, particularly his head, and his of use the belly and round iconic word “sphere.” For the next year, the Romanian communist press had deepening a divide between the East and ball the West representingand the what they the In saw caricatures. through tendencies expansionist as the West’s issue threatening 11 October with 45 Continuing 43 The real divide is The real ăr” (camp), 44 even even “lag

,” Ibid. “The camps in two division of the world ,” , March 14, 1946. , March ” Scânteia , March 9, 1946. , March Scânteia In the more than 20 articles that followed bloc capitalist and communist,” and “Marea Britanie Britanie and “Marea and communist,” (lagăre): capitalist then not the Soviet-operated Iron Churchill’s speech Curtain, itself, which, but following Stalin’s lead, the article frames as a smoke screen hiding tendencies. expansionist the West’s Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech in March, as well as through the following year, as they continued Peace on theParis speechcommenting and on the Conference where the borders Europe were of being post-bellum drawn, the avoided Romanian press the phrase Iron Curtain, “sferă,” and “bloc,” using instead Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives 43 “Îndărătul cuvântării d-lui Churchill se ascunde reacțiunea, d-lui discursul desaprobă anglo-americane 44 “Cercurile Churchill,” and a in a western “Dividing the world 45 Some examples: Russian reverts the direction of the gaze, setting Churchill’s Churchill’s setting gaze, the of direction the reverts speech as a curtain of words: “Behind Churchill’s speech hides reactionary politics.” Fig. 5: Collection of international cartoons titled “The Peace Seen by the Foreign Press,” Press,” Foreign titled cartoons by the Peace Seen Fig. 5: Collection of international “The with this logic of unmasking, where the hidden is but on the Western not on the Eastern be found to side of the “Iron Curtain,” another on the early speech announces that: report “In reality the call of Mr. Churchill is a call to war and international conflict tending to divide the world western and in a .” … a two Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power 38 , l, Contemporanu Contemporanul The caricature depicts two two depicts caricature The 49 The article is indeed substantive. (See Fig. 7.) Fig. (See 48 Churchill gets a subheading as leading gets Churchill However, the concern However, and disappointment , January 4, 1947. Briefly mentioning Kant, Rousseau, it and Schiller, spends ample time Europe, providingon federalizing literature American current background on and also discusses French contributions such L’avenir full volume the then-recent de as l’Europe Centrale. proponent of . Equal space is dedicated to Lenin, who, the capitalist mask ideas federalist how , avant-la-lettre articleargues, had shown, and imperialism expansionism. The articlewith andthe “Against … longest subheading, titled ends with the the caricature, Together for small states.” subheading lead me to think that the articlewas going to end by militating for the rights imperialist large of machinations the against of small states would this that shows article the However, powers. be unrealizable, as it carried is that was fight the with and life social “present in contradiction with peace.” democratic and just a of undoing the for on Instead, the article ends with theexpected call to countries. all between collaboration in even visible times at is ones” little “the of one of a as newspapers, socialist-friendly the of pages the defenders the are “we captioned caricature striking of the small countries” openness. shows with surprising 48 P. Fedoseev, “Culisele planurilor de federalizare a Europei a Europei “Culisele planurilor de federalizare Fedoseev, 48 P. - Contemporan Churchill),” Winston to și Rousseau (Dela Kant ul mici,” țărilor apărătorii 49 “Noi suntem 11, 1946. October Europe Europe (From Kant and Churchill). Rousseau to Winston monsters sitting withfive theirmouths monsters wide open. It does not take much perspicacity monster, two-mouthed the behind to features Stalin’s make out whereas the three-mouthed monster is harder to identify, being potentially compositea portrait of enormous spherical The monsters’ leaders. Western piggy and look both like coins full of gold bellies are banks and globes, geographic with of the contours countries traced by the amalgamations of coins. The caricature was published on the first page of the influential cultural accompanying weekly a lead on focused article the While article Work…” at Conference titled “The Peace - (See

Con 47 , 4 January 1947. , January 4, 1947. Here, Here, Churchill gestures to a little boy and The cage and Churchill reappear together, together, reappear and Churchill The cage Fig. 6: Caricature of Churchill in the Romanian press press in the Romanian of Churchill Fig. 6: Caricature you!” federalize let us “Come, little ones, captioned Contemporanul Fig. 6.) a girl, inviting themto enter acage set up with a jug and two cups. The , tuxedo, and white the and gestures exaggerated the as well as gloves, cage, all suggest a circus impresario. The caption, “Come, little ones, let federalizeus you,” makes the immediate link with the weighty title ofarticle, the “The Wings of the Plans Federalizing of temporanul Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives 47 “Poftiți, vă rog, prichindeilor, să vă federalizăm!,” federalizăm!,” vă să rog, prichindeilor, vă 47 “Poftiți, speech, typed as a North-South typed as a North-South divide speech, along the Iron Curtain. As almost half of his over the body line, crosses the man says: “Let everyone his keep positions.” The adjacentcartoon has Churchill a small figure, with a head looking like globe a divided with longitude lines and a spherical belly peace strutting pathetically a eyeing half in divided pigeon, who, offended, rebels: “I you think!” While at firstwe aream madeto think of what not peace as that hasa beenprostitute bought or sold at the we conference, see the bird strutting in the direction of the nextcartoon, where it iscooped up in a cage. in a centrally placed and locally produced produced placed and locally in a centrally anonymous cartoon on January 4, 1947. Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power - 39 - Contem Spectacle, Spectacle, theatricality, and secrecy were , 11 October 1946. , 11 October tioned: “We are the defenders of small countries,” countries,” of small the defenders are tioned: “We poranul Fig. 7: Caricature of Stalin and the Western powers cap powers and the Western of Stalin Fig. 7: Caricature In so doing, it precariously brought together on the on together brought precariously it doing, so In pages of a small country’s press worlds that were dramatically drifting apart at that moment, very leaving Romania not on the dramatically lit stage of history but rather deep within the belly of the beast. of the covering press in the Romanian not absent Iron Curtain speech in 1946. But if the world Churchill’s was not was this times, at stage a as seen still theater design. Churchill, and the West, were not seen watching innocently from afar through as Rather, Europe. on Eastern fell Curtain the Iron more or less faithful or tendentious translations from the English, French, and Russian press, language through cutting, commentaries, pasting, and juxtapositions, different very a painted press Romanian the marks, the addition quotation of picture. In this picture, Churchill, and the appeared as the dubious of ringmasters this show, West, which resembled an open-air circus a more dignified theater than with safety features like iron curtains. They were more likely to use incendiary need than to screens or put up smoke language be to seemed there which of fires, from protection Romania is barely is barely Romania 50 The caricature and its The caricature 51 small countries – the problems problems the – countries small Thinker. , October 11, 1946, 6. , October between So why does the Iron Curtain get lost in Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives 50 Map accompanying “Conferința de pace lucrează...,” de pace lucrează...,” “Conferința 50 Map accompanying Contemporanul 51 Mircea Alifanil, “Illustration for ‘Criza culturii Române’,” Române’,” culturii for ‘Criza “Illustration Alifanil, 51 Mircea Ibid. the conflicts conflicts the of the Hungarian minority in Czechoslovakia minorityin Czechoslovakia Hungarian of the and the territorial disputes between Greece and Bulgaria, the one actual map illustrating it shows the link the between small nationsand big nations and their problems: the disputed border between Greece and Bulgaria was, of of the course, descending a Iron portion Curtain, map. on the thick line marked with a juxtaposition with the more somber illustration of anxiety the magazine’s crisis expresses Romanian’s the in nation small a as situation Romania’s toward aftermath of the Paris Conference in graphically if unimpeachable, clarity. arresting, Romanian translation, replaced influence? It by seems like sphere the Romanianthe of time imagined at press its worldlongitudinal lines were coming as a more and more sphere whose to the globe, and grid. The cage, a cage’s resemble all roll Stalin and heads andthe bellies of Churchill each into other in to be what appears dangerously engulfing circularity. The line, if appears it at all, is somewhere else, further at away, the border of “Greece with all its splendors” and Bulgaria, still Conference. the Paris at of the agenda on the top position its with do to had crisis” “deep Romanian’s so deep inside the belly of the beast that no it longer was talked about by the great powers. This was a secret that could not be censored more and said more the in even out about written loud, or press the Romanian As a result, press. Romanian at the time engaged with abandon in ambiguous translations, quotations, texts juxtapositionsand and images of from the divestingresponsibility for the obscured message. internationalpress, mentioned in the Paris PeaceConference review itself. However, the article shares the first with page just one other lead article titled “The Crisis of Romanian Culture,” whose illustration parallels and contrasts the monster duo by a duo of two men brooding which could be sketches contrasting after Rodin’s Secrecy, Spectacle, and Power 40 . cortina theatrum , looking closely at the role played played the role looking , closely at Rhetoric Rhetoric and translation played key a . But that is about where the consensus connection connection The cortina/cort 5, 2014. 27–March February period, when, in the transition visible more probably was and temporary, appeared iron curtain time, the the first for under the from exit had a sense of being able to Romanians the beyond penetrate than to – rather (cort) tent role role in the shaping of the post-bellum world. An archeology of its main partition, theIron Curtain, secrecy of interpenetration foundational the shows with theatricality. Theatricality defined the once the curtain so that the start, from Curtain Iron was hung, the world was staged mundi as a ended, and the fierce battlesover who the actors, the audience, the Curtain operators ringmasters, were truly and began. There were the also disputes about what kind of Iron show – tragedy, comedy, circus, or world absurd was in This for. articlehow investigated the tragicomedy – views differed the depending on one’s position in this theatrum mundi in securing those seats. and translation rhetoric by (tent), (tent), cort

52 (iron curtain) is curtain) de fier (iron cortina Spring 2015 | 45:1 • Spring Europe on Perspectives 52 That view persisted. In a brief review of the uses of the review In a brief persisted. view 52 That Zafiu Rodica press, Romanian in the contemporary term “The that notes Romanian perceived, not just like a barrier, but as a kind of a barrier, like not just perceived, of cover as a form related), which is etymologically (a word , Dilema veche de fier,” “Cortina Zafiu, Rodica and pressure). no trace of in Romania. In this vision, the Romanian Romanian the vision, this In Romania. in of trace no press, like the Soviets, turned the accusation theatricality of toward Churchill and the West, and saw theatricality and spectacle as a cover for real secret intentions.Rather as a histrionic appeared Churchill thanobserver, a dispassionate ringmaster, gesturing imperialist for dramatically, war toward world dissembling, the misleading and profit. TheRomanian press’s twist and difference from the Soviet positionwas that,at times, Stalin the From Churchill. from different that look not did with powers big the ones,” little “the of perspective mouths ready bellies their enormous and many to swallow small countries lose their distinctions. Rather than the two-dimensional map linear Iron Curtain line, with the globe may its have been at the thegeographic representation favorite time its longitudinal and because press in Romanian the matched so easily graphically were lines latitudinal the gridlock of a cage. over