Appendix Appendix A Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies

This appendix presents a series of case studies funded, the range of educational needs found in the exploring the applications and uses of technologies military, the uses of information technology to ad- in a variety of institutional settings. All were cho- dress these needs, and the extent to which these sen to depict current, state-of-the-art uses within programs may be applicable to the civilian educa- institutions where application has been successful. tional sector. The seven studies describing information tech- Two other sections–information technology and nology in the public schools were selected to in- special education, and information technology in clude examples from the Northeast, Midwest, the home—are also included in this appendix. Since South, West, and Far West regions of the United special education is a field, not an institution, OTA States—and to include rural, suburban, and urban did not fully explore the uses, impacts, and effects school settings. In choosing sites to visit, the of these technologies in this area. However, be- major criterion was that activities involving tech- cause the technologies will considerably affect the nology were already under way and well-estab- schools in general, OTA examined the possible ap- lished. These cases were also selected to cover a plication of these technologies for teaching the variety of instructional uses of computers; com- gifted and the handicapped. In a similar vein, OTA puter literacy, computers as instructional delivery took a broad overview of educational services that systems (CAI-CMI), and computers as tools for are now available to be delivered directly to and problem-solving. in the home. Three case studies of applications of information technologies in corporate instructional programs are presented to illustrate computer-assisted in- struction, computer-managed instruction, comput- Computers in Education: er-based simulation, video disk, and teleconferenc- Lexington Public Schools ing. The studies have been drawn from the airline, Lexington, Mass. high-technology, and tobacco products industries. Use of information and communication technol- The Computers in Education program of the ogies has affected all aspects of library services. Lexington, Mass., public schools was selected for With a broad overview of different applications study because the district is considered to be a within different types of libraries, there are exam- leader in the application of computer technology, ples of new and innovative programs that are local, with experience and expertise that spans over 15 county, statewide, and national in scope. years. Located next to Route 128, the home of a As in libraries, information technology has thousand high-technology companies, the district changed the nature of educational services pro- typifies a community where parents’ technical ex- vided by many museums. Recently, more and more pertise, leadership, and support have had a signifi- museums have been incorporating information cant impact. The Lexington experience illustrates technology, particularly computers, into both their a variety of computing applications, developed by exhibits and their educational programs. A survey individual teachers with leadership from the dis- of the uses of the technology in museums and a trict’s long-range planner and computer specialist. case study on a new childrens’ museum in Wash- The program also demonstrates a major planning ington, D. C., are included to demonstrate current effort involving teachers, administrators, and par- programs. ents. This 2-year effort has resulted in a com- All branches of the military have made substan- prehensive blueprint for computers in education tial investments in research and development that depends on the district’s continued ability to (R&D) on applications of information technology handle financial constraints (Proposition 2½) to education as well as investments in ongoing pro- through frugal budgeting, redistributing available grams utilizing these technologies. Descriptions of funds, and forming new partnerships with the some of the military’s educational programs are community (town government) and the private sec- included to illustrate the types of programs tor.

187 188 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Fifth grade students (at left) at Fiske School, Lexington, Mass., gather about their homeroom’s computer console, linked to the Lexington School System’s mainframe Digital Equipment Corp. computer, housed at the Lexington High School. The computer is made available to all of the students in the class, much as are books, activity files, maps, records, and educational materials of all nature. Their homeroom teacher assigns students to the keyboard on a rotating basis, giving them assignments which enhance their computer literacy

The Setting Lexington is also a relatively homogeneous, af- fluent, middle-class community. The school-aged Lexington, one of the suburban towns that sur- population is 95-percent white, 3-percent black, rounds Boston, is located in the heart of the and 2-percent Oriental. Seventy percent of high State’s booming high-technology area. Many of school graduates go on to a 4-year college. Lex- the Lexington parents and community members ington boasts of having the largest number of are employed by the nearby technology industries merit scholars in the area, in part because there in white-collar technical and managerial positions. are many “smart kids” in the system, but also There has been continual and strong community because “our program is rigorous and interesting. ” involvement and support for the schools, with a A total of 5,625 students are enrolled in grades tradition of community participation in town gov- K-12 in seven elementary, two junior high, and one ernance and decisionmaking. high school. Five years ago, the district, accurately Contrary to trends in other districts, 90 percent projecting serious enrollment declines, planned of Lexington parents send their school-aged chil- and prepared for significantly fewer students. dren to the public schools. Assistant Superintend- Over that period five schools were closed and 150 ent Geoff Pierson observes that the flight to pri- teaching positions were abolished, while teacher/ vate schools has not occurred because “there is student ratios were held constant and the number consensus about what the schools are doing and of instructional programs was increased. Accord- parents feel that the schools represent their chil- ing to Superintendent John Lawson, declining en- dren’s interests. ” rollments, continuing inflation, and the passage of App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 189

Proposition 2½, resulted in the allocation of fewer tions—e.g., budgeting, accounting, scheduling, at- resources to the public sector. tendance, and student and personnel data. Project However, Lawson states that the school admin- funds also supported the purchase of a DEC PDP istration and the school committee have avoided 11/40 and peripheral hardware. Shortly, this serious problems by planning carefully and spend- system was also used to support instructional ac- ing frugally, “In an era of limited resources we tivities at the secondary schools—primarily in have had to develop better priorities, monitor our math and science, but also in other areas. successes, and determine where we want to go Parents soon began to push for computer use in next. ” Not all parents and staff have been happy the elementary schools, locating unused terminals with the budget decisions and allocation of re- at work, donating personally owned equipment, sources, but they agree that Lexington has fared and helping the schools get the hardware installed. better than other districts in the State. There is In addition, parents and math specialists trained consensus that the over $17 million 1981-82 budg- teachers, Because teacher acceptance and use of et, with a $3,024 per pupil expenditure, supports computers was minimal, parents took over opera- a comprehensive, high-quality educational pro- tion of the terminals and trained additional parent gram. volunteers to enable pupils at all elementary schools to participate, These computer activities Computer Applications in continue to build general computer awareness and the District comfort and to engage students in problem-solving activities, drills, and games. When microcomput- The district’s first computer, a Digital Equip- ers came on the market, the Lexington computer ment Corp. PDP-8 with 14 terminals, was pur- activitists were ready to move. chased with Federal funds by the mathematics de- The first four Commodore PET microcomputers partment in 1965. Math-related computer courses were purchased with discretionary funds in 1978, were first offered to high school students, and a and a half-time position for a computer specialist year later to junior high school students. As teach- was created. A year later, an additional 35 PET’s ers and students became involved, interested par- were purchased with Federal Title IVB funds and ents worked with them to develop software, to ex- PTA gifts. At the beginning of the 1978 school pand programing skills, and to train others. year, workshops were offered to reach all teachers Spearheading all of the computer activities, to integrate them into instruction. The plan was Walter Koetke, computer coordinator (no longer to diffuse computers among the schools. With a with the district), encouraged parents and teachers total budget of only $800, a computer specialist and, according to many, demystified computers. (Beth Lewd) was hired to work with each school; He taught his colleagues BASIC, designed soft- community volunteers were enlisted to write soft- ware for the system, and set the foundation for ware for the PETs or adapt software from the PDP Lexington’s computer applications. A math spe- 11; and a catalog and materials library was as- cialist trained by Koetke worked with an advanced sembled. group of primary students, transporting these In June 1980, it was clear that short-term, un- youngsters to a nearby junior high so that they planned use wasn’t working. Rotation of the equip- could have once-a-week computer experiences. One ment was modified to concentrate resources in the of the youngest, a first grader in the group, later rooms of interested teachers, and a “models” ap- became one of the Lexington high school program- proach evolved. The wide diffusion of computers ing stars. By the late 1960’s, Lexington led in ef- was seen to depend on successes in individual forts to bring computer-related experiences to classrooms first. Another lesson learned was that groups of fifth and sixth graders who were trans- the microcomputers had to be available for more ported to junior high schools by their schools’ than a few weeks (e.g., one semester or all year) math specialist and by parent volunteers. to ensure maximum payoff in each classroom. In 1975, with leadership from Frank DiGiam- By 1980, more than 20 models were imple- marino (director of computer services), Koetke, mented with a focus on computer literacy and ap- and others, the district obtained funding from the plications in math, spelling, social studies, science, Massachusetts State Department under title VI, and language arts at all grade levels. In each case, part B to develop a computerized system to deal models were developed by individual teachers, a with the real problems of data management in a team of teachers, or the entire school staff. In local school district. Project LEADS developed many instances, school principals provided staff software for a wide range of management func- support, while central office staff wrote grant pro- 190 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

posals to the school board to get additional funds ● Business applications for microcomputers, software, teacher planning ● Science applications time, etc. Library To build awareness of computer potential and Q Materials data base to obtain support for the ongoing activities, a 2- s Computer center/library media center pilot day leadership conference was held in October Management and Systemwide Administrative 1980. More than 90 district educators attended. Services Experts from Massachusetts Institute of Technol- ● Program budgeting ogy (MIT), area colleges, regional cooperatives, ● Program accounting local school districts, and the private sector made ● Fiscal reporting presentations. Teachers from the Lexington dis- ● Scheduling trict demonstrated hardware and software and ● Grade reports structured hands-on experiences. The conference . Student and personnel data was followed by the formation of computer plan- ning committees. Parent Involvement and Workshops and training sessions followed that Community Support were intended to provide most of the staff some training, at least at the awareness level. Teacher Parents have participated in the computer activ- participation has so far been voluntary. All of the ities and served as a resource by: district’s library media specialists have had exten- ● providing technical advice and assistance. sive training and, as a result, have initiated several Parents serve on advisory and hardware pur- projects: a computerized annotated listing of chasing committees, help install equipment, 16mm films; a materials data base for all nonprint troubleshoot problems, and support computer materials in the district; and a computer center/ plans in school board deliberations; library media pilot. The media specialist’s role has ● writing educational software for the time- expanded in Lexington; in recent budget planning share system and the PET microcomputers sessions library positions were held constant, part- and by inputing data in the materials data ly because of the school committee’s commitment base; to computer activities and because of the plan to ● helping train students, teachers, and other focus computer centers around the media center. parents on the terminals. Parents help in indi- Currently, the district’s 60 microcomputers, 2 vidual classrooms using microcomputers, and minicomputers, and 33 terminals support the fol- participate in district-level workshops; lowing uses: ● assisting with computer clubs before and after Kindergarten - Grade 3 school; ● Reinforcement of number and letter skills ● supervising the use of the time-share termi- ● Computer awareness and independence nals in the elementary schools; and ● Phonics instruction ● purchasing and donating equipment. PTAs ● LOGO models raised funds to purchase additional microcom- s BASIC for primary grades puters. Other parents donated personally Grades 4-6 owned computers and terminals or found ex- ● Word processing for editing cess equipment that was no longer being used c BASIC for problem solving by companies. ● Using terminals in the classroom Gloria Bloom–a parent volunteer, MIT gradu- c LOGO ate, and former computer programer--estimates ● Skills reinforcement that parents currently spend approximately 70 Grades 7-9 hours a week operating the time-share terminals c BASIC and computer literacy in the elementary schools. Parents also come to ● Word processing for writing school committee meetings and meet with the ● Simulations in science superintendent and school principals to help ad- ● Skills reinforcement vance the program. Some observers of the Lexing- Grades 10-12 ton program suspect that parents have led the edu- c Six math electives ranging from computer cators by pressuring and demanding computer awareness to computer science and assembly programs for their children. Parents point out, language programing however, that educators must play the key role if App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 191 computer technology is to become integrated into veloped by individual teachers. Each elementary the educational process. and secondary school uses terminals and micro- Although the major industries are literally next computers, but the applications and the penetra- door to Lexington, corporate-level involvement tion into all classrooms varies. Some teachers have with the school system is not direct. Rather, col- greater interest and expertise, hence their stu- laboration is primarily through the parents of the dents have different experiences. Parents in some pupils or through interested individuals in the schools have become more involved, have access community who are also connected to the private to resources, and are willing to push harder than sector. Through these individuals, hardware is do- others. Principals juggle with conflicting needs nated, software is developed, company tours are and set different priorities. The issue of equity in conducted, and information on careers is dissemi- access and quality has concerned Superintendent nated. Lawson and his administrative staff. More than any other factor, it has led to increased leadership Impacts responsibility for DiGiammarino, an expansion of Ironically, increasing success has created prob- Lewd’s activities, and the creation of planning lems. DiGiammarino describes the issues in terms committees. of ‘the ecstasy and agony of computers. ” As edu- For members of the district computer curricu- cators’ experience broadens and expertise devel- lum committee, as well as for others heavily in- ops, the potential uses for computers is recognized volved with computers, the benefits to teachers, —the ecstasy. “This, however, is tempered by the their students, and the program outweigh the realization that all the conditions necessary to problems or frustrations. Teachers point to their reach the ecstasy do not currently exist—the new computer expertise. Many have written their agony. ” For example, more and more teachers are own programs, and others have helped design and moving ahead with classroom applications, enroll- implement computer models and curriculum mate- ing in workshops and degree programs at nearby rials. Mainly by trial and error, teachers have made universities, and, at the same time, requesting the computer work, and they feel good about what more equipment, software, and in-service training. they and their students have learned together. The present time-share hardware systems are There is a pervasive enthusiasm. aging fast; the microcomputers break down and Dave Olney, high school physics teacher, imple- are difficult to maintain the demand is greater ments one of the district computer models for than the supply; and funds for teacher in-service, using the Apple computer in physics. He spends professional development, and sabbaticals are lim- hours writing programs and expanding his own ited. knowledge and previous experience with the DEC Impacts on Students. Students are motivated system. He is excited about using the microcom- and interested in computers, and there is evidence puter to speed up and improve Laboratory activi- of improved student performance through skills ties by having students punch-in data, calculate reinforcement drills. But the existing software for results, and get immediate feedback. He sees a the minicomputers and microcomputers, obtained whole range of applications including the feasibil- through commercial sources and parent, teacher, ity of modeling problem-solving processes in phys- and student development, is limited in scope. ics. His enthusiasm results from the intellectual Although high-quality software is becoming avail- stimulation he derives from the logic processes able, it is very expensive. The LEADS system has that he uses as he programs these activities. both management and instructional applications, For other teachers, satisfaction comes from ob- but its users are primarily central office staff and serving the progress of their students in writing, special education staff. Its potential for diagnosis in math and reading, or in simply feeling com- and tutoring applications and materials retrieval, fortable with computers in a variety of settings. however, is high. According to school officials, There is no question that students are enthusiastic what is needed to make LEADS fully operational users. A group of third and fourth graders work- is an upgraded minicomputer, a unified distribu- ing with LOGO and problem-solving strategies, in- tive network, and training for both administrators terviewed by their teacher, Florence Bailey, re- and teachers—to be implemented during the sec- ported that learning is fun, that mistakes can be ond year of the long-range plan. handled, that solutions can be derived through ex- Finally, there is the issue of program diversity. perience, and that mastering programing skills is As programs evolve, different approaches are de- challenging: 192 c Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Eric: It’s fun, but it’s actually school work. It’s become not only possible, but commonplace. The better than recess! Brad and I make a good planning document projections include: team. He knows things I don’t know, and I ● A third grade student at a computer station know what he doesn’t. ready to LOAD, RUN, and LIST a program Tim: If you’re bored, you just work on the com- from tape or disk. puter, and you’re not bored anymore. ● A teacher at a computer terminal obtaining Tanya: I can make my own designs and pictures. You’re learning while you’re having fun. a list of all nonbook resources owned by the Chrissy: The big one upstairs is already programed. Lexington School System related to a specific This one you can learn to program with your subject heading for students at the seventh own things. grade instructional reading level. Shannon: You can learn by yourself. . . if you make ● Elementary school students work at comput- mistakes. You can fix a circle that’s too big. er stations in the learning center or on teach- Increasing numbers of Lexington students, par- er prescribed learning activities which have ticularly by the time they reach high school, have been integrated into the curriculum. expertise in programing that is impressive. Ed ● The coordinator of language arts updating the Good, director of the high school computer math language arts curriculum data base from staff center, points proudly to students who have writ- evaluative information. ten software for the districts’ data management ● A junior high school student electing to take system, for elementary classroom instructional ac- a followup computer course as a result of pos- tivities, and for small businesses in the area. He itive experiences in the required computer lit- cites the high school sophomore who designed the eracy program. interface to transfer (download) programs on the ● A student at the senior high school level de- PDP 11/40 to the PET’s, thereby saving the dis- signing his/her own data base management in- trict thousands of dollars. formation system. From the models and from other uses, it appears ● Teachers or students using computer termi- that computers are, and will continue to be power- nals to address computerized information sys- ful tools for both teachers and learners. This no- tems anywhere in the Nation. tion explains, in part, why an increasing number ● A teacher queries a terminal to determine ex- of staff members are using computers or are inter- actly what are the educational plan objectives ested in having computers in their classroom. Jody of two students in the class and what is their Josiassen, a fourth grade teacher, describes his progress to date. 2-year involvement: “In my teacher training pro- ● A program director querying a terminal to de- gram there was nothing in my education that termine the exact cost to date of his program spoke to this-the hardware-the software. It’s a and precisely what portion of that cost has brand new field. I get excited about it from a teach- been used for special needs programs. er’s point of view because I think it can do things ● A counselor using the computer to assist in the classroom for me that I’ve struggled with scheduling a new student. in the past. ” ● An elementary principal, concerned about the Finally, in further justifying the comprehensive validity of the academic level recommended plans for future computer applications, Lexington for his students moving to junior high, using administrators and teachers point to their high- a terminal to examine how previous students technology community and to the increasingly have achieved in seventh grade relative to the technology-related world. Two-thirds of Jody level recommended by his school. Josiassen’s students have their own home comput- ● The data-processing center adding to the data ers. He views this phenomenon as the “iceberg out base the information from the annual battery there and I’m at the very tip. ” He also sees that of basic skills tests given to one-quarter of the the schools need to be part of the momentum, “to school population. Also, printing report cards catch it, structure it and use it . . . and help my and searching for those students whose aca- students develop their goals to use it. ” demic achievement is declining.

The Future Acquisition and Placement of Hardware. Key implementation strategies include the acquisition Implementing the Long-Range Plan for Com- of equipment over a 5-year period, with a mix of puters in Education. With district implementation microcomputers, terminals, and replacement of the of the long-range plan, the following examples will system’s PDP 11/40 and 8. Each school will have App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 193 a cluster of inexpensive portable microcomputers A Separate Department for Information Sci- and terminals that tie into the central system. The ence. The planning committee has recommended upgraded central minicomputer system will signif- the establishment of an information science de- icantly expand capacity to handle a curriculum partment to lead program activities–handling materials data base, software collections, and stu- staffing, budgeting, maintaining, and evaluating dent information and management functions. the K-12 computer literacy program. The de- Each elementary school will have a computer partment would also assume responsibility for the learning center supervised by the library media revision, updating, and teaching of higher level specialist. A center or cluster will be equipped with courses on programing, systems design, and com- the following: puter applications. Inservice training and other ● 11 small microcomputers (several available for leadership and professional development activities loan to individual classrooms), would be handled as well. Computer literacy and ● three CRT terminals hooked to the central computer science courses would be taken out of minicomputer, the math department, and the scope of the pro- ● one printer directly tied to the central mini- gram would be broadened to include all curriculum computer, and areas. No new staff positions are contemplated; ● one printer for the microcomputers network- staff members who have already played leading ing and electronic mail equipment. roles will be reassigned to the new department. Similar centers will be established at the junior Training and Curriculum Development: Com- high school, with one center servicing the needs puter Literacy. These efforts will continue with of the computer literacy curriculum as well as the summer workshops and inservice training activ- academic areas outside of math and science. The ities scheduled on release days at the beginning second center will support math and science appli- of the school term and periodically during the year. cations. Similar configurations are planned for the During the summer, teachers from the computer high school, as well as an upgraded computer cen- literacy committees will work with Lewd to as- ter with a replacement of the PDP 11/40 and a semble and prepare materials for elementary and phase-out of the PDP 8. junior high school components. These teachers will Funding. Recommended equipment will prob- be responsible for teaching the course at the junior ably cost almost a half-million dollars. Up until and senior high schools in the fall. Resources (staff now, computers and terminals were acquired with- time, equipment, and software purchase and de- out expenditure of local funds (see previous sec- velopment) will be concentrated over the short tions of this report). With reductions in Federal term in grades 5, 8, and 10. Remaining portions and State funds, the district is searching for other of the new curriculum will be piloted at other grade alternatives, such as corporate contributions from levels. the computer hardware manufacturers, to defray Computers in Education. It is planned to extend part of the equipment costs. The school commit- the use of computers as tools for instruction. The tee is also being asked to allocate funds from the materials data base will be operational. Because operating budget to support the computer pro- of upgraded central computing facilities, teachers gram. For 1982 to 1983, the plan is to budget and administrators are expected to increase their $74,566 from local revenues, to use all of the Fed- use of computerized data. Also expected to in- eral title IVB grants ($16,000) and reimburse- crease are the communication and sharing of infor- ments to the district for student teaching from mation and software via electronic mail among all Boston University ($10,000), and to attempt to ob- schools, as well as the number of accessing infor- tain a 50 percent discount from DEC for the new mation centers and networks within the commu- minicomputer as a corporate contribution. nity, State, and region. Although implementation of the plan is based Parents and the Technology Community. Coop- on funding sources such as Federal block grants erative efforts with local district cooperatives and and other special area funds, the availability of user groups, with parents, and with the high-tech- these resources is not guaranteed under present nology industries is essential to Lexington’s circumstances. Furthermore, funding projections future. How else, argue the educators, can the dis- deal solely with hardware acquisition. Costs for trict keep abreast of technological advances, en- software, continued training, and maintenance will courage or demand useful and appropriate soft- have to be absorbed by operating budgets. ware, make the best use of available resources to 194 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

advance the long-range plan, and maximize the po- Martha Angevine, Coordinator, Instructional Material tential benefits of technology for education? Services, Curriculum Resource Center* As a result of district membership in EDCO, a Luree Jaquith, Media Specialist Bowman Elementary local education collaboration, Lexington teachers School* Beverly Smith, Teacher, Bowman Elementary School* will derive benefits from the computer resource Jill O’Reilly, Math Teacher, Clark Junior High School and demonstration center that is being estab- Bruce Storm, Teacher, Clark Junior High School lished. They will also benefit from the knowledge Jody Josiassen, Teacher, Barrington School** that they are not alone, that other districts are Dave Olney, Science Teacher, Lexington High School copying with computer applications, too. The reg- Ed Good, Math Teacher, Computer Center, Lexington ular exchange of information with such districts High School is welcomed by the staff. Finally, the technology Louis Clapp, Parent community and the parents offer valuable re- Gloria Bloom, Parent sources. Lewis Clapp, president of a local software ● Member, Computer Planning Curriculum Committee development company and also a parent, main- ** Member, Elementary Curriculum COIIIDU “tt.ee tains “a school system that does not take advan- Bibliography tage of the intellectual power of its parents and community is doing a disservice to its students— DiGiammarino, F. P., Computers in Public Education, particularly in an era of 2½’s and Reaganomics.” The Second Time Around, preliminary draft, fall 1981. The parents of Lexington recognize progress, DiGiammarino, F., Koetke, W., Guldager, L., and Clif- but they expect more. For example, Clapp believes ford, L., Local Education Agency Data System: Proj- it is essential that all teachers be computer-liter- ect LEADS, Lexington Public Schools, September 1976. ate; that public and higher education efforts be DiGiammarino, F., and Lewd, B., “A Position Pa- coordinated; that computing and computer science per—Expanding the Use of Computers in the Lex- curricula be fully developed to reflect the current ington Schools” (revised), June 23, 1980. state of the art; that computer tools be used to DiGiammarino, F., and Lewd, B., Computers in Educa- support the entire curriculum, not just math or tion: A Long Range Plan, Lexington Public Schools, science; and that every student has adequate ex- fall 1981. posure to computers— “knowing what computers Lexington Public Schools, 1981-82 Budget Summary, are all about and able to run programs-maybe March 1981. even able to write their own by the time they reach Lexington Public Schools, Computers in Education, high school. ” Clapp argues that the educational 1980-81 report. Lexington Public Schools, “Computers in Education community and the public schools have a critical 1979-1980 Program Plan. ” role to play in meeting these goals, but raises seri- ous issues to be faced now and in the future: The tragedy is that national support for this is Computer-Using Educators nonexistent-at the time we need it the most. The local district can’t do it. Lexington-even Lexing- and Computer Literacy ton–might not be able to (accomplish these goals) Programs In Novato and with a budget limited to a 2½ percent increase each Cupertino year. . . It is a disaster for this nation. If we fail to invest in education nationally, we impact on our Introduction future and our ability to be productive . . . (and maintain) the edge we have in computers, in soft- The Silicon Valley and nearby communities were ware, and in information retrieval. selected for study because the area provides a rich source and critical mass of educators, schools, Resources students, parents and community members, and business representatives directly involved with Case study interviews: technology. The area is the center of the Nation’s John Lawson, Superintendent Geoff Pierson, Assistant Superintendent* semiconductor industry. It is also the home of a Frank DiGiammarino, Administrative Assistant* for growing number of educational experts and lead- Planning and Research and Director, Computer ers in computing. There are many examples of Services locally developed projects sprouted by individual Beth Lewd, Computers-in-Education Specialist* teachers or administrators or parents, which have Bob Tucker, Teacher, Estabrook Elementary School* developed into major programs affecting an entire App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 195

districts’ students and staff. These activities in- The center has a steady stream of users. The San volving computers in classrooms also demonstrate Mateo County Office of Education provides space, how resources–local, State, and Federal funding, maintenance, and support through Ann Lathrop, as well as parent and local experts and the private library coordinator, and LeRoy Finkel, the coun- sector—are critical to implementation. ty’s instructional computing coordinator. Superin- tendent William Jennings cites the center’s bene- COMPUTER-USING EDUCATORS fits to the county’s 24 school districts. Teachers Computer-Using Educators (CUE) is a support and administrators try out equipment and soft- group organized by and for K-12 teachers, teacher ware; both Lathrop and Finkel are nearby to pro- trainers, and others interested in the use of com- vide help and expertise. CUE members and their puters in education. Started by 12 teachers in the district teachers and administrators take advan- spring of 1978, the organization has mushroomed tage of the center for meetings, training sessions, to a membership of 3,500, primarily in California demonstrations, and evaluation of hardware and but also in 48 States and 13 foreign countries. Its software. The center is visited by representatives growth reflects the phenomenal growth of edu- from hardware companies and software houses, cational computer applications and mirrors the educators and government officials from all over grassroots development of programs in schools up the State and even educators from other States and down the San Francisco Bay Area. Groups and foreign countries. modeled after CUE have also been formed Ann Lathrop conceived SOFTSWAP, the soft- throughout the country. ware dissemination and evaluation project, and Through conferences, newsletters, and meetings, garnered the support of colleagues to field-test, CUE is a source of information and a vehicle for evaluate, debug, and clean up the programs in the sharing experiences with computers, and their use system. Through SOFTSWAP, teachers can pur- in education. In addition, CUE members origi- chase software or swap their original program for nated and now support the Microcomputer Center that of someone else. Most of the 300+ software and SOFTSWAP Library of public-domain micro- programs are short, stand-alone instructional computer software housed in the San Mateo Coun- units; many are drill and practice exercises for the ty Office of Education. To quote one member: elementary school level or for remedial work at the Learning is a never-ending process. Formal edu- secondary level. All were evaluated by educators cation is a small portion of this ongoing process. and edited for factual and spelling errors, inaccu- The role of educators is to aid the learning proc- rate or incomplete instructions, programing errors, esses. The philosophy of CUE should be to show etc. educators-mostly by example-the role computers When visitors come to the center, they can copy can play in the learning process, Computers can be dissemination disks without charge. Single mail used in many ways to do many functions. The uses, order disks are $10 apiece, or free if a disk with functions, methods, and materials will change and at least one original program is contributed. Each evolve. CUE can help discover and show the way. disk contains 12 to 30 programs. Since the major Microcomputer Center and SOFTSWAP. The thrust of SOFTSWAP is sharing with the widest stimulus for the software exchange came from a possible distribution, programs may be freely du- San Jose State University professor, Vince Con- plicated, but not sold. treras, a CUE member. He organized the exchange of public domain and individually contributed soft- ware that was deposited in the San Mateo Educa- CUE Conferences tion Resource Center (SMERC) Library in the spring of 1980. By the time school was out, CUE CUE’s first conference, remembers William members had talked several of their microcomput- (Sandy) Wagner, founder and first president of er industry contacts into placing microcomputers CUE, evolved from CUE’s early meetings. “We’d in the SMERC Library on long-term loan. Tandy introduce ourselves, share ideas on curriculum, on (Radio Shack) and Commodore (PET) provided the software . . . and see more new faces each time. By first systems. Ann Lathrop, coordinator of the September 1978 the small group had grown to 50 Microcomputer Center reports that the center now and it was agreed that “we can’t go on meeting has 14 microcomputers and manufacturers help like this” . . . a conference would facilitate sharing maintain equipment and provide new models as and in-depth discussions. CUE’s first weekend they have become available. conference in January 1979 attracted 65 edu- 196 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

cators. A few informal sessions expanded to multi- who want to learn how to use the computer and ple presentations, wide-ranging exhibits, and related tools in their studies and future work. hands-on workshops in the fall 1980 conference with Governor Brown of California, in his address 500 in attendance. By fall 1981, conference attend- before the State Legislature in January 1982, ance reached 1,400—with some districts sending called for new priorities and action: all their teachers to view 45 commercial exhibits Our schools must augment the three R’s with the and 60 different speakers. CUE’s officers and ex- three C’s—computing, calculating, and communi- ecutive board members play critical roles in plan- cating through technology. We will do so or suc- ning, organizing, and running the CUE confer- ceeding generations will inherit a society stagnating ences. They work evenings and weekends—all on in the aftershocks of massive foreign imports and volunteered time. The conference coordinators obsolete industry. handle some tasks with their own personal com- In addition to the first priority of an increased puters, as well. commitment to mathematics, science, and comput- er instruction in California K-12 schools, the State Education Agency is beginning to address technol- Impacts ogy issues. One issue that concerns many of the The expansion of CUE membership and activi- local educators is how to meet these commitments, ties demonstrates not only the growing interest given the growing disparity between districts that and use of technology in schools, but also the fact have programs, trained teachers, and community that teachers need help. They are coming for more resources to draw on and those districts that do than help, some argue-they’re looking for leader- not. Furthermore, not every district or county in ship. These computer-using educators “are carry- the State has a major industry to draw on. Even ing the message that the time to move is now, ” in the Silicon Valley much of the private sector is notes Arthur Luehrmann, former director of the made up of small, short-term, entrepreneurial busi- Lawrence Hall of Science Computer Project. “The nesses that don’t have extensive resources. leaders are here in these counties who are respond- In reflecting on the grassroots development and ing to the signals coming from society, from the the enthusiasm of CUE, Joyce Hakansson, former- employers, and the parents. ” ly at the Lawrence Hall of Science and now a soft- When asked why CUE and the grassroots phe- ware designer and developer, cautions: “We need nomenon developed where it did, many point to the to understand the place of technology and give it “critical mass” of people that emerged—individu- a proper role. Don’t assign all of our ills to als developing separate programs and expertise, technology . . . recognize that technology is just but living close enough to meet. Finkel points to another tool. ” Hakansson notes the new status the special and unique aspects of CUE. “CUE and positive feelings of self-worth resulting from members are teachers first. We share, we don’t interaction with microcomputers, but also ob- have district or school boundaries. We’re a net- serves that, “software, the essence and heart of work of people . . . and it’s a stupendous event the computer, is less than it could be” and that each time we meet. ” Furthermore, there was a “what youngsters are doing on computers may not need for support, training, information, and leader- be worth the time or money. ” The future applica- ship that neither the State education agency, the tions ought to capture the inherent interest and institutions of higher education, nor the high-tech- motivating aspects of the technology and match nology industries were providing. it with children’s learning needs--to integrate com- puters into the teaching and learning environment. Future From the Silicon Valley and surrounding San Francisco Bay Area communities, two school dis- There are indications that the latter situation tricts were studied. These districts’ educational may be changing, albeit slowly. The Fremont and computing programs were locally developed and Los Gates High School districts plan to open a typify the area’s grassroots activities. Key person- joint Silicon Valley High School with support from nel from these districts are heavily involved in the Industry Education Council. Equipment and CUE: Bobby Godson, from Cupertino, is CUE’s training for teachers are being solicited from high- President and Helen Joseph, from Novato, is a tech industries. The high school will offer entry- member of CUE’S executive board. In-depth dis- level vocational training and courses for the col- cussions of school district approaches to imple- lege-bound information sciences major who wants menting computers in classrooms follow: The a head start, and for other college-bound students Novato Unified District, a rural K-12 system at App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 197 the northern tip of Marin County, and the Cuper- of $938,714 in 1977-78 to $602,324 in 1981-82. In tino Union K-8 district in Santa Clara in the center 1982-83, impact aid is uncertain. State funds, of Silicon Valley. which provide 70 percent of the district revenue, have been cut, including categorical aid for special Novato Unified School education and gifted and talented programs. Ed- ucators note that the impact of Proposition 13 District, Novato, Calif. passed 4 years ago, is now being felt, since the The Setting State’s surplus has been depleted. Located at the upper tip of Marin County ap- Computer Applications in proximately 30 miles north of San Francisco, the District Novato Unified School District (NUSD) is one of Computer education in the district began 8 years two districts in the county combining elementary ago, when a Novato junior high school acquired and secondary schools. It is the largest of the a teletype machine and shared with Dominican districts in Marin County. It is also more rural and College the lease of a telephone line hookup with less affluent than other areas in the county. Agri- the time-sharing computer at the Lawrence Hall culture predominates; the major local industry is of Science in Berkeley. Novato was one of several insurance-the Fireman’s Fund. Incorporated in school districts linked to the Hall’s Computer Edu- 1961, Novato’s community is diverse: blue collar cation Project (funded by the National Science workers, many San Francisco commuters, a grow- Foundation). The Hall staff, Lee Berman and ing number of retirees, and personnel and families Joyce Hakansson, were invaluable resources as on the military base. The student body composi- computer activities evolved, relates Helen Joseph, tion is 90-percent white, 5-percent Asian (and in- computer resource teacher and coordinator. Even creasing), 3-percent Hispanic, and 2-percent black. after the timesharing project ended, she continued Three-fifths of Novato graduates goon to college. to turn to them for advice and support. In recent years, student enrollments have de- The district’s first microcomputers were ac- clined and several schools have been closed. The quired in 1977, when the time-sharing costs were present enrollment of 8,642 is expected to decrease escalating. Richard Melendy, former math and further and level off to 7,500 by 1985. Presently, science coordinator, now school principal, and there are eight elementary schools, grades K-6; Joseph met with the district director of instruc- three junior highs, grades 7-9; two high schools, tion and examined how the district might best use grades 10-12; and one continuation, grades 9-12. the MGM (mentally gifted minor) funds which had One junior high school is targeted for closing at supported the time-sharing project. The subse- the end of this year. If Novato can find buyers for quent decision to purchase Commodore PETs was the surplus school properties it owns outright based on cost and reliability. (three sites are currently for sale), the interest from Over the next 3 years the computer program these revenues can be used for equipment and cap- grew rapidly, expanding to the two senior highs, ital improvements. an additional junior high, and an elementary Local educators point out that while Marin school. In this small district, officials made an ear- County boasts the highest per capita income in the ly decision to standardize hardware because of Bay Area, Novato is the “poorest part. ” The teacher training, software acquisition, and main- 1981-82 NUSD annual budget is $23,645,286. One- tenance requirements. By 1980, there were 28 mi- fifth of the budget is federally funded. School fi- crocomputers purchased with MGM State funds, nances are and will continue to be a growing area magazine sales money, and district minigrants. for concern. Superintendent Ronald Franklin ex- The development of the program by Joseph and plains the district’s bind: Melendy had strong support from the district ad- Parents expect that educational programs will ministration. There was consensus that before the reflect excellence . . . the toughest thing we have to deal with in being able to handle our commitment district went further, an external assessment and (to the district’s computer and other programs) is evaluation was needed. Arthur Luehrmann, former the uncertainty of the financial posture of both Fed- director of the Computer Education Project at the eral and State governments. Lawrence Hall of Science, spent 3 days in Novato Novato’s board and administration are concerned in March 1980, meeting with more than 50 people because they see cuts coming on all sides. The dis- —students, teachers, parents, principals, district trict’s Federal impact aid has declined from a high administrators, and school board members. In ad- 198 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

dition to identifying current needs and recom- Current Programs mending future directions, the strategy was to in- volve and educate all those concerned with com- Novato’s computer education activities focuses puter education in the district. Luehrmann’s re- on how to use the computer and include program- port stated: ing, problem solving, logical thinking, and debug- The present state of computer education in ging (tracking down errors). All seventh graders Novato is better than the average situation one sees have a minimum of 3 weeks of a computer literacy in Bay Area districts today. One finds a solid base unit that includes an overview, a historical per- of computer equipment, several experienced and spective, basic terminology, impacts on society, creative teachers, a larger number of interested and career awareness. This unit is followed by 2 teachers, student demand for increased access to weeks of hands-on experiences running programs computer classes, strong administrative support at (modelingprogramming activities, games, applica- most of the schools, and outstanding work at the tions) and writing programs. Students can also district office in planning and managing the devel- opment of computer education programs in the dis- take elective programming and math enrichment trict during the past several years. The parents and courses. One high school offers courses in BASIC school board members with whom I spoke were also and one offers courses in BASIC and Pascal. The supportive of the aims and accomplishments of the few computers in four elementary schools are used programs thus far. for computer awareness activities in upper grades Specific findings indicated that primary uses were and for enrichment in the gifted and talented pro- in the secondary schools, where computer pro- grams. A total of 77 computers are used through- gramming courses and that computer literacy activ- out the district. ities closely identified with mathematics predomi- nated. Demand for classes exceeded supply, and Staff Training Programs teachers wanted more inservice training. and Workshops Luehrmann recommended a cluster arrangement for each of the five secondary schools, involving All administrators attended districtwide work- approximately 15 computers connected to a cen- shops because the Superintendent felt, “There was tral disk unit and printer. Further, he recom- a need for every manager to know why we were mended that the two high schools acquire com- supporting this program. ” The district also sup- puters that would facilitate instruction in a second ported numerous teacher workshops run by Helen programing language. In the elementary schools, Joseph and encouraged staff to attend area work- uses were to continue to be limited to gifted pro- shops, conferences, and meetings. With the train- grams in view of the district’s current priorities ing activities of the Marin County Teachers Learn- and available resources. Luehrmann encouraged ing Cooperative, a 3-year federally funded teacher the development of a de facto computer education center, CUE conferences and workshops, and the department, composed of the teachers of com- increasing number of courses taught at nearby col- puting to develop curricula, course content, se- leges, there have been many opportunities for pro- quencing, and evaluation. He suggested that the fessional development. In the spring of 1982 district also look at administrative computer uses, Joseph offered a course for teachers through drill and practice, and other CAI applications. Sonoma State College. The district paid Joseph’s Finally, he recommended a gradual expansion of salary and provided the computer lab facility, the program over a 3-year period, with a projected while the university provided credit. What was ex- cost estimate of $110,700 for equipment. citing was that this course introduced program- The administration and school board approved ing without a mathematics orientation. Thus, its the recommendations. In fiscal year 1980-81, applications will be interdisciplinary and, it is $30,000 from local funds and IVB Federal moneys hoped, lead to computer applications in a wide were used to equip the junior highs. A request for variety of content areas. funding the second and third phase of the program was submitted to the Buck Foundation, but was Impacts turned down. In fiscal year 1981-82, the second phase was funded, again from the operating In establishing the priorities for the computer budget, and one high school is to be equipped with education activities, the educators and community an Apple lab. members in the district have had to ask: how im- —

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies “ 199 portant is computer education? As Luehrmann in nally the relationships among programs and the his report to the district explained: competition for resources causes concern. So far, There can be no simple answer to this question. “we’ve been able to maintain a delicate balance, ” Most people in the world have gotten along fine says Joseph. But she worries what will happen without knowing what a computer was, and today when more schools are closed and staff positions most educated people have never used a computer. reduced. There is also some concern that imple- But it was also true in Gutenberg’s day (and for mentation of phase 3 (a second Apple lab) maybe four centuries thereafter!) that the majority of peo- ple could not read or write. Yet by the end of the delayed, as well. last century universal literacy had become an ac- cepted goal of public education, and illiterates were The Future at a distinct vocational and social disadvantage. Luehrmann argues that those who have comput- Integration of computers into the curriculum is er skills already enjoy several benefits: 1) vocation- a major objective for the future. There is already al and professional advancement; 2) intellectual some interest among secondary teachers in Eng- payoffs—new ways to represent or express ideas; lish, social studies, business, foreign languages, 3) facilitation of problem solving, particularly in and science. If the computer labs or clusters are mathematics; and 4) a desirable skill or proficien- used every period for computer literacy and pro- cy valued by colleges, These arguments reflect the graming courses, this may not be feasible. underlying rationale for Novato’s programs. There is also an interest in exploring administra- Students in the district are highly motivated in tive uses of microcomputers in individual schools, the courses and computer units. Even when visi- particularly to retrieve and handle information. tors come into their classrooms, students ignore Melendy expressed his concern about the dispro- them, fully involved with the computer. “We can’t portionate amount of time spent in looking up rec- keep the kids off the machines, ” stated one teach- ords, in gathering data for reports, and in other er. Novato also boasts of its computer whiz kids— clerical tasks: “We’re still working at the quill students now in high schools and in their first year level, when we have the technology to do other- of college who have incredible programing skills. wise. ” Some students sell programs on the side and find Contact and interaction with the State Depart- computer-related work in the summer. One stu- ment of Education and other districts in the coun- dent, Casey Kosak, has received national recogni- ty are increasing. The county teachers’ center has tion and has been featured in an article in Data- become an important broker. When the State Com- mation. missioner came to Marin County in spring 1982 Problems remain, however. Keeping up with the to focus on computers in education, he met with advances in technology is one major concern. local district leaders and others at the center and There is already a need to upgrade several of the nearby universities. PETs that were purchased several years ago. Of- Novato elementary schools may participate in ficials know that new hardware may make their a LOGO project currently being developed by the current inventory obsolete in a few years, but they Marin Community College, the Marin Computer have no easy choices, especially when funds are Center, and the Teacher Learning Cooperative limited. Another area of concern is the impact that under a grant from the Buck Foundation. The computer electives will have on other areas of the Buck Foundation (administered by the San Fran- curriculum. Computer courses fill up immediately cisco Foundation), funds are restricted to use only while industrial arts courses are underenrolled. in Marin County. Currently several proposals for Moreover, teachers cannot easily be transferred support of computing in county schools—including from one course area to another. To complicate a mobile computer education van and a series of matters, the options to take electives may be re- workshops for teachers are being examined. duced as the school day is shortened to save mon- Joseph would like to see a Marin County sym- ey for the district. The high schools have already posium of national experts and local educators to reduced schedules from a full 6-period day to 5%. measure the impact of programs. She feels it is There is still the problem of reaching all of the time to reflect, to examine current programs ob- student population, particularly in the high school jectively, and to identify limitations and un- classes. Courses are still tied to the math depart- answered questions. According to Joseph, “This ment, but Joseph hopes this will soon change. Fi- is needed not just here, but all across the Nation. ” 200 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Cupertino Union School type, they showed it to us. ” Associate Super- intendent William Zachmeier and computer spe- District, Cupertino, Calif. cialist/teacher Bobby Goodson remember the day The Setting clearly. They were amazed and excited with what they saw. Situated in California’s “Silicon Valley, ” where Several months later, when the district’s IVC apricot groves turn into computer factories over- proposal for a math program to the State was night, the Cupertino Union School District (K-8) turned down, Zachmeier urged Goodson to try serves a population of 50,000. School population again, but this time to try something with com- is 86-percent white, 8-percent Asian, 4-percent puters. With active support from the administra- Hispanic, and 2-percent black. Although the pop- tion, another proposal was written. Funded by ulation growth rate is one of the highest in the ESEA title IVC for 2 years, the junior high school United States, an acute housing shortage and in- project provided for a full-time director, but no flated costs have resulted in a decade of declining equipment. In addition, IVB money was allocated enrollment. Fifteen schools have been closed. The to purchase three 16K Apples; old black-and-white 12,150 students, half of peak enrollments in 1969, TV monitors were located. Goodson learned by attend 4 junior high and 20 elementary schools. talking to people; attending meetings, and worked District boundaries cut across six municipal juris- with students and small groups of teachers—a dictions. Parents support the schools, but officials school at a time. point out that only 25 percent of the area’s subur- For the 2 years of the projects, says Goodson, ban population have children in public schools. “we felt our way around and ‘nickeled and dimed’ Major industries in the area are aerospace- and our way. ” Approximately three dozen computers computer-related. Many of the companies are were purchased with IVB funds, MGM State small and relatively young. This is a high-tech, funds, and parent donations. After IVC funding middle socioeconomic community with high educa- ended, Goodson’s position was supported by the tional expectations. There is interest from the In- local district. The approach was “to learn by try- dustry/Education Council and the Chambers of ing out various approaches so that when we went Commerce and service clubs as the schools re- to the board for their support of a total district spond to computer-related, entry-level job needs. program, we knew what we wanted. ” Cupertino has a mature, experienced teaching In spring of 1981, the superintendent made the staff whose average age is 47. Ninety-two percent district proposal to place computer labs in each of the teachers are in the top range of the salary junior high school, and labs or clusters in half of scale. Declining enrollments and reduced staff the elementary schools, at a total expenditure of positions make it difficult to maintain high morale, $299,337. On the night of the presentation, the however. Officials note that the district’s staff de- board room was packed with teachers, administra- velopment and incentive programs and its com- tors, students, and parents. “One by one they got puter project are “our most powerful weapon” in up and told the board why they wanted comput- maintaining enthusiasm and quality education. ers,” remembers Zachmeier. “And the board gave With an annual budget of $30 million, 70 per- us everything we asked for, ” says Goodson. cent of funding now comes from the State, revers- ing almost exactly the ratio that existed before the Computer Literacy Curriculum passage of Proposition 13. Educators feel local control of education has eroded. The one benefit The computer literacy program was developed of declining enrollments has been the sale of ex- by teachers using computers in their classrooms. cess property. Because of high land values, these The program focuses first on computer awareness, sales have resulted in significant capital reserves and then on computer use. which can be used for equipment and capital im- The goals is that by the end of grade 6, all Cuper- provements only. tino students be fully “aware” of computers. By the end of grade 8, all students should have had District Programs the opportunity to use the computer as a tool and to be introduced to the idea of programing. Cupertino is the home of the Apple Computer Inservice Training and Staff Development. The Co.: “the boys that designed the Apple grew up district has a long tradition of inservice. Staff can here, ” relate Cupertino educators, “ . . . and when earn credit toward salary increments, in exchange they had put together their first Apple II proto- for released time, for conference registration fees, App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 201 for instructional supplies, or for university course graphics on the computer, while elementary school work. Extensive computer inservice courses were students in the gifted and talented program at the developed and taught at first by Goodson. In time, Wilson Exploration Center develop new thinking those she trained taught others; the cadre of re- skills using the computer, and then debug their source people continues to grow. The introductory original programs. course begins with three short modules of two At Muir Elementary School, computers can be 2-hour sessions, each followed by optional strands checked out to parents and teachers; every week- in programing (BASIC, PILOT, LOGO) and soft- end they are all checked out. Because the computer ware evaluation and design. Courses for parent in the library is used nonstop, access for many aides, secretaries, and others have also been students is a problem. At the parents’ insistence, developed. two introductory workshops were offered to par- Approximately 80 percent of the teaching staff ents. The school plans to use parent volunteers to have participated in at least one course. Moreover, teach computer literacy curriculum activities dur- all principals and administrative staff attended a ing alternate library periods. In this school, l-day workshop in the summer of 1981, led by parents will become a major force as volunteers Richard Pugh, JHS computer teacher; Judy in the program. Chamberlain, teacher of the gifted and talented; and At the West Valley Elementary School one such Bobby Goodson. parent, Cheryl Turner, became a catalyst and Installation of the labs is to proceed in stages prime mover in establishing the school’s computer to provide adequate time for schoolwide planning literacy program. The program began with enthu- by each faculty and for support of the program by siastic teacher and student response to Turner’s the computer resource teacher. Three labs were demonstration of a computer she had made from completed by fall 1981. By 1982-83 all junior highs a kit. With strong support from the principal, will have labs. Each computer lab will have a total microcomputers were installed in the library media of 15 student stations and a teacher demonstra- center and Turner was hired as an aide to teach tion station which includes a large screen TV and computer literacy. Funding for the microcom- a printer. Two of the labs will be equipped with puters came from the PTA, a grant from the Apples and two will be equipped with Ataris. INTEL Corp., and MGM funds. A parent, an Atari All but two elementary schools have at least one executive, arranged for a loan of an Atari to the computer as well, and there are at least three dif- school. All but two teachers want their students ferent systems in the schools. Diversity of hard- to participate in the program. Turner, who has ware at the elementary school level, where comput- “had a fascination with computers for 20 years, ” ers are used in a variety of ways in classrooms and enjoys being a role model for the students and in the media centers, presents no problems. In the demonstrating, especially to the girls, “that it’s long run, district officials now think that this di- okay to enjoy electronics and run around with a versity will be an advantage. screwdriver in your purse. ”

Sample Programs Impacts The computer lab at Hyde Junior High School The computer literacy program has energized is a large room that accommodates the student both teachers and their students. Individual par- microcomputer stations comfortably around three ents have been tremendously supportive, although sides of its perimeter. Small round tables cluster by and large Cupertino does not benefit directly in the middle, where students come for discussion, from proximity to the corporate world and Silicon instruction, and collaborative work. But most of Valley industries. the time it is the computers that are busy. While More than 65 percent of the district’s teachers they input data and compose print statements, ar- have received literacy training. Goodson sees the ticles and pictures on the classroom walls remind benefits especially for those in dead-end jobs. Neg- them of the history of computers and where and ative feelings have been turned around, and new how computers are used today. Students all seem life has been put into the educational process. to be working on their own assignment. While one Many are convinced that it is the opportunity to student writes a program to calculate his grade- become a learner and “be in control” that is the point average, another designs a simple game, and irresistable appeal of the program. still another runs a preset program. Meanwhile, Many students “turned off” by school have also students at Kennedy Junior High School generate been motivated by the program. Many are those 202 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education whose interest and aptitude could not have been Ronald E. Franklin, Superintendent predicted. The problem now is getting them to go Richard Melendy, Principal home from school. Jack O. Rothe, Director of Instruction The program has problems, but they do not ap- Arthur Luehrmann Former Director, Computer Project, pear serious. There are teachers who want to be Lawrence Hall of Science Joyce Hakansson, Former Education Program Co- involved in computing but who receive little sup- ordinator, Lawrence Hall of Science port, or no access to the computers in their Cupertino Union School District, Cupertino, Calif. buildings. The inequity between some of the ele- William Zachmeier, Associate Superintendent mentary schools continues to grow. There is also Jerry Prizant, Coordinator of Media Services recognition that the lab arrangements do not ac- Bobby Goodson, Teacher, Hyde Junior High School, commodate the needs of the science teacher who Computer Literacy Lab and Coordinator, Computer wants a computer in class, nor the librarian who Programs wants one in the library, nor the principal who Frank Clark, Principal, Kennedy Junior High School wants one in the office. Additional funds may be Richard Pugh, Teacher, Computer Literacy Lab allocated or alternate arrangements developed to Ron LaMar, Principal, Hyde Junior High School Harvey Barnett, Principal, West Valley Elementary serve these various needs. School Finally, until recently, there has been no integra- Cheryl Turner, Aide, West Valley Elementary School tion of computing programs in the junior high K. A. Fisk, Principal, Muir Elementary School school with programs offered in the high school. Judy Chamberlin, Teacher, Gifted and Talented Pro- Students are frustrated in cases where there are gram Wilson Center no courses or when courses are outdated and Computer-Using Educators - CUE Monthly equipment is obsolete. Board Meeting, Palo Alto, Calif., Jan. 22, 1982. Bobby Goodson, President, CUE, and computer Implications resource specialist Cupertino Union School District Jose Gutierez, Vice President, CUE, and faculty The district goal is that all schools will have com- member, San Francisco State University puter laboratories by 1984. Training opportunities Ann Lathrop, library coordinator, San Mateo County will be expanded, and new uses for the computer Board of Education Helen Joseph resource teacher-math, science, and com- in the classroom will be explored. Cupertino edu- puters, Novato Unified School District cators hope that there will be articulation and coor- William Sandy Wagner, computer coordinator, Santa dination between the secondary school systems. Clara County Beyond the new courses and expanded efforts Glenn Fisher, computer coordinator, Alameda County at the secondary level, Associate Superintendent Le Roy Finkel, computer coordinator, San Mateo Office Zachmeier’s ultimate goal is to give every young- of Education ster a computer some time in elementary school Karen Kent, director, Teachers Learning Cooperative, because: Marin County Office of Education There will be a need for new skills and new atti- Don McKell, teacher, Independence High School, San tudes. It’s our job to prepare students for the kind Jose of world that will become not the world that was. Brian Sakai, computer teacher, San Carlos High School We will have kids who leave Cupertino . . . who will Russ Bailey, computer district coordinator, San Mateo be fully computer-literate, discriminating buyers City Schools and users. And rather than being prisoners of tech- Bob Enenstein, teacher, Carlmont High School, Belmont nology, they will be masters of it. Steve King, computer teacher, Crittendon Middle School, Mountain View *The9e fkst activitie9 provided access to students in the Junior High School GATE program and were supported by State MGM (mentally gifted minor) funds. *A9 more eq~pment is pwcha~, the district ~ Shift h~d- Bibliography ware to have uniform equipment in the junior high labs, where Lathrop, Ann, and Goodson, Bobby, “How to Start a programing is taught. Software Exchange,” Recreational Computing, issue 53, October 1981. Resources Wagner, William J., “The Story of Computer-Using Educators, ” Recreational Computing, issue 48. Persons interviewed: Computer-Using Educators Newsletter, vol. 3, No. 6, Novato Unified School District, Novato, Calif. May 15, 1981; vol. 4, No. 2,3, Oct. 23, 1981; vol. 4, Helen Joseph, Computer Resource Teacher and Co- No. 1, Aug. 15, 1981. The newsletter is published six ordinator times a year and mailed to CUE members. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of /formation Technologies . 203

San Mateo County Office of Education and Com- puter-Using Educators, Microcomputer Center Reports 1980-81. Joseph, Helen, “Report to the Board of Trustees: Com- puter Education Project, ” October 1981, Novato Uni- fied School District. Luehrmann, Arthur, Cpmputer Education in the Novato Unified School District: A Needs Assessment, May 1980. Goodson, Bobby, “Computer Literacy in the Elementary School: A District-Wide Program, ” draft, January 1982, Cupertino Union School District. Computer Literacy Curriculum, Cupertino Union School District, 1981, A Listing of District Computer Inservice Classes, 1981-82, Cupertino Union School District.

Technology Education and Training, Oxford Public Schools, Oxford, Mass. Introduction The technology training and education pro- grams of the Oxford Public Schools were selected for study because they provide an example of how a small, rural school district with limited local funding resources can offer up-to-date education and training opportunities to its students and adults in the community through partnerships A special program at the Oxford High School District with private industry and other rural school dis- introduces students to the world of computer maintenance tricts. This study also provides an example of the and electronics fabrication. This student credits her gradua- impact of Federal and State grants on the imple- tion from Oxford High School to the engaging qualities of mentation of new programs. Although each grant the curriculum, which, she said, kept her in school after she had become disenchanted with the regular academic program was relatively small, “to Oxford they looked like a Hope Diamond, ” according to the Superintend- ent. The Oxford Public Schools serve 2,460 students in grades K-12 who attend three elementary, one The Setting middle, and one high school. Almost all students are white; fewer than 1 percent are black, and few- Originally a French Huguenot settlement, Ox- er than 1 percent Hispanic. Of the high school ford was founded more than 300 years ago in cen- graduates, 30 percent attend 4-year colleges, while tral Massachusetts, approximately 20 miles south another 30 percent go on to community college and of Worcester. Once the center of a thriving mill in- vocational training institutes. dustry, Oxford’s economic base seriously declined In this rural community, according to its super- as the mills closed. At present only one small mill intendent, there is strong support for education operates; it employs five people. No new industries with local taxes, although Proposition 2½ now lim- have been established. Oxford’s population of its that revenue source. The 1981-82 budget of $4.2 11,450 is primarily blue-collar. In 1980, Oxford’s million results in an expenditure of $1,945 per annual per capita income was $6,582. Of the adult pupil. Many of the teachers are from the local or working population living in Oxford and surround- neighboring areas, and there are common bonds ing similar communities, 60 percent are semiskilled between the educators and the school board. Even or unskilled workers and 11 percent hold profes- with declining resources, administrators and sional or managerial positions. teachers feel that there is support from the board 204 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education and community and that their efforts in behalf of nerships with private industry had to be devel- the students are appreciated. oped. John Philippe, the program director of Project Building New Partnerships to COFFEE, and Rob Richardson, the director of the Link Education and Technology French River Teacher Center, became involved Training with the local industry councils and the State High Technology Commission. Serving on committees History. Francis Driscoll, superintendent of this and attending meetings, they made direct contacts small, rural school district with almost no local in- with individuals from electronics and computer in- dustrial base, searched for ways to meet his stu- dustries located in the Worcester and Boston dents’ diverse needs. Although the district was areas. small, it had students who could not function in Mike Odom, DEC Executive on loan to the regular classrooms because of emotional and learn- Humphrey Occupational Center, notes that the ing handicaps, whose abilities were seriously un- Oxford educators were unusual– “they sought our derchallenged, and whose interests weren’t being advice, and they listened. ” Similarly, the superin- met. The solution he developed, late in the 1970’s, tendent proposed to the school board that the dis- was to form a loose federation of similar districts trict develop a working relationship between edu- near Oxford, to develop programs that they all cation and industry. The school board, remembers needed. Chairman Schur, said, “Go ahead, you have our Driscoll reasoned that by regionalizing pro- blessing.” grams and services through the federation and The district efforts focused on computer technol- other similar cooperative efforts, he could create ogy, an area that both the special needs training the equivalent of a small-sized city and the critical program and the teachers were interested in. Even- mass needed. By joining Oxford to Auburn, Lei- tually, several paths led to one of Massachusetts’ cester, Charlton, Dudley, Webster, and then largest computer corporations, Digital Equipment Southbridge, the combined federation involved Co. (DEC). Early contacts were with salesperson- 35,000 students, 1,200 teachers, and 62 members nel and then, Mary Ann Burek of the Corporate of local boards of education. Contribution Division, who put the district in The Oxford School Board and administration touch with Del Lippert, Corporate Manager of agreed that they would serve as fiscal agents for Educational Services. any cooperative projects. Proposals were devel- oped and funded. One Project-COFFEE (Cooper- Current Programs ative Federation for Educational Experiences)— provided occupational training and education for Project COFFEE. COFFEE is an alternative oc- students with special needs, and was funded by cupational education program for the special- the Massachusetts State Department of Educa- needs, disadvantaged, and handicapped students tion in 1979. A second proposal for a regional of a six-community cooperative school federation. teacher training consortium, the French River The program includes life-coping skills education, Teacher Center, was funded by the U.S. Depart- as well as an occupational educational experience ment of Education from 1978 to 1981. Both proj- in an adult-like work environment. The high-tech- ects are housed in Oxford, with COFFEE in a port- nology training components provide the student able building next to the high school. The teacher with job entry skills, job placement skills, coopera- center was built from surplus motel shells, moved tive job experiences, shadowing experiences (job to school land, and assembled and finished with observation), and a related work study program. professional contractors and students from the In the electronic assembly component, students vocational training programs. read and interpret schematic diagrams and me- As district educators looked at the State’s bur- chanical drawings and gain experiences in layout, geoning high-technology industries and the grow- manufacturing, and assembly of printed circuits ing relationship between education and training, and electronic components. Students test and in- it was clear to them that high technology was not spect electronic components, circuits, and assem- just for elite students. Informal data gathered blies. They are trained for entry-level employment from Worcester and Boston area industries re- as: electromechanical assemblers, electronic main- vealed that entry-level high-tech jobs were under- tenance workers, drafting assistants (electronics), filled and that 80 percent of those jobs did not re- electronics utility workers, electronics inspectors, quire college training. It was also clear that part- electronics mechanics, electronic testers, and elec- App. A—Case Studies: Applications of information Technologies ● 205 tronics assemblers. Many of the assembly tools Late in the fall, Driscoll initiated direct contact and testing devices and most of the hardware, with Del Lippert, Corporate Manager of Educa- components, and circuitry used for hands-on in- tional Training and Services at DEC’s headquar- struction was donated to the program as a result ters in Bedford. Recounts Lippert: “Driscoll had of individual, personal contacts with electronics an idea and the Governor had a half million in dis- companies. cretionary funds. ” It was, according to many in After a year of operation, the Project COFFEE Oxford, “a meeting of kindred spirits-both want director, John Phillipo, and Superintendent Dris- to make things better for education. ” coll planned a new component that would involve Project KING-By Tech (Key Industrial Needs use of state-of-the-art computer hardware. Con- Gapped by Technology) was funded in January tacts with DEC were made, and the company con- 1981 to provide underemployed and unemployed tributed $22,800. In the data-processing compo- adults training opportunities in word processing, nent, started in September 1980, students use office automation, electronic assembly, program- state-of-the-art computer hardware and software ing, and program application. A total of 110 stu- techniques in the computer center and an auto- dents were served with $46,015 from the Bay State mated office. The instructor assumes the role of Skill’s Commission, $43,015 from DEC, and $3,000 data-processing manager, and students learn by from Quinsigamond Community College for in- hands-on experience in hardware operation and structors. As a result, the district’s inventory of maintenance, computer awareness, and use of computer center hardware was increased, two BASIC. They are trained for entry-level employ- teachers received training from DEC, and the ment as junior programers, console operators, working relationship with DEC was well estab- computer service technicians, data typists, printer lished. DEC’s Lippert explained that his company operators, control clerks, and computer aides. was interested in working with schools “who want Project COFFEE was funded through a state- to work with us, want to make something hap- wide competitive grant process utilizing Federal pen. ” In the case of Oxford, there was a sense that occupational education and special education the social and manpower views of the district tied moneys authorized under Public Laws 94-482 and into those of the company. Furthermore, Lippert 94-142, a total of $557,402 for September 1, 1979, felt that Driscoll conveyed a commitment and en- through June 30, 1982. In cost breakdowns by pro- thusiasm that was unique. gram areas, a total of $167,050 was expended for French River Teachers Center. Through the the two technology components for more than 100 French River Teacher Center, 30 guidance counse- students over the 3 years. The students in these lors from Central Massachusetts high schools are high-technology components use facilities in the learning about high-technology career opportuni- Oxford district, while students in the distributive ties (Project CHANCE). Sixteen sessions (begun education component run and operate The Grand in January 1982) included field trips to computer Illusion Printing Co. in Auburn, and students in companies and companies that use high-tech tools, the buildings and grounds component work in as well as discussion forums with representatives Webster. The program is continuing tenuously on from nearby industries. Audiovisual, self-instruc- local support, but long-term commitments have tional materials on technology career donated by not yet been obtained. DEC will also be used. This project grew out of Project KING-By Tech. In the fall of 1980, the activities with the high-technology industry repre- Governor of Massachusetts created the Bay State sentatives from Unitrode in Lexington, Prime Skills Commission to fund projects that would ad- Computer in Natick, and Micro Networks in Wor- dress the needs of the State’s computer industries cester. for trained workers. Superintendent Driscoll The Teacher Center, federally funded through formed a planning group that involved local educa- September 1981, has continued to operate with a tors and representatives from industry, colleges, director arid a part-time secretary. Its continued the French River Teacher Center, the Worcester existence depends on the director’s ability to brok- Chamber of Commerce’s Career Education Consor- er new relationships, such as the counselor’s proj- tium, and the Central Region Private Industry ect and other activities with the district technol- Council. The key to funding was the stipulation ogy and training-related programs. For example, that 50 percent of financial support come from pri- in February 1981, again through occupational edu- vate industry and that the other 50 percent be cation moneys, the Teacher Center provided train- available from the Skills Commission. ing for 30 surplus teachers and other unemployed 206 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education adults in computer programming (COBOL), word most current information and skills, and they im- processing, and electronic test technology and mediately draw on these skills in working with assembly. The $54,080 project received $39,742 their students. The collaborative partnership with from the State, $8,640 from DEC, and $5,698 in industry goes far beyond the benefits received contributions from the district. Several teachers thus far. It is clear to Oxford’s superintendent and trained in the program were able to find new jobs his technology teachers that this working relation- in the industry. ship is critical in enabling the district to keep up A mobile computer bus with $100,000 worth of with the rapid changes in high technology. equipment was loaned to the French River Teacher Furthermore, DEC’s expertise is recognized and Center for use by area teachers and students in relied on as program additions or revisions are con- the spring of 1982. The bus was equipped with a sidered. Other nearby companies directly con- PDP 11-34A computer and two video terminals, cerned with the high-technology training pro- one magnetic tape card reader, two hard-copy ter- grams are also continually contacted and utilized minals, and several self-paced instructional sta- as resources. These close ties to industry, argue tions. Owned by DEC, the bus had previously been Oxford educators, make their programs more ef- operated by the Commonwealth Center in Cam- fective and unique. bridge. Impacts on Teachers. Through the French River The Teacher Center will share use of the bus Teacher Center, Oxford teachers and those of the with the Humphrey Occupational Resource Center surrounding districts have participated in work- in Boston. Present plans are to find minimal fund- shops, forums, courses, and visits to high-tech ing so that a technician can take the bus from companies. Although no formal assessment of school to school, giving youngsters the opportuni- these efforts has been made, teachers indicate that ty to have hands-on experience. The loan of the bus they are better informed, more comfortable with was first discussed during a l-day teacher center technology, and would like to have more oppor- seminar on computer technology held December tunities for training. 8, 1980, and attended by representatives of 11 Impacts on Students. The Federal and State school districts, 3 colleges, and private industry. funded programs have reached numerous stu- A loose “consortium of computer teachers” was dents. Project COFFEE students recognize that formed and has met several times. they now have skills, and they feel good about The center has arranged for teacher workshops themselves and their program: and courses on computers and microcomputers, . . . I’m an electronic assembler, I have a trade. collaborating with the Commonwealth Inservice . . . I can build you a stereo; before, I only knew how Institute (funded by an IVC grant through the to push the buttons. . . . There are regular kids Massachusetts State Department of Education). (taking the electronics assembly course) . . . and they need our help. They can’t do the things we can. Area teachers have learned BASIC programing . . . If the program wasn’t here, I’d be out of school languages, explored a variety of software applica- we have teachers who understand us. tions, and examined computer applications and im- In assessments of student progress in entry-level pacts. The center also organized a technology con- high-technology training skills, based on a series ference with the New England Teachers’ Center of competency tests developed by the project staff Cluster, held this May in Worcester. Director Rob and 16 industry/business representatives, 82 per- Richardson’s contacts with DEC and other high- cent passed electronic assembly and 77 percent tech industries will enable him to schedule field passed computer technology. The success of these trips, speakers, and presentations. special students is related to many factors. Tech- nology skills, special counseling, and basic educa- Impacts tional programs have all played a part. For the high school principal, the important result is that Impacts on the School System. As far as princi- these students are turned around: “When these pal Roger Bacon is concerned, the benefits out- seniors graduate this spring and I get to shake weigh the problems. The district has equipment their hands . . . I feel that this is what education worth a half million dollars that could not have is all about. ” been obtained any other way (see table A-l). Fur- In addition to the COFFEE students, other stu- thermore this state-of-the-art hardware is sup- dents from Oxford High School have also made ported by DEC training and software. The two Ox- significant gains in computer programing courses ford teachers trained at DEC have acquired the and in independent study projects under the direc- App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 207

Table A-1 .–Sources of Funds for Computer Hardware and Software, 1980.81

Direct market Digital Equipment State/Federal Oxford School Description value Corp. grants Department Total 1 PDP 11/34 central processing unit . . . . . $41,500.00 1 16-line multiplexer ...... 4,100.00 2 LA 34 decwriters ...... 2,900.00 1 285 LPM printer...... 7,800.00 $23,530.00 $39,097.00 -o- $62,627.00 1 VT 100 video terminal...... 2,050.00 3 modem cables ...... 177.00 1 200 CPM card reader ...... 4,100.00 Systems management training...... 2,100.00 2,100.00 -o- -o- 2,100.00 Data-processing renovation/installation . . 9,150.00 3,000.00 6,150.00 -o- 9,150.00 3 W3 78 word-processing units ...... 28,500.00 14,250.00 1,250.00 -o- 28,500.00 13,000.00 Electronics assembly training ...... 3,200.00 3,085.00 115.00 -o- 3,200.00 1 TS-11 tape drive...... 15,400.00 2,035.00 3 VT-1OO video terminals...... 6,150.00 13,325.00 7,000.00 26,650.00 3 LA 34 decwriters ...... 5,100.00 4,290.00 1 LA 34 decwriter ...... 1,700.00 8,292.00 -o- 16,786.00 4 VT 100 video terminals...... 8,200.00 -o- 1 RL02 disk drive ...... 5,911.00 8,494.00 5 RL02 disk cartridges...... 975.00 14 self-paced audiovisual instructional programs ...... 15,320.00 15,320.00 -o- -o- 15,320.00 94 hours, level I consultants ...... 5,160.00 2,560.00 2,000.00 -o- 5,160.00 Instructional supplies ...... 14,130.00 3,150.00 600.00 4,200.00 14,130.00 4,830.00 1,950.00 Software programs ...... 81,000.00 52,000.00 29,000.00 -o- 81,000.00 Totals ...... $264.623.00 $145,104.00 $119,519.00 -o- $264,623.00 SOURCE” Oxford Publ!c Schools, Oxford, Mass tion of the computer center director, Al Jones. “In problems with its DEC system. In 3 hours he had this kind of an environment, you don’t have to solved many of the problems. push them, you just have to keep up with them . . . Only a few problems remain. One is that, on The interest, the turn-around, the growth, of these occasion, security of school records is a problem youngsters is incredible. ” because both instruction and management func- As in many other districts, these computer whiz tions are together. Also, there is a growing demand kids are at the center early in the morning and late for courses and computer access, and demand may in the evening until Jones locks the door. Several outpace resources. Finally, there are some who students—presently three or four—will have the question the district’s growing emphasis on tech- equivalent of 2 years of college-level computing nology and programs for special students. They when they graduate high school. Another 30 or 40 worry that other areas will be shortchanged. will have 2 years of programing experience, not Impacts on the Community. According to school just in BASIC, but also in Pascal and in WATBOL board members, parents and students say again (the University of Waterloo, Canada, educational and again, “What a difference the technology pro- version of COBOL). Students learn to operate all grams have made. ” Parents describe changes in phases of the system, and their understanding and their children and indicate that they are now inter- experiences are intentionally geared to the real ested, know what they want to do with their lives, world. and have made complete turnarounds. What ap- Jones talks about one of his students, a junior, pears to be most important to the community is who has written a “wonderfully sophisticated pro- that these students have goals and some have em- gram to chart and analyze students’ chronobiologi- ployable skills. High school principal, Bacon ex- cal rhythms. ” Jones says this program “is better plains: “They (parents and students) know that than the $20,000 software package we bought for computers are the ‘in’ thing in Massachusetts. ” principals. ” Another student recently went to help By extending the technology programs to under- a nearby school district that was having major employed and unemployed adults and surplus 208 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education teachers, the schools have made maximum use of the progress made . . . that we are so proud the computer center and have provided benefits of . . . now be emasculated because of financial con- to the community. The absence of continuing straints?” worries the school board chairman. financial support, however, may limit the With increasing costs, a reduced budget from long-term. Proposition 2%, and fewer Federal dollars for edu- When the community parents, school board cation, school officials and the community are con- members, teachers, and administrators are asked cerned. There is some hope that the maintenance why it has been possible to bring technology train- costs for these programs will be lower than the ing and education to Oxford, they point to the fol- startup costs. Furthermore, it is hoped that the lowing: other districts will be able to find a way to pick ● an aggressive, energetic superintendent will- up local costs. ing to chart unknown waters and take risks Finally, Oxford has submitted Project COFFEE in starting programs without the security of for validation by the Joint Dissemination Review long-term funding; Board of the U.S. Department of Education so ● a willingness by the school board and the ad- that the Project could be eligible for National Dif- ministration to serve as the fiscal agents for fusion Network Funding. Superintendent Driscoll the projects: to write the proposals; to negoti- hasn’t given upon the State Department of Edu- ate with State and Federal funding agencies; cation, either. and to contact the private sector; Then there is further collaboration with the pri- ● the commitment and ability to work together vate sector. Educators argue that turning out —administration, professional staff, school trained, qualified people is the best selling point board, other districts, the private sector–to they have. The industry needs their graduates. “get what we need for our students;” When Project COFFEE students completed the ● the availability of Federal and State funds, wiring for the computer center, they proved they without which none of the programs could were capable of technically demanding work, and have been initiated; they saved the district $2,000. ● an ability to find resources when they aren’t Driscoll’s dream for his schools and for his com- there: assembling a teacher center from sur- munity goes even further. He wants to bring a plus concrete motel shells transported to the major high-technology company manufacturing site; or scavenging cartons of printout paper plant to Oxford. He feels this would strengthen used on only one side, which become perfect- the town’s economic base and provide the long- ly appropriate for the student’s output; or term support the educational system needs. scrounging obsolete electronic equipment, Others in the community support this idea and are which became the instructional cadavers in hopeful that the district’s technology training pro- the assembly labs; grams will be a strong selling point. ● the use of professionally supervised students to reduce building assembly and finishing Resources costs and, at the same time, meet the student need for on-the-job training; and Case study interviews: ● a belief that “everything we do can lead to Francis G. Driscoll, Superintendent something else. ” Roger Bacon, Principal, Oxford High School Finally, they single out the superintendent’s lead- John Phillipo, Director, Project COFFEE ership and skill in unifying all of the participants, Allen Jones, Director, Computer Center and Teacher forging private sector partnerships on a personal Rob Richardson, Director, French River Teacher Center one-to-one basis, convincing State officials from Pat Ferreira, former teacher, Oxford High School Elaine Birchard, student various departments to fund programs jointly, and Gary Bigelow, student utilizing public schools and community college fa- Paul Winiarski, student cilities to expand technical educational opportu- Kenny Gatze, student nities. Walter Schur, Chairman, School Board Patricia Troy, School Board Member Future Del Lippert, Corporate Manager, Educational Services, Digital Equipment Co., Bedford, Mass. How will programs that have been developed Michael Odom, Digital Equipment Co., Executive-on- continue to be supported? “Will the benefits and Loan, Humphrey Occupational Center, Boston App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 209

Bibliography that of a major corporation than of a school district.) Oxford Public Schools, Proposals to the Bay State Skills There is general consensus among the education- Commission: Key Industrial Needs Gapped By Tech- al and lay communities that the district has been nology, November 1980. Oxford Public Schools, Proposal to the Division of Oc- well, but conservatively, managed to support a cupational Education and the Division of Special strong, traditional curriculum. Through prudent Education, Massachusetts Department of Education, management over the past dozen or so years, sub- Cooperative Federation for Educational Experience, stantial sums have been placed in reserves—a July 1979 and April 1980. unique situation, considering the strained eco- Oxford Public Schools, A Report of French River nomic condition of most of the Nation’s schools. Teacher Center Activities Related to High Tech- Declining enrollments, the major area of concern nology In Collaboration With Digital Equipment Cor- for the district, may eventually have a negative poration, February 1982. affect on the number of facilities used (one or two campuses), the variety of programs offered, and Computer Literacy Program: the size of the professional staff. However, the Lyons Township Secondary superintendent argues that these problems can be School District, LaGrange, Ill. resolved, in part, by the district’s effective use of technology, Lyons Township’s computer program was se- On the whole, the district’s problems appear mi- lected for study because it exemplifies a system- nor in comparison with other districts’ financial wide application of computing that involves and woes, population shifts, student unrest, and staff affects the district entire student population and reductions. Administrative and teaching staff and more than 90 percent of the district professional board members acknowledge how fortunate the staff in all curricular areas. This site provides an district is. For example, teachers’ salaries are at example of how a major infusion of computer hard- the top of national pay scales, and a new 3-year ware facilitates its widespread use and within a contract is in place. The major focus of the school system access, Local funds support the pur- students and faculty is education, where learning chase of hardware, training of teachers, and devel- is viewed as a serious endeavor. opment of software. Furthermore, it shows the critical role played by the local superintendent in Computer Applications in conceptualizing the program, initiating action, and the District supporting ongoing activities. The district’s use of computers goes back to the The Setting late 1960’s, when its first mainframe computer was purchased for the district management and busi- Located in the southwest suburbs of Chicago, ness operations. As in other districts, instructional the two campuses of the Lyons Township High opportunities for students were limited to a few School’s (LTHS)–in LaGrange and Western highly specialized courses in the business and Springs–enroll a total of 4,000 students. The math departments. Approximately 2 years ago, it school population is drawn from six suburban became apparent that the district computer was areas that are primarily middle-class, bedroom outdated and would need to be replaced. In addi- communities of Chicago. Approximately 90 per- tion, there was a growing interest in expanding in- cent of the students are white; 3 to 4 percent are structional computing activities and a general feel- black; 3 to 4 percent are Asian; and 4 percent are ing that computer Literacy was important. The ini- Hispanic. The majority, 75 to 80 percent, of LTHS tial approach, according to a member of the school graduates go on to college. board, was to expand the large computer system The school district’s financial base is stable. Lo- to accommodate both needs. cal property tax revenues (which include a strong At the same time, the board was interviewing industrial base) account for 85 percent of the prospective candidates for superintendent. John budget; the remaining funds come from the State. Bristol was the board’s choice, in part because he The current budget is $19 million; per pupil already had experience with computers and in- expenditure is $2,300. School buildings are well- structional applications and had started one of the maintained-offices, hallways, and classrooms are earliest computer literacy programs in Minnesota. pleasant and clean. Facilities appear to be more Bristol convinced the board that student uses of than adequate. (The boardroom looked more like computers ought to be considered separately, and 210 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education that microcomputers provided a viable option to Eight laboratories—four in each campus of the a mainframe computer with terminals. With high school–are installed, with a total of 208 strong support from the board, Bristol came to terminals for student use. The cost breakdown LaGrange ready to revise and expand the district’s over a 5-year period is shown in table A-2. The computer programs. superintendent maintains that these costs are reasonable. 1 Planning In an interview with the Chicago Tribune, Superintendent Bristol justified the district’s large The superintendent’s first objective was to de- purchase: velop a plan. From the outset, all the curriculum Some schools are reluctant to buy (microcomput- areas were involved. Decisionmaking was not lim- ers). They say that tomorrow there will be a faster ited to computer experts; building principals, or cheaper model. But how many tomorrows do you department chairmen, and interested teachers wait for? What is the value to get our students to were involved. A basic assumption of the plan was have computer literacy now? to provide computer experiences for all students: “the use of the computer should not be reserved Computer Literacy for for the gifted and/or mathematically oriented stu- All Students dent. The computer needs to and can be utilized by students of all ability levels, including those With the installation of over 200 microcomput- with limited learning capabilities. ” Three major ers in eight laboratory settings, students at Lyons applications were designated: Township High School interact with technology Instruction first-hand. During the school day, the laboratories Literacy are busy with students and their teachers in a vari- Competency ety of subject areas. English students are refin- Speciality ing their understanding of paragraphing with a Instructional support tutorial program; consumer education students Tutorial work develop budgets using the number-handling capa- Drill and practice bilities of the computer; juniors in social studies Problem solving master the facts required by the statewide consti- tution test in a series of drill and practice exercises; Simulation Instructional games biology students solve problems using the com- Instructional management puter as a powerful tool for analysis; and special Success prediction education students expand their world history vo- Monitoring student progress cabulary in a series of drills, with opportunity for Vocational guidance extended practice with an infinitely patient College information teacher. IChicago Zlibune, Sunday, June 7, 1981. Hardware Selection

Another component of the planning activities Table A-2.--Five-Year Breakdown of was the selection of hardware. Not surprisingly, Computer Hardware Costs the most important criterion was “to obtain the maximum number of microcomputers for the dol- Each Total lars available. ” Local maintenance and repair Hardware (Networked Radio-Shack TRS-80, Model Ill) capability of the hardware vendor was also impor- 1 48K, twin disk ...... $1,946.10 $1,946.10 tant. The planners agreed that highly sophis- 26 16K, tape ...... 779.22 20,259.72 ticated microcomputers with sound and color 2 networks...... 389.22 778.44 capabilities were not needed for this initial phase 1 printer ...... 904.80 904.80 (computer literacy). However, networking capa- Total per classroom ...... $23,689.06 bility was considered highly desirable and, net- Total for 8 classrooms ...... x 8 = $191,112.48 Cost extension working in the laboratory setting is envisioned. 5-year life Hardware for the laboratories use a networked 400 students per year Cost per student for literacy per year Radio Shack TRS-80, Model III Configuration: (Total cost ÷ 5 years ÷ (4,000 students + 4,000) one 48K, twin-disk microcomputer, 26 16K, tape $191,112.48 ÷ 5 ÷ 8,000 = $4.78/student/year microcomputers, two networks, and one printer. SOURCE: Lyons Township Secondary School District, App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 211

These computer-related activities are part of the was to reach out to all faculty members to build program aimed at schoolwide computer literacy. their awareness of the potential for computers in In increasing numbers, students use the terminals education, to cultivate their support for the pro- before and after school. According to Bristol: gram by involving them in the planning of work- My computers are used all the time. It’s the best- shops and computer software curricula, and to de- used activity I have. To think that we were nowhere velop their computer literacy through training last spring and (look at) where we are today, I would workshops and other staff development activities. have to say we’ve made a significant step forward. Costs for most inservice training activities (e.g., A further step was taken in the spring of 1982, substitutes, consultants, payment for additional when all students completed a 5-hour “literacy working hours) were absorbed by the district op- package” that included lectures, films, group dis- erating budget. A separate allocation for the sum- cussions, and hands-on activities. The package: mer software development activities was approved 1) provided information about how computers by the school board. By relying primarily on local work; 2) promoted keyboard familiarity; 3) pro- district resources and scheduling activities during moted knowledge of BASIC language compo- school hours, the district reduced training costs. nents; 4) facilitated programing activities; and At the same time, this approach widened the base 5) focused on future technology developments and of support and ensured districtwide commitment their impacts on society. Current plans are to im- to implementation of the computer applications. plement this package during second-period classes According to Esther Gahala, director of curricu- –1 day a week for 5 weeks, on a staggered sched- lum, there appeared to be a strong sense of learn- ule—thereby reaching all students with minimal ing by doing; the staff response was largely posi- disruption of ongoing classes. tive. Participation in the 8-hour fall workshops was The subject area applications and the special voluntary, although some staff felt pressure from 5-hour computer literacy package were based on the administration. Gahala felt: “the value of these curriculum objectives originally developed by the (staff development activities) was in finding out Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium what not to do with teachers and students as well and adapted by the Lyons Township teachers to as what to do. Each experience refined our judg- fit local needs. ment and helped us in planning the next phase. Even more important to Gahala--who points out Other Computer Applications that she was unprepared to and, at first, totally overwhelmed by the thought of implementing Six different computer specialty courses are now computers in education—was the emergence of a offered through business education and math- cadre of 45 to 50 teachers who could advise, evalu- ematics. These courses include data processing, ate, and be a strong support system for the rest programing languages (BASIC, COBOL, RPG), of the faculty. and systems analysis. Approximately 10 students complete the entire range of courses. However, within the last year, an extra section of the intro- Software Development ductory BASIC course was added to the north campus schedule, and two additional sections were It is not clear whether software development added to the south campus schedule. According was part of the superintendent’s original plan. to one of the computer course teachers in business However, once the curriculum committee and ad- education, there is a “growing interest from one visory groups examined available software, there semester to the next . . . that is a result of the was a growing consensus that the district would literacy program. ” need to develop its own. Proposals for computer applications were solicited and 47 proposals from Teacher Training and 16 departments were accepted. Among the propos- Staff Development als were: ● Reinforce the spelling of words English teach- The goal of computer literacy for all students ers believe all students should know. and the objective of providing hands-on experience ● Test the effects of alcohol on parts of the with computers in all subject areas made system- body, using statistical information, for a wide teacher training not only desirable but abso- health course unit on alcohol abuse. lutely essential. Since the district could not count ● Determine the gross national product of a on hiring new staff, particularly as enrollments country after being given certain characteris- continued to decline, the superintendent’s strategy tics. 212 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

● Drill basic chord fingering for learning how to Township Secondary School District. However, play the guitar. there is evidence to suggest that both students ● Recognize grammatical errors in sentences for and teachers have benefited. an English course. ● Determine appropriate calorie intake based on Access to Computers individual physical characteristics, physical activity, and weight goals for a unit on nutri- Students in this district do have opportunities tion in a home economics course. to use computers during their regularly scheduled The superintendent wanted to involve teachers class time and before and after school. Some stu- in the ongoing development process and, at the dents interviewed carry their own floppy disks same time, use computer programers to write the with their books from class to class. Some of the software. To bridge the gap between the teacher- disks contain games; others hold student pro- authors and the programers, the superintendent grams and ongoing projects. The district does not selected teacher-consultants from the staff who yet have data on the number of computer-related had both curriculum and programing expertise to activities completed by students. However, it can function as supervisors. These supervisors played be reasonably assumed that these students are in- a pivotal role in software development by helping teracting with the technology far more than stu- teachers understand how their teaching ideas dents in other high schools where the number of could be translated into interactive computer for- terminals is far less. mats and by helping programers design routines Teachers in the district also appear to have sig- that were educationally sound. nificantly more access to computers. Several Over the summer three software development teachers indicated that they regularly work with teams (fig. A-1) produced more than 108 different the computers on their own time. Some even take program packets at a cost of $87,000. Originally, microcomputers home over the weekend. Bristol projected that 60 packages would be com- pleted at a maximum total cost of $90,000. By hir- Interest and Motivation ing three local college student computer science majors as programers, the district used local re- There is ample evidence to conclude that teach- sources and paid them at a rate of $10 per hour. ers and students alike have been stimulated by the However, without the expertise of the three teach- programs. A student reflected: “I was here this er-supervisors (one of the three was described as summer . . . and teachers were asking—are the a computer genius, able to solve problems and computers here today? Each day (the teachers) make the programs run for even the most novice were learning new things. It really got me geared user), the efficiency of the programers might have up—excited about the computer course this fall. ” been reduced. An unanticipated benefit has been the opportuni- ty for both students and their teachers to share Impacts learning experiences. Teachers comment repeatedly about the intrin- It may be too early to assess the impact of the sic motivation of the computer. Some applications recent computer-related activities in the Lyons are more interesting and effective than others. The

Figure A-1.—Software Development Model

Teacher - Teacher consultant consultant

Teacher planners

SOURCE Lyons Township Secondary School Dlstnct, La Grange, Ill ..——

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 213 degree of meaningful interaction is a key factor, tivities have gotten and kept many teachers in- according to Julie McGee, an English teacher. To volved, but a few holdouts remain, maintain student interest, programs must be clev- On the whole there is ample evidence to suggest erly and creatively designed, “we can’t just put that the majority of the high school faculty has our lecture notes on the computer. ” All indications strongly supported the program. Direct involve- suggest that interest and enthusiasm will contin- ment of teachers in planning, training, and soft- ue. However, cautions a student, not all students ware development resulted in strong feelings of react the same way: “too much review and testing, pride and ownership. The district strong support large amounts of text (sic too much writing, not of professional development appears to be paying enough graphics), mandatory classes may turn the off: 108 software packages are in use; new ideas kids off. ” For the teachers, “time, money, experi- are continually being developed; and many teach- ence, vision” and a willingness on the part of the ers are expanding computer knowledge and exper- administration to revise plans to fit needs will be tise on their own time—taking courses, learning critical. from more knowledgeable colleagues, and teaching Curriculum and Instruction. So far, impacts on themselves. Opportunities for new role as teacher- the curriculum have been limited to computer lit- programers are invigorating and rejuvenating this eracy activities. The strategy of building applica- mature, highly experienced faculty. tions into existing courses appears to be working. One problem, however, is the uneven development The Future of software. Some subjects have many applica- tions (English, home economics) while others have In the immediate future, the superintendent and only a few. Drill and practice formats predominate. his staff expect to implement the computer Only a few simulations and tutorials exist, literacy program fully. At summer’s end, all Instructional effectiveness of the computer students will have taken the 5-hour course, and the packages and related activities has not been for- remaining software packages will have been com- mally assessed. As students and their teachers use pleted. the materials, they indicate that most are work- The next steps will focus on developing a com- ing. According to the director of curriculum, “we prehensive plan for computer competency and spe- have the overwhelming feeling that what we are cialization. Full integration of the computer for doing is worthwhile. ” However, there is a need to computer-assisted and computer-managed instruc- analyze the appropriateness and effectiveness of tion is expected within the next 5 years. The lat- the materials, not only to improve them, but also ter will depend on continued local software devel- to move ahead. opment and the availability of commercial course- Some questions remain: Are the students learn- ware, In addition, with the major infusion of hard- ing skills and content more effectively? Will all ware, a corps of teacher experts, and an on-going second-period teachers adequately cover the com- program, the superintendent believes the district puter literacy activities? Do the activities result is ready for research and development. The oppor- in student comfort and skill with computers? Is tunities for working collaboratively with hardware the computer’s potential being realized? How well vendors, software publishers, university research- do computer programing courses mesh with post- ers, and other districts are beginning to be ex- secondary academic programs and vocational plored. There are tentative plans to hold a software training? There is some frustration over not being development conference involving educators and able to tackle all of these questions at once. developers statewide, perhaps nationwide. Plans already exist to field test new hardware com- Professional Growth and ponents for the Radio Shack computers. Development At the heart of future plans are the teachers and staff in the district. Bristol is convinced that the Estimates vary on the extent to which Lyons full potential for retraining, for new roles, and for Township High School teachers have become continued purposeful activity has barely been computer-literate. For many, the workshops in- tapped. It is likely that funds for continued staff troduced a welcomed new skill. For others, the development and for computer activities will be groups were too large, the keyboard and com- available as long as the school board, community, puters were too alien, and the fear of failure was and educators support the various computer acti- a barrier. Continued meetings and support ac- vities. 214 c Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Resources The Setting Case study interviews: Minnesota is the “Land of 10,000 lakes, ” and John Bristol, Superintendent almost as many computers. Most of the State is Esther Gahala, Director of Curriculum and Instruction rural. Fifty percent of the its population of Julie McGee, English Teacher 3,804,971 is concentrated in the Twin Cities of John Gentry, Business Education Teacher Minneapolis and St. Paul. There are 437 school Bill Mchalski, student districts and a median district size of 722 students. Janet Kaski, student Major industries are agriculture, mining, and Mark Nelly, student Kim Firestone, student computer-related technologies. Tric Coates, student Minnesota has provided strong support for pub- Doug Hammer, student lic elementary, secondary, vocational, and higher Jean Donnelly, President of the School Board education. Its education budget has one of the highest per capita education expenditures in the Midwest. This support has been matched with a Bibliography commitment to innovation and educational im- “Computer Literacy–A Comprehensive Program at provement. Over the last decade, the State has Lyons Township High School” Lyons Township Sec- provided funding through the Council on Quality ondary School District, LaGrange, Ill. Education (CQE) and title IVC Federal moneys for “LT Reports: Computer Literacy” Lyons Township Sec- research and development of instructional com- ondary School District, LaGrange, Ill. puting applications. Projects have focused on in- Chicago Tribune, June 7, 1981, “School Puts Learning struction in all subjects, as well as piloted new on Line” ways to deliver instruction. Projects such as the Omaha World Herald, June 30, 1981, “School is Putting Hopkins computer-assisted management system, Computer Up Front” the computer learning center in Littlefork, and the Boston Sunday Globe, July 5, 1981, “Bye-bye Black- board” Robbinsdale computer software development, pro- Chicago Tribune, Oct. 11, 1981, “Computers for Kids” vided working models of technology applications More Than Math–Computers Meet Curriculum, ” 80 and a foundation for statewide activity. Microcomputing, September 1981. Many Minnesota school districts are sought out for their computer expertise. The plans of the Min- neapolis public schools demonstrate the extent of this expertise. Within the last year, the State’s financial picture has changed, significantly. In Minnesota Schools and the struggling with an $850 million deficit, the Minnesota Educational legislature has begun cutting the $2 billion (2-year) education budget. The cuts, an estimated $l20 mil- Computing Consortium lion, are expected to take effect in 1982-83. Ed- The decision to visit selected Minnesota schools ucators across the State are concerned that these and focus on the activities and impact of the reductions will affect teaching positions and Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium programs. (MECC) was based on evidence that Minnesota leads the Nation in computing activities in its MECC: A State educational system. This case study deals with a Computing Agency State education agency that provides a centralized system for computing and support services. With Presently in its ninth year of operation, MECC a computer inventory of approximately $44 mil- operates the world’s largest general-purpose, ed- lion’ and estimates that 1 to 1½ percent of annual ucational, time-sharing system. An estimated 96 school budgets will be used for hardware pur- percent of Minnesota’s students have access to chases, Minnesota classrooms are expected to this time-share system, which is available to its have 10,000 instructional computing stations by users from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m. daily. While time- 1984. sharing access has remained fairly constant, with a slight increase in off-hour use, the acquisition of microcomputers in the State has accelerated, resulting in a significant increase in computing ac- ‘Data Newsletter, Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, January/February 1981. tivities available to students.

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 215

History hardware, telecommunications lines, and software systems. It took at least a year before the system In 1972, concern about computing and education was operating. led to discussions among the Governor, the chan- cellor of the community college system, the State MECC Organization and commissioner of education, key State legislators, Functions and private citizens. As a result, remembers John MECC was established in July 1973 to provide Haugo, former executive director of MECC, a task computer services to students, teachers, and force was established by then Governor Wendell educational administrators. Organized under the Anderson. Haugo was hired to head the planning Minnesota Joint Powers Law, its member systems effort, which resulted in a report that was essen- include: tially the plan for MECC. In retrospect, several ● State Department of Education (433 school factors were critical in initiating a major statewide districts); educational computing effort that involved ele- ● Minnesota State University System (7 cam- mentary, secondary, and higher public education. puses); First, the computer industries based in Min- ● University of Minnesota (5 campuses); nesota (3M, Univac, Honeywell, and Control Data ● Minnesota Community College System (18 Corp.), created interest in, and awareness of, com- campuses); and puting. These corporations also provided many ● State Department of Administration (statu- computer resource personnel. Second, instruc- tory authority for State University and Com- tional computing was beginning to catch on, and munity College Systems). educators were concerned that if they failed to MECC is responsible for coordination and plan- take an active role, it would develop without their ning—maintaining a long-range master plan for input and direction; there was concern that non- educational computing and developing biennial educational agencies would take charge. Third, plans, providing technical reviews of proposals for there were examples of successful, cooperative, in- facilities and services, and reporting on what is structional computing ventures principally among being done with computers by all of public educa- the Suburban Minneapolis schools, the Total In- tion. MECC is also responsible for services to structional Education Service (TIES) consortium, members, and it is this role that is being expanded and evidence that technology could deliver instruc- (by the revised Joint Powers Agreement, August tional services. With this was also a growing in- 1981), while the organization’s policymaking role terest in cooperation and sharing of resources. and its role in approving major computer acquisi- Fourth, there was concern about the increased de- tions is being reduced. The latter activities will be mand for computing services and the proliferation determined by the State Board of Education with of hardware systems in various educational in- the Commissioner of Education. stitutions. Fifth, there was recognition that educa- tional funding constraints would limit operations, Instructional Services Division while a consortium would not be so limited. How- ever, the most important factor, as far as the Operating the Time-Sharing System. The In- legislators were concerned, was equality of educa- structional Services Division (ISD) runs the tional opportunity. The legislature was sold on the world’s largest educational time-share system. It notion that computing opportunities ought to be works reliably, and is “up” 99 percent of the time. available in all parts of the State. Its Control Data Cyber 73 System, with 448 user The plan, therefore, was to provide access to the ports, is currently accessed by more than 2,000 ter- central computer through a telecommunications minals located across the State in most public network. The State would subsidize the telecom- schools, all community colleges and public univer- munications cost to provide equal opportunity to sities, and many of Minnesota’s private schools. A multiplexing communications network with 23 all systems, even those most distant from the cen- 2 tral system. Funding for the system and specific hubs provides access to the computer. ISD is also services to users would be contracted annually. responsible for the communications network—its Each school district or agency determined what installation, maintenance, and coordination with they needed. The budget requests were developed local telephone companies. and sent to the legislature. ‘Instructional Microcomputing and Timesharing: A Minnesota Per- Getting the time-share system to work was no spective, MECC Instructional Services Long Range Planning Project, easy task. In fact, there were many problems with 1981, p. 39.

.— 216 c Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

An extensive library of programs supports a ticipants recognize the need for hands-on ex- range of activities from drill and practice to periences is indicated, in part, by their willingness mathematics problem generators, office manage- to bring all the equipment to class. Microcom- ment, and career guidance information. Thirteen puters and diskettes replace books, paper, and pen- different computing languages and programs are cils, as learning tools. Principals, teachers, and available to users. Software is continually main- librarians learn about and learn with the tech- tained and improved. nology, in much the same way as do their students. Technical Assistance and Training. Through Developing Instructional Computing Software ISD, instructional computing coordinators are lo- and Support Materials; Dissemination and Distri- cated throughout the State in each of the regions. bution. Software that has been designed and These regional coordinators work with teachers developed includes operating system manuals, who in turn serve as local coordinators for the computer literacy courses, and a range of sup- school district or education agency. According to plementary instructional materials and manage- Will Jokela, MECC Instructional Coordinator for ment aids. Development is directly linked to the Central Minnesota, these local coordinates are cru- users (through the creation of software at the local cial to the program. “They make things happen level), to field testing and revision, and to im- and are part of the whole planning and implemen- plementation. Networking, originally begun tation process. ” through the time-sharing system, has been ex- For example, when Jokela conducts workshops tended through the State instructional computing across his region, he often uses local coordinators conference, regional meetings, the newsletters, and as resources. Jokela also holds sessions to demon- the other user activities. strate new programs for local coordinators, and What is clear is the value of sharing ideas, of pro- these are often times when they share programs viding a vehicle for development, and of dissemi- developed locally and duplicate MECC microcom- nating this new information to users. Individual puter programs. He keeps up with computing ac- teachers, school districts, and regional organiza- tivities through the electronic mail system (also tions contribute software. MECC staff work with part of time share) and through visits to local the developers to obtain rights to the material, schools and colleges. The regional coordinators then they document and standardize it so that help in disseminating information in the newslet- other schools can use it. All software and support ters, through conferences, and through the elec- materials are available to Minnesota users (for tronic mail system. copying) free or at nominal cost. At the same time, Jokela and others in his role In October 1980, institutional memberships became the link in continuing advances and were offered to nonprofit educational institutions changes. Soon after the MECC inexpensive com- outside of Minnesota. Presently, there are 51 mem- puter contract was awarded, Jokela was “trying bers in 23 States, Canada, Australia, England, out the Atari” and getting ready to demonstrate Kenya, Saudi Arabia, Scotland, and Switzerland. its use to interested educators. He also delivered In addition, software reproduction and distribu- and installed the Apples purchased through tion rights are arranged with commercial vendors MECC, and literally carted Apples across central under a royalty agreement. The income from these Minnesota. Of his 73 public school districts in agreements and sales goes directly back into soft- Region III, all have Apples and 62 used the time- ware development. share system in 1981-82. Since the first purchase of Apple microcompu- Management Information ters in 1977, increasing amounts of the coor- Services Division dinators’ time have gone into supporting micro- Management Information Services supports a computers. Marcia Horn, an instructional coor- range of administrative management functions. dinator in the Twin Cities area, points out that as Every school district in the State is required to use soon as a workshop is announced, it is filled. Horn the finance reporting system developed by MECC. is impressed with the eagerness to learn and the This division has also developed a student support excitement of those who attend her MECC intro- system that handles student data, attendance, ductory courses. In the sessions, technology is scheduling, reporting, and history. The person- manipulated, not just talked about. That par- nel/payroll system is used by half of the districts in the State. .

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 217

Special Projects Division costs, to share expertise and applications, to have uniformity and compatibility of data (administra- The Special Projects Division carries out re- tion), and to train educators. search projects, developments of new applications, The use of the timesharing system has been fair- and evaluation. With funding from the National ly consistent in time of the number of ports pur- Science Foundation (NSF), computer literacy cur- chased by users and the increase of log-ins and con- riculum modules and support materials are being nect time, which increased by approximately one- developed. An interactive video disk/microcom- third during 1978-81 (see fig. A-2). Of the elemen- puter course in economics is under way with sup- tary, secondary, and vocational school districts, port from private foundations. 75 percent used the time-sharing system, a slight reduction in use. At the same time, however, mi- Impacts crocomputer use rose from 57 percent the year before to 85 percent of all districts. Providing Access to Computing: Instructional The major use of the time-share system is for Time Sharing and Microcomputing. Not only ac- programing-up to 45 percent–with students cess but equal access has been Minnesota’s goal from all over the State having access to almost a for all students. From the very start, it was rec- dozen different programing languages. The impact ognized that there was a need to achieve economy of these opportunities is not readily assessed of scale in computer hardware acquisition, to through numbers, but clearly many of these stu- create a cost-effective communications network to dent users have become outstanding programers. minimize the systems design and development Winners of the MECC annual student software

Figure A-2. —MECC Timesharing System Port Distribution by User System, 1975-81

400 3

3 3 2 2 300 3 2 2 2 2

200

1 1 1 1 1 1 100

0 — — — — 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-1980 1980-81

School year

Key: 1 = Elementary/secondary/vocational 2 = State universities 3 = Community colleges 4 = University of Minnesota 5 = Nonmember institutions SOURCE /m frucf/ona/ M/crocompuf/ng and T/rneshar/ng A A4/nnesofa Perspecflve, Report of the Instructional Services Long Range Plannlng Project, Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, June 1, 1981 218 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education competition develop creative and impressive prod- If MECC drops the time share we’d feel it . . . ucts. “Many of the future technology leaders will the larger city districts will continue. If I lose come from Minnesota, ” notes Brumbaugh, “hav- the port, I can stand it. If I lose the support ing had 8 to 10 years of computing opportunities of MECC, the whole program goes. in the public schools as well as training at the Developing Software and Making It Available University of Minnesota’s world-renowned com- to Users. Software and support materials have puter sciences programs. ” Minnesota benefits been steadily developed and revised to support the directly, since many of these high school and col- time-share system, the Apple microcomputer, and lege students are hired as part-time programers the Atari microcomputer. On the time-share sys- at MECC and many enter Minnesota-based indus- tem there is a library of more than 950 programs tries. used at all levels. More than 200 microcomputer The impact on increased access by MECC’s programs have been developed, and the number early entry into microcomputing with the award of new programs continues to expand at a rate of of the State contract to the Apple Computer Co. 8 to 10 new programs each month. is clear. The decision to standardize hardware to Although software development has been fo- one system was based on the belief that standard- cused on Minnesota users, in the case of materials ization was necessary in order to be able to sup- for the Apple (and now the Atari), two-thirds of port that system with software and training, there- the software distribution (primarily for the micro- by indirectly affecting access. (By early 1982, total computer) is outside the State. Single-item sales, Apple sales reached 2,863.) Most of the purchasers institutional licensing agreements, and distribu- of these microcomputers are elementary, second- tion arrangements with commercial vendors have ary, and vocational schools. increased significantly over the last 2 years. In 1981, MECC developed a second set of speci- MECC officials point out that all of the income fications for a low-cost microcomputer. The State from software sales goes back into development. contract was awarded to Atari, which agreed to The current budget for development has tripled, pay MECC to convert at least 75 of existing with only 5 percent of the funding for software MECC/Apple programs. In the first 3 months of development coming from Minnesota. According the Atari contract, 230 microcomputers had been to Brumbaugh: purchased. The amount of resources invested in instruc- A major reason that districts are purchasing mi- tional computing material development con- crocomputers is to provide greater access. The tinues to grow, without any reduction in sight high school in Maple Lake, a small rural district, . . . It’s estimated that 250,000 copies of MECC has three Apples, one TRS-80, and one time-shar- diskettes have been distributed or sold to com- ing port. Before the microcomputers, the 500 stu- puter users throughout the world. Software sales this year are expected to reach one million dents had limited computing experience through dollars. time sharing. Even though four microcomputers aren’t enough, they make a big difference to Mary Software development has been effective be- James, a teacher and the district’s computer coor- cause it has been tied to what teachers want. Ac- dinator. James is adamant about reaching every tually begun by teachers sharing ideas through the Maple Lake youngster: time-share system, it has continued to build on By the time they are 35 they all will have teacher ideas. Much of the software has primarily computers—many for their farm businesses— been cleaned-up, field-tested, documented, and others in technical work (if they leave Maple made available to users by MECC. Another reason Lake)--and for recreation . . . if most families for success, many argue, was the decision to de- have three snowmobiles sitting in their drive- velop software for one microcomputer system. ways now, they’ll soon have computers, too. This decision provided an opportunity to refine It’s not just the hardware that makes a differ- authoring procedures, understand the capabilities ence, it’s the support James gets from the range of the machine, and develop more programs (e.g., of MECC services. In this rural district, with an instead of three programs for three machines, nine operating budget of $2.5 million for 1,320 stu- programs for one machine). After the award of the dents, the opportunity to use computers for in- second computer contract, it was not difficult to struction and to provide computer literacy courses convert many Apple programs for the Atari. The and independent study, is due in large measure to need and demand for microcomputer courseware MECC and to local administrative and school in Minnesota continues, however. In MECC’s 1981 board support. James says: Computing Opinion Survey, “Schools want mate- App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 219

rials in all subject areas-with the highest but more advanced topics and courseware author- priorities given to computer science, business izing and design will require MECC staff. education, mathematics, science, and special Close Ties With Local Districts, Using Local Ex- education, ” with less need for drill and practice pertise. The superintendent of the Alexandria Pub- and games and more need for problem solving, lic Schools, Clayton Hovda, attributes his dis- tutorial, and simulations.3 trict’s early involvement with computers to the op- Local districts will continue to develop their own portunity to be part of the statewide time-share software and will also continue to purchase com- system, as well as to the fact that MECC from the mercial software. For the latter, it may be desir- very start had key people “who came through the able to provide help to schools by developing state- educational process, who knew how schools wide purchase contracts for software, as has been worked because they were school-based. ” There done for hardware. Finally, as the market for soft- was and continues to be a symbiotic relationship ware enlarges, there will be an increase in develop- between the schools and MECC. ment in the private sector, argues Haugo, now For example, the Alexandria schools shared president of a software development company. computing and time-sharing facilities with the Area Vocational Technical Institute (AVTI). That Impacts of Information experience, along with other examples (TIES), pro- Technology vided a model for extending the time-share con- cept across the State. A further example of this Professional Development and Training. Profes- symbiotic relationship can be seen in the role of sional development and training is cited frequently the local computer coordinators. According to Bill as a major area of need that must be addressed French of Alexandria, this role is strongly sup- if education is to take advantage of computer tech- ported by MECC; the fact that most districts have nology. Over a 6-year period (1974-80), MECC has a computer coordinator can be credited to MECC’s provided significant development and training ac- efforts. tivities: 3,572 visitations by MECC staff to Providing Leadership. There is no question districts and campuses; 1,639 informal presenta- about MECC’s leadership in providing hardware tions; 1,756 workshops with a total attendance of standardization, software development, and train- 26,340; and 623 meetings for local computer coor- ing. However, several school districts and regional dinators. As impressive as these figures are, agencies are leaders as well; and districts such as MECC officials point out that the demand for Hopkins and Robbinsdale have received national training exceeds capacity. Brumbaugh notes: “For recognition for their computing activities. It is ap- every request for service that we fill, we turn one parent that MECC walks a fine line: local auton- down. ” Although many local districts provide ad- omy of programs is highly valued, yet service and ditional training activities—the educational serv- assistance are welcomed. The revised Joint Powers ice unit or area vocational technical institutes and Agreement puts MECC squarely in a service role. colleges and universities are offering an increas- It is also agreed that there is a need for leadership ing number of courses—the needs for training are and coordination to maintain and advance comput- not fully met. ing applications; in this regard MECC, as the Furthermore, as State funding resources dimin- State’s computer agency, plays a key role. ish, continuing to provide the current level of serv- School districts outside the State, and even ices will become a problem. According to Brum- other nations concerned with educational com- baugh, there has to be a way to deal with teacher puting, have turned to MECC for advice, technical turn-over (trends show that the more highly tech- assistance, and resources. For example, the first nologically trained teachers leave), with new computer contract specifications developed by teachers as they enter the system, and with main- MECC became the model for the bids developed taining training for those who want to stay abreast by the Region IV Education Services Center in of technological advances. When asked who should Texas and for those prepared by school districts do inservice training for instructional computing, and several States including Florida, North teachers and administrators ranked MECC staff Carolina, and British Columbia. A recent article as the most desirable-followed by local staff, then which surveyed all statewide computing activities regional service centers, and finally colleges and ranked Minnesota as the clear leader.4 “No other universities. Data suggests that local staff will be State education agency comes close to achieving able to assume most introductory demonstrations, —— “’Survey of State Governments and the New Technologies, ” Elec- ’198 1 MECC Computer Opinion Survey, User Opinion on Training, tronic Learnkg, November/December 1981. 220 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education the level of commitment and organization achieved software maintenance is reduced, recordkeeping by MECC. But many State officials are now realiz- and management functions are simplified, and cen- ing that it may be their responsibility to move in tralized printing is feasible. MECC is designing its that direction. ” own interfaces and networks. By fall of 1982, these networks will be field-tested in selected Minnesota The Future schools. In addition, MECC’s long-range planners estimate that the number of instructional comput- With reductions of the State subsidy for tele- ing stations in classrooms in Minnesota’s schools, communications, increased local costs pose a real colleges, and universities will reach 10,000 by barrier to time sharing, especially to the smaller, 1984. rural districts further away from the Twin Cities. Minnesota computer educators also confident- Although much of the instructional activities can ly predict continuing developments in instruc- and will be shifted to the microcomputers, a real tional computing, pointing to present programs— loss may well be the availability of advanced pro- the result of more than 8 years of experience. The graming languages and the communications activ- MECC software and materials, training activities, ities and the electronic mail system which tied so and the range of successful applications in com- many of the districts to one another. Richard puting, were possible because funding was sus- Pollack, Director of Special Projects, describes the tained over a long enough period of time and over time-share system as “the glue that brought it all a critical mass of educational institutions and together. ” users. MECC’s accomplishments, the computing A spate of news stories have highlighted Min- activity in Minnesota schools, and the significant nesota’s financial difficulties. “What the rest of number of students with access to these programs the Nation’s schools have been facing has finally is the result of the State’s vision and its long-term caught up with us, ” one of the educators re- commitment. marked. Many districts have begun to tighten their belts by laying off teachers and increasing pupil-teacher ratios. However, many districts, like Resources Alexandria, plan to go ahead with plans for their Case study interviews: computer programs. Bill French, teacher and com- Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, St. puting coordinator comments: “I can see us buy- Paul, Minn. ing 4 to 6 Atari’s for each elementary school . . . Dale L. Schneiderhan, Acting Executive Director What’s $500 when we pay $2,000 for a typewriter Kenneth E. Brumbaugh, Director, Instructional Serv- or an Apple?” The additional costs for training and ices, and Deputy Executive Director software are, in a sense, covered through the serv- Douglas P. LaChance, Acting Director, Management In- ices provided by MECC. Although MECC has al- formation Services ready had budget cuts and expects more in the Richard Pollak, Director, Special Projects future, increasing revenues from software sales Marge Kosel, Manager, Instructional Systems Devel- will lessen the impact. opment Superintendent Arthur Bruning, of the Hopkins Marcia Horn, Instructional Coordinator Kasey Mork, Instructional Coordinator School District, a Twin Cities suburb, also expects Willis Jokela, Instructional Coordinator to expand his program using the low-cost com- Minneapolis Public Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. puters. He sees technology bridging home and Paul Dillenberger, Math Resource Teacher school, with the computers going home for ex- Hopkins Public Schools, Hopkins, Minn. tended activities. In this district, with an $18 Arthur Bruning, Superintendent million annual budget, he argues, “We will need Ken Corens, Computing Coordinator to set aside resources for technology-for there is Don Sension, Computer Center going to be a change (in the way we educate young- Maple Lake Public Schools, Maple Lake, Minn. sters) and the pupil/teacher ratio will increase be- Mary James, Teacher, Maple Lake High School, and cause of economics.” Computing Coordinator Eagle Bend Public Schools, Eagle Bend, Minn. Brumbaugh is optimistic. He sees opportunities Wilbur James, Superintendent for expansion of software and new technological Richard Lundgren, Communicasting Project Director advances that will make a difference in instruc- Alexandria Public Schools, Alexandria, Minn. tional computing. One example of these advances Bill French, High School Teacher and Computing is an interface that allows microcomputers to be Coordinator networked or clustered together. Once clustered, Clayton Hovda, Superintendent App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 221

John Haugo, former Executive Director, MECC district has engaged in a planning effort to address 1973-1981, presently President, Edu Systems, Inc., equity and access to ensure that all students ac- St. Paul, Minn. quire basic skills and technological competence. As one of the largest school districts in the Nation, Bibliography Houston also shows how economies of scale, crit- ical mass, and volume purchasing power can be Ahl, David H., “Minnesota Educational Computing Con- sortium, ” Creative Computing, March 1981. used to implement new programs and produce Calkins, Andrew, “A Survey on State Governments and software/curriculum materials. the New Technologies, ” Electronic Learning, November/December 1981. “Computers in the Schools, ” a message from the Com- The Setting missioner of Education (undated—estimated date fall 1980). The Houston metropolitan area population in Cost-Effective Educational Innovations in Minnesota: 1981 was 2.4 million. It is a highly mobile popula- A Report of Projects, Minnesota Council on Quality tion with a high growth rate for Hispanics and Education, Division of Special Services, Minnesota Asians. A total of 193,702 pupils attend 169 ele- Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn. mentary and 70 secondary schools. Over the last Data Newsletter, Minnesota Educational Computing 10 years the ethnic makeup of the student body Consortium, January/February 1981. population has shifted from an almost all-white Instructional Microcomputing and Timesharing: A Min- population to one that is 23 percent white, 44 per- nesota Perspective. The report of the MECC Instruc- cent black, 30 percent Hispanic, and 3 percent tional Services Long Range Planning Project, Min- nesota Educational Computing Consortium, St. Paul, Asian. Approximately 62 percent of the high Minn., June 1, 1981. school graduates attend college. 1979-1980 Annual Report, Minnesota Educational Com- Houston is at the center of a booming industrial puting Consortium, June 30, 1980, area. Its major industries are oil and gas, bank- 198081 Annual Report, Minnesota Educational Com- ing, construction, and chemicals. There are strong puting Consortium, June 30, 1981. ties between HISD and area industries, the cham- PACE: Projects to Advance Creativity in Education, 5th ber of commerce, and the other business organiza- cd., ESEA title IV, pt, C in Minnesota, Minnesota De- tions. This relationship has been cultivated by partment of Education, St. Paul, Minn. Houston’s superintendent, Billy Reagan, over a “The Minnesota Connection, ” an interview with John 7-year period. Through cooperative business/ Haugo, Classroom Computer News, fall 1980. school arrangements, the district’s pupils and pro- grams have benefited. For example, magnet Instructional Computing schools receive hundreds of thousands of dollars Houston Independent School for equipment and scholarships from companies District, Houston, Tex. such as Exxon, IBM, DuPont, and others. There is evidence that the district focus on technology The Houston Independent School District utilization, academic achievement, and career (HI SD) was selected for study because it is a rec- training programs has been positively received by ognized leader in urban education, in developing the business community. innovative programs such as magnet schools and The annual budget of $507 million supports a in implementing cooperative efforts with industry wide array of educational programs for this dis- and the business community. It has successfully trict’s diverse population. The district currently halted declining pupil achievement, a major prob- receives $13 million in Federal title I moneys. lem for urban school districts. The district also Houston administrators expect to feel only a slight provides examples of how technology can be used impact from cutbacks in Federal funds, since most to support and deliver basic skill instruction, to of their revenues are locally generated. Unlike communicate with parents, to assist teachers, and many urban districts, Houston’s financial base is to become the basis for technological understand- thriving and its financial future appears secure. ing and computer literacy. The following issues facing the district affect Moreover, it provides an example of districtwide educational programs and educational quality: leadership and coordination through a newly cre- ● The shift from an emphasis on desegregation, ated department of technology and the Nation’s to an emphasis on quality integrated educa- first associate superintendent for technology. tion (mid-1970’s), to the current emphasis on With a growing minority student population, the the prevention of resegregation. 222 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Changes in family needs (dual wage earners) pening in the region’s districts and to prepare and an increasing number of single-parent recommendations for action. Task force members families. included Superintendent Reagan, superintendents An increase in the Hispanic population and of the Byran and Orange Cove School Districts, enrollment, with a critical shortage of Spanish the director of data processing from Spring bilingual teachers. Branch ISD, and Sturdivant, then Region IV ESC The shortage of math, science, and computer Instructional Computing Coordinator. The task science teachers; a high teacher turnover rate force found that use of time sharing had leveled in critical areas; and difficulty in retaining top- off (after 5 years of steady growth), that interest quality teachers. in microcomputers was high, and that microcom- The increased computer use in all aspects of puters were being purchased with “insufficient society and in the district. planning, and little understanding of their poten- The increase in community support from par- tials or limitations. ” After purchase, districts were ents, patrons, religious organizations, and faced with inadequately trained teachers, a short- businesses and professional organizations. age of software, and a lack of technical support for The increase in student achievement since an hardware operation and maintenance. all-time low in 1975, and the desire to main- The report recommended that hardware be tain these achievement gains at all levels. standardized to facilitate training, maintenance The major challenges, feels Superintendent and software exchange and development, and that Regan, are “continuing to offer quality education high-volume purchase arrangements be made to in an integrated environment to all children, and reduce costs. Bid specifications were developed, attracting and holding nonminority children, both and in June 1980, Bell and Howell’s Apple 11 from within and outside the District. ” Microcomputer System was selected. The Region IV Instructional Computing Serv- Instructional Computing ices Division served as the fiscal agent for school districts purchasing microcomputers. High-vol- In the early 1970’s, the district’s first instruc- ume purchases resulted in savings close to a tional computing programs were offered through million dollars over a 2-year period. In addition, the Region IV Education Service Center’s com- the center provided computer literacy training to puter. By 1972,20 terminals were used for problem area school administrators and teachers, with solving, drill and practice, and BASIC program- more than 3,000 teachers receiving training. The ing instruction. Math and data-processing classes center also offers a low-cost maintenance service at the secondary level were primary users. Com- for computer hardware; publishes a monthly news- puting activities were limited, points out Patricia letter; coordinates courseware purchase and selec- Sturdivant, Associate Superintendent, and there tion; loans video tapes, films, and other training were problems with inadequately documented materials; and offers special workshops to meet courseware programs and manuals and with high the needs of individual school districts in the costs of hardware and associated maintenance region. The working relationship between HISD costs. The links through telephone lines were and the service center is evidenced by Reagan’s unreliable, and when the mainframe was down no choice of Sturdivant as his new associate super- instruction was available. Despite these frustra- intendent for technology. tions a small cadre of teachers persevered. These educators, more often than not, were self-taught. Few had computer-science college training. Current Programs By 1977-78, Houston’s instructional computing efforts were well established. While computer ap- By October 1981, the district survey of micro- plications varied, the major emphasis was on in- computers reported 200 microcomputers located creasing pupil achievement in reading and math- in 47 percent of HISD campuses. The most fre- ematics. Not only was this a major priority for the quently used system is the Apple II, 48K. Local district, but Federal title I funds were used to sup- funds were used to purchase 45 percent of the port these high-cost programs. Student gains were microcomputers in the school buildings, while Fed- “dramatic,” according to high school principal eral funds paid for 31 percent. Parent-teacher or- Franklin Wesley. ganizations bought or helped to buy about 4 per- In 1979, the Region IV ESC established a mi- cent of the systems. Of those reported uses, 44 per- crocomputer task force, to evaluate what was hap- cent focused on classroom instruction; 29 percent App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 223 were used for classroom management, and only 4 piloted in five elementary schools with language percent were used in school administration. programs for gifted and talented students. At A year and a half later (March 1982), the esti- Askew Elementary, students learn about com- mated number reached 323. While use of the ter- puters and their impact on society. Their parents minals linked to a minicomputer has decreased, are also involved, Together, they find microproc- several elementary and secondary campuses con- essors that they use at home, and they collect and tinue to operate drill and practice laboratories for read newspaper and magazine articles. In class, compensatory (title I and SCE) and handicapped students have experiences with the computer in students. drill and practice, simulation and tutorial ac- Managing Competency-Based Education. The tivities. Finally, they learn simple programing Booker T. Washington High School’s competency- routines. These students seem to enjoy all the ac- based education program for students uses the tivities, notes one of their teachers–particularly school’s PDP-11 to score student tests, monitor hands-on experiences. “They love it so long as they student performance on specific learning objec- have a computer on the end of it. ” tives, and report progress to teachers. The school’s Operation Fail Safe. The district’s computing principal, Wesley, argues that this approach is power has also been used since 1977 in a unique working for this school’s depressed economic com- parent involvement program, Operation Fail-Safe. munity and its predominantly black population of Although not a teaching application, the program students who are at the bottom of the academic affects the instructional program. It is designed scale. to reach parents, communicate information about Computer Science/Programing Languages. their children’s achievement, and help parents help Housed on the same campus (Booker T. Wash- their children (see fig. A-3). ington) is one of the district magnet programs— This system-wide program is an example of how the High School for the Engineering Profession. computer technology has been used to provide im- These students take computer science courses in portant data on a timely basis and on a massive BASIC, Fortran, applications, and problem-solv- scale, impacting 200,000 pupils, notes Sara Cord- ing, using terminals connected to the school’s ray, program director, Using the Region IV twin PDP-11. The school’s computer science teacher CDC Cyber 170 mainframe, HISD profiles each works jointly with an engineer on loan from IBM. student’s performance on the Iowa Test of Basic Other secondary schools offer computer science Skills; generates progress reports listing specific courses of instruction in several programing skill strengths in reading and math; develops in- languages on both time-share terminals and micro- dividualized reading lists (sent home as a letter to computers. In some elementary schools, students each parent) based on each students’ interest and learn programing in mathematics. independent reading level from a data base of Project BASIC. All secondary schools have im- 12,000 library books; and prepares vocational pro- plemented Project BASIC, a commercially devel- files based on a standardized assessment of each oped program for HISD’s Apple microcomputers student. (Accompanying each profile is a printout which monitors reading lab students’ progress and of occupational opportunities and education and tracks their mastery of reading skills. Before im- training requirements.) plementing the program, extensive training took Other current uses (documented in the HISD place: first of principals, then reading teachers, and Microcomputer User Survey) of the microcom- finally technical aids who input data and retrieve puters vary from school to school. Microcomputers information on the microcomputer. are used in mathematics, reading, science, lan- Implemented in the 1981-82 school year, the guage arts, accounting and business education, project required a reorganization of the secondary special education, computer literacy, and program- reading labs, more than $600,000 (primarily SCE ing activities. Some schools have computer clubs funds) to purchase hardware, software, and mate- and some offer classes after school for students rials to operate the labs, and reallocation of ex- and parents. Some teachers are creating their own isting operating funds to hire 67 basic skills com- software, and others use commercially prepared puter operators, one media equipment mainte- materials. nance technician, one supervisor, six area reading specialists, and one systems analyst. Impacts Computer Literacy. A computer literacy cur- When Houston educators assess the impacts of riculum, developed by Region IV ESC, is being technology on education, they point to improved

{.- . —, 224 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Figure A-3.—Sample “Fail Safe” Parent Letter

SOURCE: Houston Independent School District. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 225

student achievement. The profile of HISD elemen- students in four schools. After students’ reading tary students’ mean composite scores from 1971 skill areas were identified, materials were prepack- to 1981 documents the increased basic school per- aged and distributed weekly for parent-child use formance of a student population who typically are at home. low achievers (see fig. A-4). In 1980-81, the district A comparison of these students and a control completed its sequential testing program through group (students not participating in the program) grade 12. Although the results at the elementary revealed higher significant gains for pilot students. level are more impressive, scores in grades 5, 7, Beyond these statistical gains, Operation Fail Safe 8, 9, 10, and 11 also show a significant improve- has the strong support of the business communi- ment in achievement. Although not the sole fac- ty. Local businesses and corporations have paid tor, technology plays a critical role. for a $1 million advertising campaign that high- When the title I computer-assisted instruction lights parent involvement activities with the mes- (CAI) program was evaluated, students in grades sage, “Don’t Fail Me–Help Me. ” Seventy-four 2-6 averaged gains of 1.1 months in reading and percent of elementary school parents and 39 per- 1.2 months in mathematics in 1978-79. Students cent of secondary school parents attend the pro- in grades 3-7 made similar gains of 1.1 months in gram’s parent-teacher conferences. reading, 1.4 months in mathematics, and 1.5 HISD and the Region IV ESC have provided months in language in 1980-81, Of teachers whose leadership for the 101 local area school districts students participated in the CAI labs, 93 percent and for the State education agency. The Apple felt that student performance improved as a result microcomputer bid process and contract had na- of CAI and 63 percent reported that students’ tional recognition and was used as a basis for other achievement was greater than would be expected district and regional education agency efforts. in a traditional instructional program. While Region IV was one of the first to join the students looked forward to CAI classes, teachers Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium complained about the disruption to their classes (MECC) as an institutional member, providing when students were pulled out. Scheduling was area schools access to MECC-produced software. fixed and inflexible. Moreover, when computers HISD organized a technology conference for the were down or telephone lines malfunctioned stu- National Institute of Education’s Urban Super- dents missed instruction. intendents Study Group in December 1981. The Operation Fail Safe was evaluated in 1977-78 to conference brought together educational leaders, determine the relationship between parent involve- hardware manufactures, and educational publish- ment and student achievement. The level of parent ers to discuss common needs and to work towards involvement, determined by the school principal, collaborative efforts. was compared with students’ achievement test Finally, the district is bombarded with requests scores. At every level—elementary, junior high, for information and for help–"everything you and senior high-a significant positive relationship know about computers. ” There is a steady stream was documented. A second study of a pilot parent- of visitors who come to observe programs and see assist program involved 200 parents of third grade teachers and students in action. As HISD moves its technology programs for- ward, Sturdivant sees the need to help schools to Figure A-4.– Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, effectively use the technology that they have. She Mean Composite Scores, HISD, 1971-81 believes that, before schools acquire hardware or add to their inventory, they must plan for their GE t- 1 use. That involves an understanding of the tech- 7.0 nology’s potential and its limitations, the learning 6.5 objectives to be met, and the trained teachers 6.0 needed to implement the program. Sturdivant is 5.5 also in favor by focusing on a few applications at 5.0 a time, so as to give the district leverage for pur- 4,5 chasing hardware and software. The major pub- 4.0 lishers will provide what the district needs “if they 3.5 know we will buy, ” The full impact of technology I on HISD will come when “technology is fused to 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 education . . . to what teachers are doing . . . and SOURCE Houston Independent School District (is) not another add-on to the curriculum. If teach- 226 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education ers can’t be convinced that technology will make significantly expanded. First priority for aware- their job easier, they’re not going to buy it. ” ness and training activities will be school prin- In addition, here will be a concerted effort in cipals. School officials note that the principal is the HISD to continue to identify those programs that key figure in program implementation. are working and to replicate them. The key, states Expanding the Use of Microcomputers as In- Associate Superintendent Michael Say, “is to structional Delivery Systems in the School and channel the use of technology and coordinate Home. School officials expect the number of it . . . Houston is on the verge of moving ahead in microcomputers in HISD to increase from the a significant way. ” The district will fund the present 250 to 300 to approximately 1,000 in a emerging programs out of State and local funds year and to 5,000 to 7,000 in 5 years. A major use because “we want to determine our own emphasis of these machines will be to increase student time- and maintain our own programs. ” Federal funds, on-task in basic skill areas, especially in title I he argues, should be used for innovation and state- schools. Moreover, microcomputers will be made of-the-art development. available to parents who have participated in train- ing sessions and who are willing to help their chil- Future dren increase academic skills at home. Pilot pro- grams will begin in September with schools that For HISD, the future is now. Although technol- have implemented parent-school training and the ogy is already a part of the Houston educational Operation Fail-Safe partnership activities. scene, with diverse activities well under way, there Although there is a lack of available, appropriate is a pervasive feeling among educational leaders software, district leaders believe that there is that hard decisions must be made, innovative ac- enough to begin the programs and that more will tions initiated, and major resources reallocated as follow as the microcomputers are purchased, and quickly as possible. At the same time, cautions the district envisions software lending libraries Say, “We can’t just throw technology out there available to parents who will purchase hardware and expect it to be used. ” Houston’s efforts will on their own. Eventually, Houston’s cable system focus heavily on teacher and administrator com- will become part of home-school activities, with in- puter-literacy training, and on acquisition of hard- dividual student prescriptions, homework assign- ware and software that is coordinated with ments, and a range of learning packages geared planned program development. Superintendent to terminals in the home. Reagan believes technology holds “untold prom- Computer Literacy for Diverse Student Popula- ises . . . not to replace teachers but to become the tions. Over the next 4 years, the district plans to full partner of the teacher. ” The district’s future expand and develop magnet elementary and sec- plans are diverse; several are close to implemen- ondary schools located near major government, tation or are already under way. Other plans are business, industry, higher education, and cultural 2 to 5 years away from completion. centers of the city. This in-town consortium of New Roles for Teachers. The position of teacher magnet schools will be linked together by common technologist with pay incentives (increased salary program components and a common HISD trans- supplements) has been approved. Teacher technol- portation system. The plan is to integrate diverse ogists will teach teachers, parents, and youngsters cultural, racial, and socioeconomic student popula- and serve as catalysts, planners, and implementers tions by offering a strong academic program that of computer literacy and other programs on indi- integrates the use of the computer as an instruc- vidual school campuses. These teachers will draw tional tool in skill development and enrichment on the small cadre of staff members already im- activities. plementing programs, as well as on others who are Educational programs will take advantage of ready to move into this role. It is hoped that these nearby resources, expanding HISD’s Business new opportunities and increased pay will hold the School Partnership Program, which brings volun- district’s trained teachers and attract new recruits, teers into the schools to tutor, teach minicourses, many of whom are choosing industry for their and organize field trips. These magnet programs careers. will also use the resources of libraries, museums, Extensive Staff Development. Through existing universities, colleges, and community centers. programs offered at the microcomputer center and With the increased focus on technology, the prac- through the establishment of additional centers tical technical expertise of resource people from in- and demonstration projects in schools involving dustry and the business community will play an teacher technologists, training activities will be even more important role. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 227

Developing Technology-Based Courses. One Final Evaluation Report—Computer Assisted Instruc- way to deal with the district critical shortage of tion (CAI), Nov. 6, 1981. math, science, and bilingual teachers is to develop Preliminary report on Districtwide Needs Assessment courses that do not require a full-time teacher. and Plans for Establishing District goals for the New Although not on the district’s immediate horizon, Accredition Cycle, Jan. 21, 1982. Quality Integrated Education: Challenges and Re- there is a growing idea that such courses, mini- sponses, prepared for the Workshop on the Imple- courses, and the like can be developed because of mentation of the Recommendations of the Magnet advances in computer and video disk technologies. School Task Force, Dec. 21, 1981. There is also a plan to make better use of the dis- Houston Independent School District, packet of in- trict’s in-house television arid cable capabilities by formation, November 1981. designing remote-learning stations with instruc- Factors Affecting Education in HISD and Texas in the tion coming from a teacher in one location. 1980’s, February 1981. While some educators see these plans as vision- Elementary School Profiles, 1980-81, August 1981. ary, others point to HISD’s innovations in other Secondary School Profiles, 1980-81, August 1981. areas and argue that, under Superintendent Rea- Approval to Create the Department of Technology, December 1981. gan’s leadership, these ideas will become reality. A Status Report on Microcomputer Developments, The superintendent is a powerful persuader: “Un- Patricia Sturdivant, Region IV Education Service less technology -i.e., the microcomputer, the video Center, October 1979. disk, and television—is fully developed and ex- ploited to the maximum degree, we will fall fur- ther and further behind in Houston in providing the manpower for industry, for our defense, and Information Technology for our future. ” and Education in the Resources State of Alaska Case study interviews: The State of Alaska is providing extensive and Houston Independent School District, Houston, Tex. varied applications of computer and communica- Billy Reagan, Superintendent tions technology to education. Special geographic, Michael Say, Associate Superintendent for Instruction demographic, sociological, and financial factors Patricia Sturdivant, Associate Superintendent for have made the State a forerunner in educational Technology information technology. Alaska has a population Ronald Veselka, Assistant Superintendent for Research unusually receptive to change and technology; a and Evaluation compelling need to apply communications and in- Sara Cordray, Program Administrator, Parent Support Programs formation technology to education; and the finan- Frank Wesley, Principal, Booker T. Washington High cial capability to invest in capital-intensive School innovations. Richard Frazier, Teacher, Booker T. Washington High Although many of the technical, political, legal, School organizational, and educational issues and prob- John Roustenstraugh, Test Engineer on Loan from IBM lems being addressed in Alaska are common to and Teacher other parts of the United States, the special cir- Helen Heard, Principal, Askew Elementary School cumstances of Alaska require that any attempt to Two classrooms of gifted and talented students using generalize from Alaskan experience be done care- microcomputers fully. Given this provision, it seems reasonable to Joy Louisa, Principal, River Oaks Elementary School look to Alaskan experience for useful lessons in the Susan Otto, Teacher of K-5 computer literacy classes Madeline Reed, Director of Mathematics application of technology to education. Carol Kukendahl, Director of Reading and Language Arts The Setting Patsy Rogers, Computer Resources Director, Microcom- puter Center for Teachers Alaska is the largest State in the United States, covering a land area equal to about 20 percent of Bibliography the remaining 49 States. Physically separated from the contiguous 48 States, it is characterized Houston Independent School District by rugged terrain, extremes of climate, low popula- 3830 Richmond Avenue tion density, limited land transportation, and Houston, TX 77027 many small isolated communities accessible only 228 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education by sea or air. The total population of 400,000 in- the region. In 1971, 142 villages had no telephone cludes 50,000 native Americans who belong to service at all. RCA Alaska Communications seven major and distinct culture and language bought the system and was certified by the Alaska groups. Over 50 different native languages and Public Utilities Commission to provide telephone dialects are spoken in the homes. Alaska’s popula- service. tion overall is relatively young. The frontier char- RCA encountered a variety of difficulties in- acter of the region attracts pioneering young cluding hindrances by weather, unreliable electric adults, while the rigors of life discourage retirees power, employee problems in coping with village from remaining for their later years. conditions, and villagers’ lack of sophistication in Alaska has about 90,000 school-age children dis- dealing with the new system.2 Because of the dif- tributed over an area twice the size of Texas. ficulties of providing communications on a private Alaska’s 450 public schools vary in size from 2,500 industry basis, the Alaska State government has students in an Anchorage high school to 8 or 10 taken a more active role in providing communica- students in one-room schools in remote areas. tions. Although some of the 52 school districts in Alaska By the early 1970’s, it became apparent that sat- are geographically larger than those in most other ellite technology offered a more promising means States, they may have only about 1,000 students. of providing telecommunications services to vil- The State is required by court decision to provide lages than had any previous technology. Several education to students aged 7 through 16 in their projects involving satellites were initiated by the home communities, rather than by sending them State government, including an experiment to boarding schools in other communities. funded jointly by the U.S. Department of Health, In rural communities, most students are native Education, and Welfare (HEW) and the National Americans who have only brief history of school- Aeronautics and Space Administration. (Later ing. The educational level of many parentsis low, transferred to the National Institutes for Educa- and the benefits of standard American schooling tion (NIE)).3 HEW and NIE support for this are not necessarily valued. Many of the students “ATS-6 experiment” was about $2.5 million. have a history of poor academic performance and The ATS-6 experiment involved educational and a negative view of schools.1 biomedical applications of satellite-transmitted The recent discovery and exploitation of oil in color television and interactive audio to 19 sites Alaska has provided the financial capability to in- in Alaska. Actual operations lasted only 9 months, vest large sums of capital in education. In addi- during 1974-75, but planning had begun in 1972. tion to the average per pupil expenditure of near- The experiment was extensively evaluated and re- ly $7,000, there are special projects–such as $200 ported on.45 6 million for construction of schools and about While some of these evaluations concluded that $125,000 for the installation of a satellite receiver the experiment was not cost-effective, the project in a rural village. Rural schools are financed totally did build a base of technical expertise in the State by State funds. with regard to satellite communications technol- It is far beyond the scope of this case study to ogy.7 For example, a great deal was learned about trace the general history of communications in Alaska. But it is important to recognize that the aA. Hills and M. G. Morgan, “Telecommunications in Alaskan Vil- developments in educational technology in Alas- lages,” Science, vol. 211, January 1981, pp. 241-248. ‘L. Grayson, “Educational Satellites: The ATS-6 Experiments, ” J. ka have occurred in the context of a generally Ed Tech Sys., vol. 3(2), fall 1974. atypical communications situation. 4B. Cowlan and D. Foote, “A Case Study of the ATS-6 Health, Educa- Communications technology that most Ameri- tion and Telecommunications Projects, ” ARC No. 308.3 -C875, EHR-19, Office of Education and Human Resources, Bureau of Technical As- cans take for granted-telephones, radio, and tel- sistance, Agency for International Development, Washington, D. C., evision-have had a very complex and problematic August 1975. ‘Office of Telecommunications, “Alaska ATS-6 Health/Education Tel- history in Alaska. Alaska’s long-distance tele- ecommunications Experiment: Alaska Education Experiment Final Re phone facilities were operated until 1971 by an arm port, vols. I, II, III and Executive Summary” (Juneau: Office of Tele- of the U.S. Air Force. The system, served by high- communications, Office of the Governor of the State of Alaska, September 1975). frequency land radio stations, was unreliable aPractical Concepts, Inc., Implications of the Alaska Education Sat- because of ionospheric disturbances common to elh”te Communications Demonstration for Telecommunications Poh”cy- makers (Washington, D. C.: Practical Concepts, Inc., January 1976). ‘T. S. Pittman and J. Orvik, ATS-6 and State Telecommunications ‘William J. Bramble and Ernest E. Polley, “Microcomputer Instruc- Policy for Rural Alaska: An Analysis of Recommendations, Center for tion in Remote Vllages in Alaska, ” Alaska Department of Education, Northern Educational Research, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1981. Alaska, December 1976. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 229

the use of low-power ground stations.8 Effective- plementation and use in Alaska. These include the ly structured audio conferences for adult interac- following: tion were found to be effective for educational pur- ● instructional television; poses.’ Institutional issues regarding media began ● audio conferencing; to be addressed, such as ways of providing for local ● electronic mail; (as opposed to State or national) control over ● information retrieval; media and methods of providing appropriate pro- ● individualized study by technology; and graming for rural Alaska. ● computer literacy. In 1975, the Alaska State Legislature provided Instructional Television. By December 1981,85 an appropriation of about $10 million to initiate Alaskan communities were receiving instructional construction of more than 100 small Earth sta- television via satellite dish antennas. Additional tions throughout Alaska that would extend sat- communities continue to be added to the LEARN/ ellite-based long-distance telephone service to ALASKA television network. The statewide in- many communities. The following year, the legis- structional television channel broadcasts nearly 18 lature expanded this satellite network to include hours of programing every day for audience levels television broadcasts for some communities. Since ranging from preschool through adult. The pro- 1977, daytime instructional television (ITV) pro- grams may be used directly in class or taped for grams have been broadcast by satellite, and sites later use. receiving these broadcasts have increased in Most of the programs are purchased from educa- number. tional program producers in the contiguous 48 In 1978, the Alaska State Department of Educa- States. However, the State of Alaska is now pro- tion, with joint funding from NIE and the State, viding funds for Alaskans to produce programing initiated the Educational Telecommunications for tailored to the special needs of its regional and Alaska Project. This project, funded at $6 million, cultural groups. The Northwest Arctic School has developed several of the major educational District has received a grant from the State to technology systems and applications described in develop programing appropriate for the Inupiaq this report, including an electronic mail network, Eskimos who live in 11 villages scattered through- an information retrieval system, and multimedia out the 35,000 -square-mile district (about the size individualized courses. of Indiana). Students in Kotzebue are producing To help determine the instructional potential of ITV programing which can be broadcast live from satellite television, the legislature in 1979 re- Kotzebue’s transmitter. quested that a study be made of the feasibility of Despite the large commitment to State instruc- using television for instruction on a statewide tional television, many problems remain. First, basis. “A Report on the Feasibility of Telecom- scheduling of broadcasts to meet user needs is a munications for Instruction in the State of problem in a State that spans five time zones. Alaska” was submitted to the legislative council Local taping of broadcasts for later use can resolve in February 1980, In response to the recommenda- this problem, but there are copyright issues in- tions of this report, the legislature approved an ap- volved and not all programs can legally be copied. propriation of $8.6 million to implement the in- Second, the high cost of developing the needed pro- structional television and audio conferencing sys- grams can not be amortized over a large audience tems now known as the LEARN/ALASKA Net- due to the sparse populations. Moreover, program- work. LEARN/ALASKA is managed by the Uni- ing aimed at adults in the home is often ineffec- versity of Alaska Instructional Telecommunica- tive when the home environment is crowded and tions Consortium (UAITC), a joint organization of not a suitable learning environment. Finally, po- the University and the State Department of Edu- litical problems arise when the State-run network cation. is perceived by local cable TV operators to be in competition with private industry. Use of Information Technology The cultural impact of television has been an issue of considerable interest since the State first Six major kinds of computer and communica- took initiatives in this area. Mechanisms for pro- tions applications are in varying stages of im- viding native consumer control over programing, scheduling, and operations have been of major con- personal communication with William Bramble, Alaska State De- cern since the earliest experiments. For example, partment of Education, December 1981. James Orvik of the Center for Northern Educa- W. S. Pittman, op. cit., p. 15. tional Research observed, “Depending on how the 230 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education development of a system is managed, early reli- at the main campus, they have more interaction ance on satellites as the principal means of delivery with each other and with their professor through could be an open invitation to begin centralizing the system than they would be able to have in a and homogenizing the entire process of media de- typical classroom. This is particularly true for livery and media use. To the extent such a trend native Americans whose minority culture back- would erode the emergence of local and regional ground often results in little class participation. systems, there is cause for concern."10 The asking and answering of direct questions in One of the strategies that has been adopted a face-to-face setting is often in opposition to to ensure local and regional control for the culturally accepted modes of interacting.11 In LEARN/ALASKA network is the provision for Alaska two EMSs serve educational users: the regional programing facilities and the establish- University of Alaska computer network and an ment of local capability to develop programs. EMS operated by the State Department of Edu- Audio Conferencing. In addition to instructional cation. television, the LEARN/ALASKA network pro- The University network is by far the largest, vides the hardware and the communications capa- serving 7,000 users at campuses and agencies bility for audio conferences, which cost about $64 throughout the State. In the month of November per line per hour to operate. In December 1981, 1981, 104,000 messages were transmitted on this the network had 59 audio conferencing sites; 104 system. Used in innovative ways for learning and are planned by September 1982. At each communi- teaching, the University’s system made it possi- ty audio conference center a coordinator helps ble throughout the winter for high school students users with the technical and administrative as- in Nome, Anchorage, Juneau, Kenai, Fairbanks, pects of setting up and conducting a conference. and Petersburg to participate in an honors pro- A guide assists users in conducting effective gram managed by a professor in the mathematics teleconferences. department of the University of Fairbanks. The The University of Alaska has been an early user students received assignments, collaborated with of this system for education. Students at many of each other, and transmitted their work to the pro- the remote university campuses can join together fessor through the system.12 Problems encoun- in class discussions through the audio conferenc- tered in using the University network for class- ing system. Some faculty members are beginning room interaction have included: lack of visual to develop expertise in the use of this technology, material; lack of cross referencing of messages; too which, although powerful, requires a considerable many simultaneous threads of conversation; too amount of administrative time to implement. Ac- high a reading level in messages; inability to con- cording to one professor, a faculty member must trol negative messages; and student inability to spend about four times more time administering digest unrelated topics. a course that operates via audio or computer con- EMS operated by the State Department of Ed- ference than he spends for a similar conventional ucation was developed by the Educational Tele- course. These pioneering faculty are developing ex- communications for Alaska (ETA) project. This pertise in the appropriate structuring, manage- network links administrators of the 52 school ment, and coordination of audio conferences. districts with each other and with the State Another major application of audio conferenc- Department of Education at Juneau. The system ing is for teacher inservice training. This method is directly accessible only to district ad- is highly cost effective in this State, where travel ministrators, not to school personnel, since the costs are very high. district offices are distant from rural schools. In Electronic Mail. Certain characteristics of an November 1981, the system transmitted about electronic mail system (EMS) make it an ideal tech- 3,500 messages. The primary benefit of this nology for overcoming cultural, geographic, and system is for State and district administration. scheduling barriers to education. Through EMS, There is no physical interface between the students with different cultural backgrounds, university network and the State EMS. The most located in distant places in different time zones, commonly cited reason for this is security. engage in seminar-type discussions with one other Information Retrieval. The Alaska Knowledge and with their professors. Even when all the stu- Base, developed as a part of the ETA project, is dents in a particular class are physically located llPWSon~ co~~cation with Ronald Scollen at the ~ntar for @ss Cultural Studies, University of Alaska, December 1981. 10J. Omik, “ESCD/Alaska: An Educational Demonstration, ’ J. ~m- l~person~ communication with Dr. van Veldhausen, Department Of munication, vol. 27:4, autumn 1977. Mathematics, University of Alaska, December 1981. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies . 231 a computerized guide to help Alaskan educators or more of the courses. Apparent benefits of the find current information about curriculum mate- 1ST courses include the following: rials, successful classroom programs, and resource the courses work well for students whose at- people willing to serve in the schools. Users access tendance at school is irregular or seasonal, the knowledge base through the computer ter- which is the case in many rural Alaskan minals located in the administrative offices of the schools; 52 school districts and the department of educa- the courses provide more educational options tion. During a 3-month period in 1981, about half within a small school; the school districts used the system, retrieving the computer component is motivating, and about 3,500 items of information from this knowl- the equipment has other applications in the edge base. school; Individualized Study by Technology (1ST). A the courses are complete and self-contained, major product of the ETA project is a series of 1ST and are not dependent on local material re- courses for high school students in remote schools. sources or teacher knowledge of content; These courses are designed to provide instruction the courses provide continuity of curriculum that would allow the small, isolated schools to offer in schools where teacher turnover is high. a variety of high-quality courses at the secondary Availability of the initial 1ST courses has pro- level without increasing the staff size and without vided Alaskan educators with an example of what transporting students to schools in large popula- is possible through technology. Demand for addi- tion centers. When a school adopts 1ST courses, tional courses is building, particularly for high it acquires an Apple computer. The computer is school mathematics and science courses. However, also used for a variety of other applications such it is not clear at this point how development of as high school accounting courses, computer such courses will be funded, or even how revision science and data processing training, and drills in and maintenance of the initial courses will be basic skills. supported. Six 1ST courses have been developed: Alaska The cost per student of 1ST courses will depend history, English, developmental reading, general on the overall number of students using the mathematics, general science, and U.S. history. courses, the number of students per course per The course packages include student reading ma- school, and the lifespan of the materials and pro- terials, lab guides, audio cassettes, teacher guides, grams. It appears that the cost per student per text and reference materials, and computer-based course of about $900 will be less than the average exercises and tests. The computer materials oper- Alaskan rural conventional course cost per student ate on stand-alone microcomputers (Apple II). An (about $7,000). One major cost component for 1ST important component of the course design, com- is teacher training. In fiscal year 1981, the cost per puter-based activities provide a high degree of in- teacher for training was about $1,500. Travel and teraction with the student. In pilot tests of the per diem expenses accounted for a large propor- courses the computer exercises were the mode of tion of these teacher training costs. instruction most preferred by 74 percent of the Computer Literacy. In Alaska, as in other students. Audio tapes were liked the least. States, the availability of low-cost microcomputers As typical of technology-based instructional sys- has generated considerable interest by educators tems, the pilot test evaluations indicate that revi- in computer-related skills that should become part sions are needed.13 “The lack of an overall model of the curriculum. Several hundred microcom- for what and how to teach in 1ST courses has con- puters are now available for student use in schools, tributed to some of the problems with course de- and the number is growing rapidly. The Alaska sign, such as the lack of higher cognitive level Association of Computer Using Educators has tasks, high levels of reading difficulty, and prob- been formed with the help of the State Department lems with use of audio tapes.”14 Nevertheless, the of Education. The department also publishes a adoption rate in 1981 far exceeded expectations. newsletter for the association. As of December 1981,95 schools had adopted one By providing teacher inservice workshops in computer literacy and by providing information ‘SM. Howe, et al., “ Individualized Study by Telecommunications Pilot to educators on available software, the State Test Final Evaluation Report, ” Alaska Department of Education, June Department of Education assumes a leadership 1980. l~Education~ Skills K)evdoprnent, Inc., “Final Report Evaluation of role in promoting computer literacy. In an arrange- 1ST Courses FY 81 Pilot Study, ” Alaska Department of Education, ment with the Minnesota Educational Computing November 1981. Consortium (MECC) the department provides cop- 232 ● Informational Technology and Its Impacton American Education

ies of MECC educational software free of charge raising issues about institutional jurisdictions over to the schools. It is now establishing a process for accreditation of courses, tuition payments, school evaluating commercially available courseware and schedules, and the like. will seek to make arrangements with publishers Through their varied experiences in the imple- to license distribution of courseware in the State. mentation of computer and communications tech- Computers and Culture. In 1971, the Computer nology in education, Alaskans have addressed Center Director of the University of Alaska began issues of design, implementation, and public policy a series of educational experiments in Alaskan that very likely all Americans will eventually have high schools. He hypothesized that the use of com- to address. By no means have all these issues been puter technology could assist Alaskan natives in resolved in Alaska, but there is a more mature un- overcoming cultural barriers to learning in the derstanding of them now than 10 years ago. classroom. He found that Eskimo children in What are the risks involved in technological Nome broke through cultural isolation through the innovation, and how might they be mini- use of Fortran programing; that a teacher could mized? According to a model being developed interact with Indian children through computer at the Center for Cross-Cultural Studies at the terminals when they would not interact with him University of Alaska, the risks of wasted cap- face-to-face; and that Eskimo children gained an ital investment and undesirable cultural side understanding of arithmetic through the use of effects can only be minimized if systems handheld calculators.15 evolve with a high degree of user control over growth rate and direction. Impact on the Use of Information Should the cultural and other impacts of in- Technology novation be monitored and, if so, how? There is no formal mechanism for monitoring im- The LEARN/ALASKA network and the ETA pacts and outcomes in Alaska. Some believe projects have been implemented in the past 2 there is no point in it; others are concerned years and are just now beginning to be used opera- over our lack of understanding of impacts. tionally. The impact of these systems on educa- What is the appropriate role of State govern- tion will not be observable for some time. There ment in delivering instruction-e. g., via televi- appear to be no plans by the agencies involved to sion or computer-assisted instruction? monitor or evaluate the impact of these systems. By what mechanisms can educational needs Knowledgeable persons in Alaska make the fol- be taken into account in the processes of es- lowing kinds of predictions of the impacts of com- tablishing policies and regulations regarding puter and communications technologies on educa- telecommunications? tion: How can educators and users drive the design ● curricula of small schools will become more of innovations? standardized through use of the 1ST courses; How can development of high-quality, user- ● nonschool-based education, such as corres- relevant programing be financed? - pondence courses, will become more impor- tant; The Future ● individual schools, as opposed to school dis- tricts, will assume greater decisionmaking Increasing use of computer-assisted instruction control; is highly likely in Alaska. The Report of the Gover- ● previously isolated cultures will become more nor’s Task Force on Effective Schooling recom- socially sophisticated; mends “computer-assisted instruction as a viable ● native languages will disappear; and means of enhancing schooling with respect to the 16 ● cultural barriers to educational progress will development of skills and acquisition of content.” be overcome. Application of video disk technology, combined The increasing use of audio conferencing is ren- with microcomputers, is planned. The Office of dering obsolete some institutional mechanisms Planning and Research in the State Department and jurisdictional boundaries. Communications of Education has established a design team to ana- networks cut across school district and State lines, lyze authoring systems, assess feasibility of group

“E. J. Gauss, “Computer Enhancement of Cultural Transition, ” pro- ceedings of the 1979 National Educational Computing Consortium, 1eGovernor’g Task Force on Effective Schooling, ‘‘Effective School- Iowa City, June 1979. ing Practices, ” State of Alaska, December 1981. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 233 interactive video disk systems, and prepare recom- 4. Research Reports and Monographs. For exam- mendations for applications to instruction. ple, the report of a 2-year, NSF-funded study of Audio conferencing will be combined with in- factors affecting the sharing of computer-based structional television to provide interactive resources. courses. Students watching an instructional televi- 5. Informal Communications. These include letters sion program will be electronically linked together to presidents, memoranda, and other mailings and to the instructor, thus providing a techno- relating to the sharing of resources and the use logically advanced kind of correspondence course. of computing and other technologies in higher University students in Alaska will have increas- education. ing access to courses at out-of-state institutions 6. Discounts. EDUCOM provides for discounts on via computer and audio conferencing systems. the purchase or lease of computing equipment and related materials and services from selected vendors. EDUCOM 7. Task Forces. Task forces are designated to study special issues of interest to members. EDUCOM was founded in 1964 as a nonprofit organization for colleges, universities, and other Special Activities nonprofit institutions of higher education. Its cur- rent membership includes over 360 university and EDUCOM provides specialized services through college campuses in the United States and abroad. the activities of EDUNET, the EDUCOM Con- The goal is to help its members make better use sulting Group, the EDUCOM Financial Planning of computing and information technology. Areas Model (EFPM), and research and development. of application are academic instruction and re- EDUNET. This is an international computing search, college and university administration, and network for higher education and research. library and information dissemination. EDUCOM EDUNET itself neither owns nor operates any provides the following types of services and activ- computing facilities. Rather, it acts as a broker, ities: linking using institutions who have unusual com- ● sharing and exchange of specialized compu- puting requirements with 1 of 16 institutional sup- ter and information resources; pliers. Connecting links are established through ● consulting on the management and use of commercial communications networks, provided computer technology; by networks such as Telenet and TYMNET. Typ- ● maintenance and dissemination of a financial ical communications charges are $4 to $6 per hour. modeling system; All arrangements, including billing, are handled ● conferences, seminars, workshops, and pub- centrally by EDUNET. lications; and Planning for EDUNET was initiated in 1966 ● research and specialized software. under partial sponsorship of NSF. Several studies and experiments followed, and a full network was Services and Membership Activities established in 1979. On July 1, 1979, EDUNET became a permanent and self-sustaining activity of EDUCOM. 1. EDUCOM Bulletin. The EDUCOM Bulletin is Membership in EDUNET in June 1981 included published quarterly, with a circulation of about 168 institutions. Local access is provided in 250 10,000. The bulletin reports on presentations, U.S. cities, 50 Canadian cities, and 30 foreign coun- research projects, applications of information tries. Resources available from EDUNET supplier technology to higher education, and systems of institutions include: interest to the education community. ● electronic mail and conferencing systems, 2. Annual Conference. Annual conferences address ● tutorial programs, resource sharing, computer networking, the de- ● CAI authoring languages, velopment of information systems, and other ● statistical packages, topics of current interest to member institu- ● subroutine libraries, tions. ● planning and analysis models, 3. Seminars. Seminars in 1981 included, “Manag- ● simulation languages and games, ing Microcomputers on Campus, ” and “EFPM: ● data bases, The EDUCOM Financial Planning Model. ” ● data-base management systems, 234 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

c information storage and retrieval systems, The typical RSO functions on a very tight budget ● programs for textual analysis, with virtually no discretionary funds, and some pro- “ graphics software, and portion of continuing income derived from exter- c text editors. nal funding agencies. With a tight budget, a small EDUNET services also include a hotline, the staff, and high reliance on volunteer efforts, the typical RSO is in a precarious financial situation. quarterly EDUNET News, the informal In order to offset financial instability, most RSOs EDUNOTE, a Member’s Guide, electronic mail rely on a mixture of revenue that includes member- and conferencing, training workshops and in- ship fees and fees-for-service, as well as external troductory seminars, an on-line catalog of re- funding.’ sources available from suppliers, and searches EDUCOM was incorporated with $1,000 pri- tailored to special requirements. EDUNET has vately donated by five faculty from five different developed special software so that microcom- medical schools. No public moneys were involved. puters such as the Apple II can access the large It operated entirely on the basis of membership computers used by EDUNET suppliers. dues, fees for service, and volunteerism until 1972. EDUCOM Consulting Group. EDUCOM Con- Then, in the early 1970’s, NSF sponsored three sulting Group was formed in 1972 as a source of seminars and the development of a network simu- impartial advice on the use of computing and in- lation model. This led to the establishment of the formation technology in higher education. Con- Planning Council on Computing Education and sulting is available in four areas: Research. The council’s activities were funded by 1. System Performance Evaluation. grants from 20 EDUCOM institutions, with 2. Strategic Resource Planning. matching grants from the Ford, Carnegie, and 3. Organization Planning. Exxon Foundations. This funding was restricted 4. Management Systems Implementation. to special activities and did not support day-to-day In 1978, with a grant from Eli Lilly, & Co., computing. In 1979, the council disbanded with EDUCOM built the EDUCOM Financial PIarming the launching of EDUNET. Model (EFPM). Users can build and operate Additional funds have been granted by the Lilly budget models through a question-and-answer Foundation to develop and maintain EFPM and routine that requires no computer sophistication; by the Exxon Foundation to support computing access is via the EDUNET dial-in network. relating to the law. Over the last 10 years, EFPM now resides on a Cornell University com- EDUCOM’s total budget has changed, however, puter. It is used by over 120 institutions. As of from over 50 percent reliance on outside grants to August 1981, it cost $2,000 per year ($1,750 for less than 10 percent. Membership dues and fees EDUNET members), plus $2,250 startup con- for service provide the large majority of its income. sulting ($2,000 for EDUCOM members), and from A tiny fraction is generated by TELENET dis- $8 to $20 per terminal hour. It is supported by user counts. Residual requirements are met by the cur- fees and grants. EDUCOM supports an EFPM rent Lilly grant. Users’ Group through a monthly newsletter and Future requirements for external support are ex- periodic meetings. Recent applications have been pected to run between $50,000 and $100,000 per made in foreign higher education, in noneduca- year. Thus, although EDUCOM has made signifi- tional settings (the New York Public Library), and cant progress toward self-sufficiency, its financial in the development of linkages for access by mi- future is not yet secure. For example, EDUNET crocomputer. can balance its books only by drawing on a reserve Research and Development. Previous studies fund established at its inception. have addressed EFPM (described above), com- EDUCOM expects to receive progressively less puting in small colleges, and the role of technology support from the Federal Government, in part in library resource sharing. Of special interest is because of current Federal attitudes and in part a 2-year study, completed in April 1981 for NSF, because EDUCOM’s own goals rarely match pre- to identify factors affecting individual and institu- cisely the program interests of specific agencies. tional sharing of computer-based resources. One successful strategy has been the solicitation of matching funds, preferably from private foun- Budgets and Financing dations. This approach assures consensus and

The financing of EDUCOM is like that of other ‘D. D. Mebane, “Computer-Based Resources Sharing in Higher Edu- typical regional service organizations (RSOs). cation, ” EDUCOM Bulletin, vol. 16, No. 3, fall 1981, pp. 27-32. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies “ 235 commitment on the part of EDUCOM users, a arate types of task-related instruction for three sharing of the financial load, and isomorphism be- distinct types of hardware: tween EDUCOM goals and resources. ● terminals, c small computer systems, and ● larger computer systems. Industry-Based Training and Having made the divisions, it was possible to Education Programs lower educational recruitment criteria far below the bachelor’s degree level for those to be trained The following discussions describe applications to service terminals and small computer systems. of educational technology in the corporate instruc- (This was a major breakthrough, since the com- tional programs of three companies. Examples pany employs some 16,000 field-service engineers have been drawn from the airline, high technology worldwide.) CA I packages were developed in-house and tobacco products industries. Forms of infor- to reduce travel and salary expenditures of class- mation technology utilized by these companies in- room training at the field-education centers. Field- clude computer-assisted instruction (CAI), com- diagnostic centers were established as backups to puter-managed instruction, computer-based simu- the new field-service structure, so that customers lation, video disk and teleconferencing. could contact experts knowledgeable in hardware and software design to diagnose the specific equip- High Technology ment malfunctions they were experiencing and to recommend their remediation. CAI is put to extensive use by a high-technology This new training and maintenance system is firm with corporate headquarters in the Northeast. paying off in a number of ways. The CAI system The company has a large internal education group has proven to be very cost effective. It has enabled and an executive team that views training and managers to weave training into existing work education as an integral part of the product devel- schedules, and has been more responsive to in- opment and manufacturing process. Management dividual learning requirements. The new field- instruction, technical training, and customer service organization has enabled the firm to over- education curricula are developed centrally by the come what was a severe personnel shortage and staff within this unit, but instruction is highly to keep customer service charges to a minimum. decentralized. Field training centers located in However, a technical education representative areas of good market potential, are the sites of stated that the firm must continue to be aware of most training for staff and clients. Computer- the limitations of CAI in that” . . . people can only based instructional packages developed for use at use a linear system for so long before the learning these centers, are often distributed directly to cor- curve is affected; they need contact with other in- porate field offices for initial and refresher staff dividuals. ” He urges managers of individual in- training. stallations to use the system with groups of train- Over the past few years, the company has ex- ees in a classroom setting for maximum effective- perienced a severe shortage of college-educated ness. generalists, a type of individual it had previously At present, no other forms of information tech- recruited to fill field-service engineering positions. nology are used in the staff education program. In Formerly, these individuals were given instruction the near future, there are plans to use video disk in total systems design and, with access to engi- integrated with a microcomputer. Cable television neering specifications, were expected to be fairly and satellite communications may also be used in self-sufficient on field service calls. However, as the technical education programs. the company’s product line became more and more diversified, this approach to training and main- Tobacco Products Co. tenance became unworkable. At about the same time, the problems presented As an outgrowth of technological change, a by classroom training on a fixed schedule, plus the major tobacco products firm has established a unit ever-increasing travel and salary costs incurred within its information systems group charged with while staff were receiving instruction, began to analyzing the potential uses of newly available have impacts. Responding to these conditions, the technologies in production and support activities company decided to revamp its recruiting program of the corporation, including training. As a result and training system for field-service engineers. A of this program, a project on applications of syn- job analysis led to the development of three sep- thetic speech and voice recognition is under way; 236 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Hughes Aircraft Co. ’s Training and Maintenance Many uses of CAI may be observed throughout Information System (TMIS) is being used for the the company. For the past 3 years the company first time on a corporate production line; CAI is has used PLATO basic engineering and computer being extensively employed; and, within the next science skills to train factory and office personnel. few months, a teleconferencing network will be It uses Apple computers to teach task-specific established. skills, such as those entailed in learning machine At one time, TMIS was being used as a train- operations, where simulation can be a particular- ing and maintenance aid for the U.S. Army’s tank ly useful learning device. Approximately 35 per- maintenance technicians. Under contract to the cent of all training is devoted to the retraining of Army, Hughes Aircraft had developed the device, existing personnel, a process necessitated by con- which consists of a video disk unit integrated with tinual modernization and modification of factory a microcomputer. Its cathrode ray tube (CRT) is equipment. used to present text and digital graphics-often A considerable amount of new construction and simultaneously. After seeing a demonstration of expansion of existing plants is now under way, and the system in the company’s corporate training a teleconferencing system designed to link these center and conducting a formal evaluation of its facilities with corporate headquarters is about to potential in the factory environment, the tobacco be installed. The company is already examining firm decided to contract with Hughes to develop how this technology, although originally designed two prototype units to train employees to main- to monitor construction progress, can be applied tain and repair cigarette packaging equipment to training. (both mechanical and electronic maintenance). The two devices—approximately 4½ ft high, 2 ft wide, Airline Industry and 2 ft deep—were installed in 1978. Initially, the company saw two distinct applica- A major commercial airline has an elaborate tions for TMIS. They planned to develop a train- training development system that consists of: ing software package for classroom use together ● a corporate headquarters-based program for with one designed to run in the plant on the pro- sales, instructor, and management training; duction line, where several units would be in- ● a corporate headquarters-based computer di- stalled, to assist maintenance/repair personnel on vision training activity; an ongoing basis. They soon discovered that one ● a centralized flight training center, located at maintenance/repair software package with “im- a major airport away from corporate head- bedded training" would work in both settings, but quarters; and in practice still-motion mode (single frames) would . a centralized maintenance training center, lo- be used in the factory. cated at another major airport some distance An evaluation of the prototype units in the train- from corporate headquarters. ing center was conducted in 1979. The results were Once the design phase is complete, sales, instruc- dramatic in terms of the time and money saved tor, and management training may be delivered as compared with traditional classroom instruc- centrally (corporate headquarters) or at individual tion. As a result, three devices that had been airports or ticket offices. A CAI group develops specifically constructed for placement in the in- courses that are then used by airline staff via ex- dustrial environment were ordered from Hughes. isting terminals to book reservations and related Installation of the prototype in the plant is now activities. Wherever possible, CAI is used for in progress and will be followed by an evaluation “straight knowledge transfer. ” For example, CAI of actual production-line use. development staff have devised courses on how to Because of the successful use of TM IS, the com- book reservations, compute fares, and carry out pany is now considering the use of video disk to other tasks that are necessary in occupations such archive office records and to create an electronic as that of a reservations agent, a passenger serv- parts catalog containing simulations of equipment. ice agent, a storekeeper (airline supplies), a flight Users would be able to walk around a particular attendant, and airport operations personnel. Each item, focus on its component parts, and then— time the airline’s computer division develops anew using the same system— ascertain the number and application, lessons are developed centrally, and availability of the part. Recommendations have notices of their availability are distributed to all also been made to use video disks for management airports, ticket offices, and other locations, where training. management uses them to the extent that they ——

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 237 apply to entry-level training and/or instruction of production facility has just been installed at the existing staff. Flight Training Center, which the manager of The airline would like to use the PLATO system flight training hopes to use to develop instruc- in its management training program, but found it tional tapes for distribution to field operations at too expensive. Uses of satellite technology and airports across the country. telecommunications systems have been investi- gated, but costs have also precluded their use even Maintenance Training Center though it is recognized that they are cost effective in the long run. Video disk technology has not been All airline personnel engaged in maintaining air- employed, nor are there any plans to use it in the planes and ground equipment either receive in- future. Video cassettes are frequently used in man- struction at the Maintenance Training Center or agement training to enhance traditional methods are trained by means of video tapes that are pro- carrying out role-playing exercises. duced there and then shipped to 56 maintenance stations (located at major airports). This is the Computer Division Training third year that the airline has utilized video tape in developing maintenance training packages, at The Deltac self-instructional video-cassette a rate of about 40 packages per year. system is used by the computer division to pro- The manager of Training Support Services vide technical training to programers, not for ini- stated that the bulk of maintenance training is still tial instruction but for professional development carried out in the classroom by an instructor, and upgrading. No other forms of information Overhead projectors are used, as are slide-tape technology are currently being used. presentations that are developed by in-house cur- riculum specialists. Over the years, the airline has Flight Training developed a number of computerized simulators for use in training airplane maintenance person- Many applications of the PLATO system may nel, but high cost of simulators cannot be justified be seen at the airline’s Flight Training Center. A by the amount of use they get prior to delivery of program for Initial First Officer training has been a new line of equipment. After the planes are re- designed and tested, but little or no use has been ceived, there is always sufficient “ground time” made of it as yet due to current economic condi- available for training. tions within the industry. The company has also Computer graphics are being investigated, since used PLATO in pilot training, and is now moving engineering drawings produced in the design ahead with a Boeing 767 pilot training program phase are made available by airplane manufac- to be developed entirely on PLATO. For the first turers on magnetic tape and their volume makes time, this system will be used in lieu of flight the use of manuals very difficult. However, cost simulators. Simulating various types of cockpit may turn out to be the key obstacle here. The use equipment, PLATO will give 767 pilot trainees a of video disk technology has also been explored, way to master these individual systems that is less but the manager of Training Support Services expensive than using them in combination. Up to found it to be “ . . . too costly to make that first now, PLATO has only been used to substitute for disk . . . ,“ since his distribution network consists the cockpit procedures trainer, a device that allows of only 56 maintenance stations. The cost of con- participants to practice certain processes after verting video tape to video disk is also a major pro- classroom instruction, but before flight simulator hibiting factor. training. The airline has also been investigating the use of video disks in conjunction with PLATO for Information Technology flight training of visual effects and it may incor- and Libraries porate their use into the instructional package by the end of this year. Teleconferencing is being used The library-an institution that acquires, man- to keep 767 course developers in daily contact with ages, and disseminates information—both pro- Boeing Aircraft engineers so that training designs vides educational services and serves as an educa- may proceed in advance of actual aircraft delivery. tional resource. Information technologies offer li- (The airline also used teleconferencing for Boeing braries unique opportunities and capabilities for 747 design conferences.) While there are no plans enhancing their current services and for extending to use satellite technology, a complete video tape them to new areas-particularly if, “The task of 238 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education the library is to consider itself an institution for operations is the Automated Library Information allowing people to utilize information.”] Conse- System. This system can support many of the quently, the advent of the information revolution operational procedures in a library and is fully could alter both the way libraries operate and their integrated. * Its many uses range from charge and role in society. discharge functions to cataloging and the mainte- nance of master holdings. Findings Networks Information technology has changed the oper- ation and user information programs of public, Two or more libraries may form communication special, and academic libraries. networks utilizing information technologies to Utilizing information technologies for opera- enhance the exchange of materials, information, tional programs can make libraries more produc- or similar services. The formation of local, regional, tive and efficient and allow them to devote more and national networks has already significantly al- resources to other programs-e. g., user services. tered the operation of libraries. Information technologies permit a library The IRVING Network. When fully operational, (sometimes called an information center) to the IRVING network in the Denver-Boulder, greatly expand its resources. Networks, on-line Colo., area will use communications technologies information services, and cable services permit to link the library systems of Aurora, Boulder, Lit- the sharing of materials and provide access to tleton, Denver, and Jefferson County in order to information in a way that was not previously enhance their current capabilities. Each of the li- possible. brary systems employs different automated sys- Libraries may be the only way that certain tems and in some cases different library operations members of society can gain access to informa- procedures. Connecting these heterogeneous data tion technologies and to the information that bases, this new communication link will allow these technologies provide. shared cataloging, more efficient interlibrary Libraries that fail to adopt these new technol- loans, shared acquisition, enhanced development ogies for information services many risk be- of special collections, circulation within the entire coming irrelevant. system, an electronic message service, a reference information service, access to administrative data, Libraries and Information and increased access to special collections (e.g., Technologies Denver’s Western collection and Jefferson Coun- ty’s Asian collection.) Use of information and communication technol- To date, no such system exists anywhere in the ogies has affected all aspects of library services. United States. This network, designed to expand Software is now commercially available for practi- beyond the current five systems to accommodate cally all aspects of library operations: circulation, up to 30 other libraries, could serve as the founda- inventory, acquisitions, periodicals, cataloging, tion for the larger, automated, statewide network and reserves. The use of the technologies for infor- now under consideration. mation user services has resulted in the formation The planning for IRVING was made possible of library networks and in the ability to access na- through a Library Services Construction Act tional data bases, thus allowing faster and more (LSCA) grant, and its implementation was funded efficient access to information. by the Colorado Board of Education. Studies iden- Programs oriented both to operation of the li- tified a distributive configuration as the most ef- brary and to user needs are critical for fulfilling fective system for transmitting electronic data a library’s mission. For instance, an on-line acquisi- among the libraries in an interactive, on-line mode. tion system can reduce the ordering and receiving Conventional analog service from Mountain Bell time for a new library purchase, thus providing was chosen as the transmission media. The distrib- patrons with the desired material in a shorter time. utive option will require a smaller investment ini- Circulation, cataloging, and other automated li- tially than would other alternatives (e.g., the use brary systems offer similar benefits. One example of public packet switching using public networks of a commercially available system for library accessed via telephone links). Moreover, software

IM. Turoff and M. Spector, “Libraries and the Implications of Com- puter Technology, ” proceedings of the AFIPS National Computer Con- *A system which is fully integrated is one in which the individual ference, vol. 45, 1976. procedures operate in support of the other system procedures. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies . 239 for such a system will be easier to develop and work, or by direct dial. The OCLC On-line Union maintain. This approach also permits the separa- Catalog contains over 7.4 million bibliographic tion of the operation and the control of the net- records in MARC (Machine Readable Cataloging work by allowing each participating library to be Format). If a library identifies an item of interest, responsible for the operation of its own system.2 OCLC produces presorted catalog cards. Also The CARL Network. Through the Colorado Alli- available are accession lists of newly cataloged ance of Research Libraries (CARL) network, seven materials for microform catalogs, circulation research libraries will share an on-line public ac- records, and selected dissemination of information cess catalog reflecting the holdings of all institu- (SDI).* tions. Six of the CARL members are academic li- On-line Information Services. The increasing in- braries; the seventh is the Denver Public Library, ventory of literature and information is making it which, as members of both IRVING and CARL, almost impossible for a user to keep up, let alone expands the network. The holdings of these li- to catch up. An example of the explosive rate of braries represent 47 percent of the total collections information growth can be seen in the areas of and over 90 percent of the unique items in the chemistry and chemical engineering, where the State. Once these holdings are on-line, a user will rate of literature growth can be tracked by the have to search only a single public catalog rather number of papers abstracted in the publication, than seven. Creating a single on-line catalog for Chemical Abstracts. For the 10-year period from these institutions will require modifying many 1961 through 1970, the rate of increase was 8.4 operating procedures to comply with common for- percent; during the 5-year period from 1971 mats, common records, and a common data base. through 1975 it more than doubled, to 16.9 per- The University of Colorado at Boulder, the Colo- cent. The recent increase has been even more dra- rado State University, the University of Northern matic—4.6 percent annually from 1976 through Colorado, the Colorado School of Mines, the Aur- 1980.4 This rapid expansion of information has also aria Complex, the University of Denver, and the taken place in many other fields, such as medicine, Denver public Library have established a nonprof- law, and computer science. it organization to create this new research resource On-line services such as national bibliographic within the State. data bases (e.g., DIALOG and BRS)–which are As in the IRVING Project, LSCA funds were computerized retrieval systems covering a wide ar- used for the initial planning efforts. Currently, ray of continually expanded subject areas-will moneys from the seven institutions; DataPhase make it possible for libraries to offer their patrons Systems, Inc.; and Tandem are being used to com- rapid access to a variety of information sources at plete the project. Two-thirds of CARL is now com- relatively low cost. For example, PATSEARCH/ plete. Testing will begin by the summer of 1982; Video PATSEARCH, contains information on implementation is scheduled for the following fall. 800,000 patents heretofore available only in the Once the public-access on-line catalog is in opera- U.S. Patent and Trademark Office files in Wash- tion, member libraries intend to investigate elec- ington, D. C., on microfilm, or piecemeal through tronic delivery of materials between their institu- other data bases. The advantages of on-line serv- tions.3 ices are listed in table A-3. The OCLC Network. On-line College Library Maggie’s Place: Pikes Peak Regional Library Center (OCLC) network is an example of a major District. On-line community information and refer- computer-based cooperative network that is em- ral programs are being explored and instituted by ployed by all types of libraries nationally and in- some libraries as a concomitant of their access to ternationally. The OCLC network allows libraries national information sources and the resources of to acquire and catalog materials, order custom- other libraries and information services. The Pikes printed catalog cards, initiate interlibrary loans, Peak Regional Library District in Colorado, for ex- and locate materials in member libraries (2,500) ample, has developed Maggie Place, a communi- and more. Through dedicated, leased telephone ty information resource, which consists of comput- lines, members access OCLC services on specially erized local and regional information of interest to designed terminals, through dial- access terminals its patrons. Users can access on-line all of the ca- utilizing the TYMNET telecommunications net- reer and recreational adult educational courses

*SDI is the selection and dissemination of information of specific in- 2S. Hartman, IRVING Coordinator, Boulder Public Library, Boulder, terest to a library patron. Colo., February 1982. ‘D. B. Baker, “Recent Trends in Chemical Literature Growth, ” C&E ‘W, Shaw, Executive Director, CARL, January 1982. News 59(22):29, June 1, 1981,

,— .— 240 w Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table A-3.—Advantages of On-Line Services investment has been made by the library district for this effort (almost $400,000 since 1976). Yet, Advantages of on-line services: despite the initial large investment, savings have ● Produce results very quickly ● Are cost effective been high-over $500,000. Second, the community ● Can be used for most types of searchers resource files are the only such files in the Nation. ● Can search fields (or data categories) for which there is Beneficial to librarian and user alike, they are a no printed index central and easily accessible source of the kind of ● Have the capability for searching very complex and elaborate strategies information frequently requested. They demon- ● Offer the opportunity for increasing completeness of strate that information technology can assist both coverage through searching of multiple sources the operational needs of the library and the re- ● May contain information more current than available in source needs of the patrons. the corresponding printed index Third, by making the library’s programs accessi- ● Can be easily updated on demand or at regular intervals ● Permit any amount of strategy broadening, narrowing, ble to outside users (over 500 presently), the li- or changing brary has expanded its capabilities for community ● Causes less fatigue per search and reduces searcher’s use and utilized the information technology to its errors best advantage. And last, through the use of the ● Require very little space for operation ● Save staff time technology, Maggie’s Place offers all users access ● Some kinds of data are retrievable only on a computer to information resources. system Microcomputers in the Library. Many libraries ● Many more types of information can be searched on-line are considering installing a microcomputer on a than in a manual system coin-operated basis. Recently, several firms have ● Material can be ordered with a simple command and charged to an account— a copy on demand service begun to actively market such services to public SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. libraries across the country. For example, in a con- tractual arrangement with Copy Systems, Inc., and CompuVend, a TRS-80 was installed in the available in the region through this program. Simi- Tredyffrin Public Library near Philadelphia. The larly, information is available about day-care cen- ters, clubs and other community organizations, computer is available for patron use at a cost of social services, and a matching carpool data base. $0.50 per 15 minutes. The company is responsible for the operation and the maintenance of the equip- The files are available both in the library and to ment and has provided 24 Radio Shack program approximately 500 members of the community tapes, manuals, and workbooks on BASIC lan- and businesses with access to terminals. Programs developed and in use at Maggie’s guage and programing. Place include those for library resources, network- Library patrons may use the terminal for home- ing, and community resources. The library re- work, statistical manipulation, learning how to program, playing games, and work. Children and source files are automated programs that relate to teenagers appear to be the predominant users (65 the operational needs of the library such as circula- percent), although this is expected to change in the tion, reserves, and acquisitions. Networking files near future. Average use of the microcomputer has give the user access to State and national informa- tion resources, such as DIALOG, BRS, ORBIT, been 2 to 4 hours per day, 7 days a week. Based 5 on such community response, a computer with a RLIN, GIS, COCIS, and The Source. The commu- larger capacity will be installed shortly. The new nity resource files contain on-line information of interest to members of the Colorado Springs com- system will provide access to The Source and will munity. Currently, they include five files: calendar, attempt to satisfy the computing capacity require ments of the local business community. New pro- day care, clubs, courses, and carpool. All of these are available for use in the library or in homes or gram tapes such as Visicalc will be supplied. businesses via telephone lines.6 With this arrangement the library uses the tech- nology as an informational and educational re- Maggie’s Place, compared with other public li- source. In addition, the library makes it possible braries, has a number of unique features. First, the for all those who do not have access to this tech- amount of automation is unusual. A substantial nology in their homes or in their businesses to be- 5DIALOG: Lockheed Missiles and Space Co., Inc.; BRS: Bibliographic come familiar with computers and to have access Retrieval Service, Inc.; ORBIT: System Development Corp.; COCIS: to the valuable information resources they pro- Colorado Career and Occupational Information System; RLIN: Research Libraries Information Network; GIS: Time Share Corp. vide. The library also benefits in a number of ways: ‘K. Dowlin, Director, Pikes Peak Regional Library District, February limited staff time is involved; the library is not 1982. responsible for operation and maintenance of the —

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 241 equipment; no financial burden is placed on the Current programs include, among others: rec- library (e.g., purchase of the equipment); the equip- ordkeeping and reporting for nurses, continu- ment will be updated to reflect changes in the tech- ing education classes, an “intelligent’ termi- nology and to reflect market needs in the commu- nal for on-line searching, nutritional assess- nity; step-by-step instructions allow the user to ment of intensive-care newborns, audiovisual use the microcomputer with little, if any, assist- inventory listing, and the logging and analy- ance from a professional; and, thus, no extra staff sis of on-line searching records. training is necessary. The provision of such services raises new ques- Other examples of microcomputer use include tions for participating libraries. Where should the the following: terminals be located. Should provisions be made ● The Clinton-Essex-Franklin Library System for privacy? What type, if any, of collection devel- in upstate New York has installed a micro- opment should the library engage in? Should the computer for use by patrons. The decision was library sell disks for patron use’! Should there be prompted by concern on the part of the librar- a scheduling or reservation system or should pa- ian that patrons, particularly children, were trons use the computer on a first-come first-served neither familiar with computers nor had ac- basis? cess to the technology. Although the micro- Cable Services and Video Facilities. With the ex- computer was installed in the Children’s pansion of cable franchises nationwide, an increas- Room, it is available to adults as well. Volun- ing number of libraries are exploring the potential teers have been teaching computer program- of cable for delivering library services. Many li- ing, and librarians believe that, based on its braries have employed video capabilities for years, usage, the overall program is an overwhelm- but the addition of cable services in a community ing success. has expanded the library’s resource base. The ● A cooperative effort has been initiated be- most extensive users of cable and video are junior tween the San Bernardino City School Dis- and community colleges and public libraries. The trict, Calif., and the public library to assist former rely on cable services as a means of deliv- students in preparing for proficiency tests. ery, production, and housing of course materials; Microcomputers in three of the city’s library and the latter, for expanding the library’s role as branches provide CAI in mathematics and in a community information resource center. the language arts. A queuing system allows Generally, junior and community colleges, be- high school students to be first-priority users cause they are relative newcomers to the academic through June 30, 1982. Other library patrons scene, are most actively involved in video pro- have access to the terminals that are not be- graming and cable services. Many colleges con- ing used by students. structed during the 1960’s and early 1970’s incor- ● The public library in Providence, R. I., has in- porated video capabilities in their library facility stalled INFORM, a system whose uses range or plan. Older research institutions and libraries, from bibliographic instruction to the use of on the other hand, generally cannot afford to in- audiovisual equipment. INFORM is regarded vest in video facilities nor to adopt their current as an on-line library guide or handbook that structures to include such facilities. also includes updated information on commu- The Division of Learning Resources at the nity events and agencies. Its touch-sensitive Greenfield Community College in Massachusetts terminals are available with graphic and tex- is an example of a community college library that tual capabilities. has integrated video capabilities with local cable ● Groups of school librarians in the St. Louis, services. The library houses both commercially Me., area have developed a series of self- available video tapes and faculty/student-pro- instructional programs for the Apple 11 that duced products. Students in conjunction with the are user guides for periodical indexes and Learning Resources Center and the local cable almanacs, Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations, franchise produce weekly cablecasts for the com- Current Biography, and poetry indexes. The munity. programs are aimed at the secondary school The Monroe County Public Library in Blooming- to adult levels. ton, Ind., is an example of a local public library ● The St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Li- actively involved in all aspects of cable and video brary in Missouri has instituted a wide range services. The library has cablecast 3,000 to 4,000 of programs on an Apple 11 Plus computer. programs a year (or 60 to 64 hours of programing 242 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education per week) to the community on Community Access free of charge, but it is questionable whether they Channel Three. Half of the local subscribers will be able to continue to do so. One role proposed (90,000) watch programs on Channel Three. Also for libraries incorporates and reflects societal 38 percent of the subscribers noted that local pro- change. This role would entail: graming was a primary reason for initiating cable ● providing access to complicated or seldom services. used data bases; A wide range of programs are offered and pro- ● providing community conferencing and mes- duced by the library. Some programs, such as sage center programs; “Kids Alive,” are produced by children with assist- ● providing on-line access to information or li- ance from the library staff. Local teachers, trained brary resources; by library staff, allow the equipment to be used ● providing access to community data and com- for many school activities. City council meetings munity information locations for referrals; are regularly cablecast; and special-issue pro- ● providing access to resources in other libraries grams, about housing and the elderly, for exam- via networking; ple, are presented. ● providing access to high-demand information Because of its active involvement in cablecast- and materials via computer or video disks; ing, the library and Channel Three have been and asked to participate in the refranchisement proc- ● providing access to electronic resources for ess. Library involvement in this process is com- those who cannot afford home computers or mon and occurs frequently. In fact, in franchise terminals.7 proposals library needs and desires are solicited by the bidders. Some of the programs developed at Maggie’s Place will be used at other libraries Museums as a result of cable awards. Implications of Library Technology. Approxi- Findings mately 10 percent of the libraries of the United ● More and more museums are incorporating in- States have some form of automated capabilities, formation technology, particularly computers, and an increasing number of libraries are explor- into both their exhibits and their educational ing the possibilities of these technologies. On-line programs. The technology is used for operation- information retrieval services and provision of in- al purposes and to provide computer literacy formation technologies enhance the traditional and related courses. services provided by libraries but also raise impor- . The introduction of the technology to museums tant questions of cost. For example, can a library is altering the role of these institutions. This afford to run searches for patrons on DIALOG change is especially evident in the recent estab- free of charge? Can it afford to use these national lishment and success of childrens’ museums bibliographic data bases, which require trained across the country. searchers, and entail cost ranging from $10 to $150 Museums, like libraries, provide important edu- per hour? Such costs place an added financial bur- cational services. Since the establishment of the den on public as well as on academic and special first public museum in 1743, museums have ex- libraries. For some libraries faced with reduced erted a strong influence on U.S. culture. They func- funding from State, Federal, and local sources, the tion as repositories for conserving the world’s cul- price of the technology may be particularly bur- ture and for relaying it to present and future gen- densome. However, by not providing these serv- erations. ices, libraries may prevent people from finding and Beyond the overall educational nature of their utilizing the information, a situation contrary to exhibits, most museums conduct and provide addi- the traditional role of libraries in society. (Further- tional educational services. Recently, more and more, it has been suggested that when libraries more have incorporated information technology, provide these services and develop community re- particularly computers, into both their exhibits source files they become competitive with private and their educational programs. They are used information vendors. ) generally for operational purposes and to provide Such concerns are particularly relevant to a re- computer literacy and related courses. The delay consideration of the role of public libraries in an in acquiring information technology until only re- information society. At present, libraries provide access to information and knowledge to all users 71bid. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 243 cently, has been primarily due to the fiscal con- Education Uses. During the past 10 years sever- straints common to most museums, which operate al museums have introduced computer literacy on a limited budget and depend on donations that programs and computer labs. Offering these can fluctuate from year to year.1 courses is a natural extension of previous and ongoing educational activities within museums. The Use of Computers And, as with libraries, the availability of such pro- grams makes it possible for users to become ac- Computers are generally used for four purposes: quainted with this technology in a nonthreaten- for interactive exhibit devices, for exhibit control, ing environment in which there is no pressure to for administration, and for education programs. succeed or fail.4 All have educational applications. Interactive Exhibit Devices. Museums use com- The Hands-On Approach puters and related technologies to increase the at- tention span and alter the traditional experience The Lawrence Hall of Science. In general, muse- of the typical patron. It is possible, for example, ums that provide programs in computer literacy to increase a viewer’s attention span from 10 sec- have adopted a hands-on philosophy. This princi- onds to 3 to 10 minutes, a significant improvement ple was first initiated at the Lawrence Hall of Sci- that has enormous implications for how a museum ence in Berkeley, Calif., in 1972, when an exhibit can present information. Examples of exhibits entitled “Creative Play With Computers” was in- range from instruction on how to use a computer troduced. The exhibit used the university’s time- to using a computer to calculate quickly the nutri- sharing system and teletypes. Since then, this pro- tional value of a meal. Simulation programs are gram has been expanded to include a computer lab- widely utilized, although these are also the most oratory, and computer technology is used exten- difficult to create. sively throughout the exhibits. The computer lab- Incorporating computers into an exhibit pre- oratory has 30 microcomputers that can be used sents some special problems not generally encoun- for computer literacy programs or individual pro- tered with other media. The exhibits must be ap- graming by anyone 8 years or older. The Hall of pealing in order to attract users, but the programs Science also operates the Science Shuttle, which must be relatively simple, since most users are un- transports microcomputers to local schools for familiar with the technology. Furthermore, such computer literacy and related classes. The Science programs must be able to contend with repeated Shuttle has greatly increased the access to com- mistakes, constant use, and even abandonment by puter technology by local school-age children. the patron. ’ Thus, developing programs suitable The Capitol Children’s Museum. Newly estab- for a museum environment involves considerable lished in Washington, D. C., the Capitol Children’s skill. Museum is a learning center with a strong empha- Exhibit Control. The control of exhibits by com- sis on communication. The most recent addition puters has a number of advantages: 1) cost and to the facility, the communications wing, traces maintenance are reduced because of fewer compo- the growth and development of communication nents; 2) additional features can be added at mini- throughout human history. Like the Lawrence mum cost; 3) control devices can be standardized Hall of Science the museum uses the hands-on ap- from exhibit to exhibit; 4) the potential exists to proach in all of its exhibits. Similarly, the muse- customize a patron’s experience; and 5) computers um has a computer classroom, the Future Center, permit greater flexibility in altering an exhibit at with 20 microcomputers. relatively low cost.3 A visitor to the museum’s communications wing Administrative Uses. Computers are largely is introduced to communication through a sound used for such standard purposes as word process- and light show held in a model of a 30,000-year-old ing, accounting, updating mailing lists, record- cave. The cave depicts the earliest type of commu- keeping, collection management, and inventory. nication: drawings of man’s experience with hunt- ing and tools. Further developments in the forms and means of communication are shown through

i R. King, Director of Exhibits, Boston Museum of Science, February a wide range of exhibits: torches used by the 1982. Greeks to relay messages, drums used by African ‘D. Taylor and D. Rhees (eds. ), Survey of Computer Use in Science- TechnoJogy Museums (Washington, D. C.: Association of Science-Tech- nology Centers, 1981). 4P. Hirschberg, Coordinator, Communication, Capital Children’s Mu- ‘Ibid. seum, April 1982. 244 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education tribes to relay messages via different sound pat- is to introduce new users to microcomputers and terns, and a variety of written forms—alphabets to allow previous users access to the technology. and hieroglyphics. In addition, other ways to com- The center thus makes available to everyone both municate such as Braille, Morse code, pig latin, the technology and the skills and information it and sign language are shown. Many of the more provides. The courses offered range from those recent types are demonstrated by means of video designed to assist teachers who are unfamiliar tape players or microcomputers. with the technology to become computer-literate The wing also contains telecommunication de- to those to introduce children to the technology. vices. For instance, there is a fully equipped radio Schools that do not have microcomputers can studio available for use where children can produce schedule class visits on a regular basis. and tape messages for their own use. There are The courseware are combinations of programs future plans for a comparably equipped television developed by the museum staff and software do- studio. Also, there is a scale model of a satellite nated by Atari. For example, PAINT, a software dish inside the museum that replicates the muse- and book package, allows the user to create paint- um’s communication satellite dish which can re- ings on the Atari, while using a variety of learn- ceive up to 40 cable channels.5 ing skills as well as learning about and exploring The Future Center is a classroom equipped with the microcomputer. For more experienced users 20 Atari 800 microcomputers complete with print- there are courses in programing BASIC. Because ers, disk drives, and color monitors. Its purpose obtaining quality software is a major problem, the staff of the museum is actively engaged in design- ‘Ibid.

In the Capitol Children’s Museum, Washington, D. C., a visiting primary school teacher works with her students as they become computer-literate. Schools from throughout the Washington area utilize this facility to introduce their students to the world of computers. Many schools enroll their students in a special series of classes designed to enhance their primary and secondary education App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 245

ing and developing software for the Future Cen- project, the National Air and Space Museum is ter’s constantly growing and enthusiastic clientele. placing some of its photograph collection on video As a nonprofit institution, the Capitol Children’s disks and interfacing the disks with the museum’s Museum relies on corporate donations and grants computer. The museum also has an interactive to continue its operations and to develop new ex- video disk which allows patrons to design an hibits and educational services. The majority of aircraft. s the museum’s equipment has been donated by pri- The National Park Service (NPS) of the Depart- vate companies; e.g., the satellite dish by Scien- ment of the Interior also uses video disk technol- tific Atlanta, the microcomputers from Atari, and ogy. NPS originally used video tape players at a PDP 11/70 and supporting hardware (printer, many of its visitor centers. However, the initial video terminal, and disk pack) from the Digital high cost of purchasing the equipment, plus the Equipment Corp. (DEC), to name just a few. high rate of failure, maintenance costs, and tape The recent gift of a minicomputer by DEC repre- breakage, led to initiating trials of video disk tech- sents a significant contribution to current museum nology. Several video tape players have since been services, but more importantly to future potential. replaced by video disks. NPS is also considering Once operational, the PDP 11/70 will be able to in- video disks for use in collection management for terconnect all of the museum’s exhibits, thereby reasons similar to those of the Smithsonian Ameri- increasing the control over their use. It will also can History Museum. If collection management of provide an internal tracking and information sys- selected projects at NPS is implemented, the disk tem of exhibit users—how many visitors utilize would provide access to a variety of educational what exhibit for how long, and so forth. materials. In the long term, the computer will be the basis for Kid Net, a time-sharing system that will be both an internal and external network. Internally, Military Uses of Information the system will facilitate such activities as elec- Technology tronic mail, games, and demonstrations. External- ly, the network will be connected with other Wash- Findings ington-based institutions such as local schools and Congress and will possibly tie in with other All branches of the military have made substan- children’s museums such as the one in Boston. tial investments in research and development Other long-term possibilities include a national (R&D) on applications of information technol- electronic newsletter. G ogy to education. The Department of Defense will likely be the The Use of Video Disks only Federal agency likely to make major in- vestments in R&D projects with educational ap- Several museums are experimenting with video plications. disks for storing and preserving collections. Be- Educational uses of information technology cause they are both very new and very costly, few have focused on two areas: training and basic museums, have employed this technology. How- skills. ever, the video disk’s features make it uniquely The need for a very large investment in basic suited for collection management: large amounts skills training by the military, $56 million in of material can be sorted; materials don’t 1979, is an indication to some that the public deteriorate; researchers are not dependent on schools are not providing an adequate educa- original materials; and the content of a museum’s tion. collection of photos, slides, or art can be sent for Many of the projects initiated by the armed viewing to other institutions around the world. services could be transferable to the civilian sec- The Smithsonian Museum of American History tor, although there may be barriers to transfer. is placing some of its collection of (30,000 to Considering the large investment made by the 38,000) slides and photographs on a video disk. armed forces in information technology R&D, This measure will ensure the life of this combina- it would be useful to establish a mechanism tion of materials since most of it is fragile and sub- whereby potentially transferable projects could ject to damage from repeated use.’ In a similar be identified and barriers to transfer removed.

‘Ibid. ‘J. Wallace, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian, ‘H. Otano, Chief, Audio-Visual Systems, National Air and Space May 1982. Museum, Smithsonian Institution, May 26, 1982. 246 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Fort Gordon Signal Corps Training Center, Fort Gordon, Ga.—in former days, Ft. Gordon students would get 12 minutes of “hands on” instruction at this $7 million satellite down-station. The rest of the classroom time was spent in costly waiting. But with the new information technologies, instructional time has increased fivefold

The military has been a leader in the develop- As the largest education and training institution ment and use of instructional delivery systems in the Nation, the military constitutes a large and having used high technology for many years. Its viable market for training equipment, programs, great need for technical skill training, together and services. In fiscal year 1982, for example, ap- with the critical nature of its national security mis- proximately $10.5 billion will be spent on individ- sion and its nonprofit orientation, has led to a ual training. The training of individual officers and training technology revolution and a good market enlistees is differentiated from the training of oper- for state-of-the-art technology in military educa- ational combat units, and individual training can tion and training. be broken down into a number of categories. In- Interested in new methods of training that im- doctrination and basic training for approximate- prove efficiency, reduce training costs, and in- ly 338,000 students will cost $822 million, while crease the effectiveness of training, the military approximately 709,000 students will receive spe- has turned to information technology for solutions cialized skill training for military jobs at a cost of to some of its educational and training problems. $2.4 billion.’ (See table A-4.) In fiscal year 1982, The armed services need people in operational as- approximately 236,500 student man-years will be signments. By advancing and applying state-of- spent at training schools. the-art technology in training, they hope to turn The Department of Defense (DOD) now spends out quality individuals sooner for operational job about $267 million for R&D on training and per- assignments. sonnel systems technology, with $181 million or In addition to supporting improved general and 68 percent of this for R&Don simulation and train- specific military skill training, the armed services ing devices and education and training. 3 (See table also support basic skills training. Military jobs de- A-5.) The three service laboratories primarily re- mand basic skills equal to or greater than those sponsible for military education and training re- of civilian jobs.1 Many current recruits lack com- search are: The Army Research Institute for the petency in basic skills, a situation that has impor- Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI); the Navy tant implications for the operation of sophisticated Personnel Research and Development Center technology and that has led to plans to increase, (NPRDC); and the Air Force Human Resources improve, and automate technology training pro- Laboratory (AFHRL). The number of instructional grams. Anticipated manpower shortages undoubt- technology R&D work units by major categories edly will necessitate the enlistment and subse- in operation as of April 1981 is estimated in table quent training of individuals of less aptitude, thus A-6. While all of the categories listed receive ongo- placing even greater emphasis on programs for in- struction in basic skills. ‘J. Orlansky, “Techniques for the Marketing of R&D Products in Training, ” paper presented at the Society for Applied Learning Tech- ‘G. Sticht, Basic Skills in Bfense (Alexandria, Va.: Human Resources nology, Warrenton, Va., February 1981. Research Organization, Final Draft Report, November 1981). ‘Ibid. -.————

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 247

Table A-4.—Number of Students and Cost of Various Types of Individual Training, Fiscal Year 1982

Approximate Number of students Cost in in thousands Type of training in thousands miIIions per study Recruit ...... 338 $822 $2.4K One-station unit training (Army) ...... 104 322 3.1 Officer acquisition ...... 16 313 19.4 Specialized skill ...... 709 2,382 3.4 Flight training (basic flying skills) ...... 6 1,458 229.7 Professional development education (e.g., military science, engineering, management) ...... 32 330 10.2 Medical training ...... — 276 — Support, management, travel, pay ...... — 4,618 — $10,521 M SOURCE M!lltary Manpower Train!ng Report for Fiscal Year 1982

Table A-5.—Cost of R&D in Training and ing support, high-technology simulation and the Personnel Systems Technology, development of instructional systems and capabil- in Thousands of Dollars, Fiscal Year 1982 ities for more efficient and effective training ap- pear to receive the most emphasis. Army Navy Air Force Total Interservice coordination shows potential for Human factors ...... $17.6 $ 14.1 $14,4 $ 46,1 Simulation and training devices. 24.2 107.1 17,5 148,9 minimizing duplication of research efforts and Education and training ...... 13.4 11.8 6.6 31.8 funds. The Office of the Under Secretary of De- Manpower and personnel ...... 9.0 19.0 12.0 40,0 fense for Research and Engineering is currently Totals ...... $64.2 $152.0 $50.6 $266.8 building a management information system that SOURCE” J Orlansky, “Techniques for the Marketing of R&D Products in Train- ing, ” paper presented at the Society for Applied Learning Technology will document all of DOD’s training research to in- Warrenton, Va , February 1981 clude funding levels. This system, Manpower and Training Research Information System (MATRIS), will be fed into the Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC). Table A-6.—Number of Ongoing Instructional Technology R&D Work Units By Service and Department of Defense Total, April 1981 Comparison of Military and Civilian Education Service Technology Army Navy Air Force Total In considering educational needs, distinctions Simulation/games ...... 26 49 68 143 can be made between the civilian and military edu- Instructional system development . . . 51 59 25 135 cation sectors, differences which influence the na- Training management ...... 26 14 10 50 ture of education programs introduced. Some of Learning theory ...... 13 18 11 42 Computer-based education ...... 13 16 9 38 the similarities and differences between military Basic skills ...... 2 4 — 6 and civilian education and training are: Voice technology...... — 3 — 3 Video disk ...... — 2 — 2 ● The military educates and trains personnel Artificial intelligence...... — 1 1 2 within a more restricted age, sex, and range NOTE’ Inclusion of work units into the categories in the table are fairly arbitrary of ability; typically, military enlisted trainees and are based on work unit titles The absolute numbers of work units Iisted are approximations of service R&D efforts as of the date of direc- are 18- to 21-year-old males with a high school tory publication It should be noted that this enumeration does not con- education. sider size of the work units, only number of work units cited . Military personnel are paid their salaries while SOURCE: Directory of Researchers for Human Research and Development Proj- ects (Washington, D C Office of the Under Secretary of Defense, Re- in training. Thus, instructional procedures search and Engineering), pp. 7-43. that reduce training time and increase opera- 248 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

tional assignment time can assist in reducing etc.) to be adapted to the individual student. For training costs. example, a slow reader might learn more efficiently Within the civilian sector, vocational educa- via audiovisual presentation rather than via tion, job training for business or industry, and printed text. With instructional content duplicated nonmilitary Government training are general- across delivery media, the computer assigns mate- ly more similar to the military’s educational rial and devices according to student aptitudes goals and priorities than is education in ele- and preferences, as well as by resource availabil- mentary and secondary school systems. ity. The actual allocation of media in the AIS is Measures of effectiveness may vary between 55 percent printed materials, 35 percent audiovisu- the military and civilian institutions. Military al presentation, and 10 percent CAI. research on computer-based instruction, for The AIS computer provides three main support example, has emphasized saving student functions: 1) administration and management (re- training time while maintaining constant source allocation, materials development, record- achievement. Nonmilitary research generally keeping, and report/roster generation); 2) instruc- emphasizes increasing the amount of achieve- tion (student predictions, individual and team les- ment while keeping the length of courses con- son assignment, test scoring, and delivery of in- stant. struction); and 3) data analysis/research (automat- ic data accumulation, sampling capability for sta- tistical analysis, and standard statistical analysis Computer-Managed programs). The computer thus takes over the ma- Instruction jority of the managerial functions of the instruc- tors, permitting them to concentrate on individual In computer-managed instruction (CM I), learn- student instruction. ing takes place away from the computer. The com- Many measures were used to evaluate the A IS, puter scores tests, interprets results, advises the including costs, student and instructor attitudes, student what to do next, and manages student rec- attrition rates, and the ratings of AIS students in ords and administrative information. their post-school jobs. In most cases, comparisons Advanced Instructional System. The Air were made between AIS students and pre-AIS stu- Force’s Advanced Instructional System (AIS) is dents in the same courses. Cost savings estimates an example of a military CMI system. It is a large- were made by the Air Training Command man- scale, prototypical computer-based education sys- power accounting personnel. tem installed at the Air Force Technical Training AIS results have been documented in several Center, Lowry AFB, Denver, Colo. The present technical reports issued by the Air Force Human version consists of 50 student terminals, 11 man- Resources Laboratory. In general, AIS students’ agement terminals, and a CDC CYBER 73-16 com- achievement have been equal to or greater than puter that can support up to 3,000 students a day non-AIS students-with net time savings of 15 to in four courses: inventory management, material 40 percent, depending on the course evaluated. facilities, precision measuring equipment, and Maximum savings have been achieved in the low- weapons mechanics. These courses were selected er-level, routine courses. Overall cost analysis to represent a cross-section of the technical train- shows that the system was totally amortized by ing courses at Lowry, and they serve about 25 per- January 1979, in a period of only 2½ years. This cent of the base’s student body. Management ter- complete recovery of costs through savings in stu- minals provide computer-assisted instruction dent instructional time is particularly noteworthy (CAI) services for use by instructors (for develop- considering the extensive R&D costs included for ing or revising lessons and for retrieving data col- research purposes. The AIS suggests that large- lected by the system). The system could be ex- scale implementations of CMI would be cost effec- panded to provided CAI services to students. tive. The AIS was designed with two objectives in Student attitudes were clearly very positive. The mind: 1) to develop and implement an individual- students felt that they had more opportunity to ized, computer-based training system in an opera- talk individually with their instructors than in con- tional military training environment; and 2) to pro- ventional courses (61 percent), that the self-paced vide a testbed for computer-based educational instruction was a good use of their time (77 per- R&D. It includes over 700 student carrels and 500 cent), that they preferred AIS instructions to lec- media devices that permit the instructional deliv- tures (55 percent), and that the instructors were ery device (sound-slide, filmstrip, programed text, available whenever they needed them (73 percent). App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 249

Instructor attitudes, on the other hand, tended most direct way to ensure that an individual can to be negative in general. They felt threatened and cope with specific military skill applications (to missed the ego-bolstering lecture method. Course cope with a military career or environment) is to attrition rates overall tended to rise slightly teach these applications or ones as similar to them through the first 5 years of A IS implementation as possible. For these reasons, the military has from a pre-AIS baseline of about 4 percent in 1974 sponsored R&D leading to a technology for job- to slightly over 5 percent through 1978. Attrition oriented basic skills or remedial literacy training. rates, it should be noted, are very sensitive to pol- A considerable investment in basic skills pro- icy changes. The supervisors of A IS graduates re- grams has also been made. As indicated in a De- ported satisfaction with their performance. The partment of Defense (DOD) study, during fiscal ratings of AID graduates were significantly higher year 1979 approximately $56 million and an enroll- than comparable ratings of pre-AIS students. A ment of 160,000 were allotted to basic-skills edu- sample of 199 supervisors rated the performance cation. 5 The military has a high demand for listen- of their AIS graduates as follows: ing, reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Read- Excellent. ... ., ., ...... 25 percent ing levels of material, for example, average in the Very Satisfactory ...... 34 percent 10-13 grade level range. This far exceeds the read- Satisfactory ...... 37 percent ing skill levels of many military enlistees as well Marginal ...... 4 percent as much of the civilian youth population. Unsatisfactory ...... 0 percent Thus, there are a variety of basic skills programs Overall, the AIS appears to be a successful, in DOD and the four services. Pre-enlistment pro- large-scale implementation of CMI. McDonnell grams, such as referral to civilian adult basic edu- Douglas Corp. is currently modifying the system cation and English as a second language (ESOL) to be transportable, to operate on smaller comput- programs, are sponsored by DOD for applicants ers, and to be marketable to the Canadian armed who do not meet service enlistment requirements. services and to U.S. civilians. All of the services have some form of basic-skills education available from the time the new recruit Job-Oriented Basic Skills enters the service. One such program is the Air Training Force PLATO SIP (Skills Improvement Program), which uses CAI to improve the reading skills of Schools traditionally have 12 years to equip stu- medical personnel and the math skills of main- dents with the level of skills necessary for them tenance technicians. to function as adults in jobs or in further educa- Project FLIT. Project FLIT, a job-oriented, or tion. For the most part, schools are successful in functional literacy program, is being developed their approach to imparting necessary basic skills under Army support. Work on this program was for adult life. Fewer than 10 percent of those who started in 1967 and is ongoing. Military job liter- have completed 12 or more years of schooling are acy tasks are really quite different from reading severely deficient in their application of skills to skills applications practiced in traditional schools. practical tasks, as estimated by a 1975 adult per- For example, schools emphasize “reading to learn” formance level study.4 while military job tasks involve “reading to do” However, a substantial number of people either (e.g., finding specific information or following di- do not complete 12 years of school, or do so with- rections). While schools test memory for what is out gaining the requisite mastery of necessary ba- read with closed book tests, military job tasks are sic skills for adult life or career performance. The generally performed in the presence of the written services have had to cope with the critical prob- material, which is consulted frequently. lems presented when large influxes of poor read- Researchers attempted to estimate the actual lit- ers entered the armed services, for instance, dur- eracy demands of military jobs. One product of ing Project 100,000. The traditional approach to this research was the FORECAST readability for- remediate the problems of adults with insufficient mula, which was developed using Army job read- basic skills for career success has been a continua- ing material and an adult Army recruit population. tion of the school general-literacy program. Another product was a “Guidebook for the Devel- However, traditional literacy training by the mil- itary has not been demonstrably successful. The

‘Defense Audit Service, Report on the Review of Instailation-Spon- ‘Adult Performance Level Project Staff, Adult Functional Competen- sored Education Programs for DOD Personnel (Report No. 81-041, Jan- cy: A Summary (Austin, Tex.: University of Texas, 1975). Uary 1981). 250 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education opment of Army Training Literature."6 This plans to computerize vocabulary development, manual attempted to help Army writers create reading comprehension, and study skills.7 performance-oriented training materials written at an appropriate level for Army readers and oriented Simulation Programs to identified job reading tasks. Project FLIT provides training in identified Flight training simulations are extremely varied Army reading tasks using actual Army materials. in scope, purpose, and fidelity of realism. They It was extensively field tested and was found to save expense and training time because the simu- result in gains in the performance of the job tasks lator can be repositioned to some starting point trained. The ideas and techniques of the FLIT pro- in flight without taking the actual time and fuel gram were incorporated in a job-oriented reading to fly there. Moreover, simulators provide the op- program (JORP) for the Air Force, targeted at a portunity to interrupt the flight at any point to different population and using different materials, give the student immediate feedback on particular a program also field tested with some success. Ex- aspects of pilot performance. Finally, the simula- pansion of this program to include all “problem” tor can be used for training in emergency maneu- job fields in the Air Force is being considered. The vers that are inherently dangerous to actually Navy JOBS program, a remedial program de- attempt. signed to prepare motivated, but otherwise ineligi- In 1970, the U.S. Air Force Human Resources ble, people for technical training is also a product Laboratory’s Advanced Systems Division con- of this technology. An additional product is a tracted with the Singer Co. to build the most prototype job reader’s task test developed for the sophisticated flight simulator yet devised, the Ad- Army and now being modified and reformed. vanced Simulator for Pilot Training (ASPT). Un- PREST Program. In the future, the services like other simulators, it was intended for research may be forced to enlist a greater number of mar- as well as for flight training, giving it a multipur- ginally qualified recruits because of manpower pose potential for transference of research results shortages. In response to this, the Navy is expand- to the civilian sector. ing its Academic Remedial Training (ART). The The Army Research Institute for the Behavioral Chief of Naval Education and Training contracted and Social Sciences (ARI) is engaged in the devel- for the development and testing of a computer- opment of computer-assisted simulation of tactical based approach known as the Performance- communications as part of an overall effort in the Related Enabling Skills Training (PREST) pro- area of simulation-based training systems. This ef- gram. PREST involves on-line reading and study fort will provide the Army with the capability to skills instruction via the PLATO system, aug- simulate battlefield communications between lead- mented by Navy-related off-line drill and practice. ers in the field and support personnel, such as artil- An automated system such as this was thought lery fire direction controllers, and the superior and to be an attractive alternative to increasing the subordinate commanders. Battlefield communica- number of instructors. tions are typically very structured and stereo- A 1980 cost analysis showed the automated pro- typed. For instance, the exchanges between an ar- gram to be less cost effective than increasing the tillery forward observer in the field and the fire number of military instructors. The usage charge direction controller are specified in Army regula- for PLATO with its centralized mainframe was tions. found to be the chief reason. This difference in cost Training simulations are used to replicate many should, however, steadily decline in future years. military situations—from tank driving to elabo- Advances in computer technology will make stand- rate ship docking. The Army tank driver simula- alone systems more attractive economically than tors are fully automatic and include audiovisual the centralized mainframe for this type of fixed in- as well as motion cues. Such devices simulate mal- struction. In addition to project PREST, Navy functions such as brake failure or engine shut- R&D efforts are under way to examine the feasi- down. Many of these procedures and malfunctions bility of teaching phonics by a computer-driven appear more than once throughout the programs, voice synthesizer. If this is successful, there are and thus allow for repeated practice. The device also simulates such activities as driving up hills and over obstacles. ‘R. P. Kern, T. G. Stichti D. Weltz, and R. N. Hanke, Guidebook for the Development of Army Training Literature (Arlington, Va.: U.S. ‘R. A. Wisher, &mputer-Assikted Literacy hwtruction in Phonics Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, No- (NPRDC TR 80-21) San Diego, Calif.: Navy Personnel Research, May vember 1976). 1981. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies “ 251

In maintenance simulation, the Navy through tenance training. This project utilizes a computer- the NPRDC is developing an Electronic Equip- controlled video disk system called TMIS (Train- ment Maintenance System that will simulate elec- ing Management Information System). Video disk tronic receiver and radar systems, using a micro- is used to store the contents of a large volume (that processor. This system shows promise in facilitat- is, thousands of pages) of maintenance manuals ing the management of troubleshooting problems and skill performance aids. By means of a 5-inch through electronic equipment. NPRDC has also cathode ray display tube connected by cable to the developed a program that teaches how to solve TMIS computer/video disk station, soldiers are dynamic problems involving the variational anal- able to use the system while actually doing main- ysis of current flow in complex electronic circuits. tenance inside a tank. With their electronic mainte- The interchangeability of technology transfer is nance manuals, the trainees have more informa- demonstrated through the Army’s adaptation of tion at their fingertips than would normally be a commercial coin-operated game by Atari called possible in the confined space of a tank turret. “Battlezone” to train tank operators. “Battle- A third innovative project is the use of video zone” is a three-dimensional war game in which the disk for a satellite communications ground station operator moves around the battlefield at will and repair course (MOS 26Y10) at the U.S. Army Sig- shoots at targets as they appear. Because the nal Center, Fort Gordon, Ga.8 The satellite commu- game is very realistic, trainees’ reflexes and oper- nications equipment needed for the course costs ating skills are improved with practice. Atari has about $12 million, and each repair involves $200 redesigned the keyboard to mimic an actual con- to $2,000 worth of parts. There is a great need to trol panel and realistically simulate the actions of minimize equipment usage by unskilled students a tank. wherever possible. The video disk provides low- cost hands-on equipment and repair practice with- Video Disks in Military Training out using the actual equipment or parts. A light- pen is used by students to identify switches, select The military services, particularly the Army, switch positions, plug in jacks, or indicate faulty have been very active in video disk research. Most parts to be replaced. In addition to reducing the of this work has been initiated or coordinated by need for actual equipment, it is now possible to the Army Communicative Technology Office measure student performance in accuracy or speed (ACTO) at Fort Eustis, Va. ACTO’s mission is to and to provide feedback while the student is learn- get the Army “off paper” and into electronic me- ing. dia for storage and communication. Both the Yet another innovative effort is the Video Disk Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Interpersonal Skills Training and Assessment (DARPA) and ARI have also supported a number (VISTA) project at Fort Benning, Ga. VISTA in- of video disk research projects for training pur- volves the study of interactive video disk for lead- poses. ership training and assessment. It is used in a two- One of the first ACTO projects was a “Call for screen paradigm to present conflict scenarios that Fire” disk that demonstrated the potential of vid- might arise between an officer and a subordinate. eo disk for packaging multimedia self-study train- The officer trainee or candidate is first presented ing materials. This disk involved a specially de- with a dynamic, visually simulated situation, in- signed computer-controlled video disk system. A cluding the initial remark of the subordinate on the number of different existing training materials screen. The trainee must select a response with the (field manuals, training extension course lessons, lightpen from four options presented visually on video tapes, films, and skill qualification tests) the screen control. The trainee then sees the subor- used to train forward observer skills were inte- dinate’s reaction to this response on the color grated on a single video disk, a good illustration monitor. of the economy of video disk storage. Cost studies The disk features two modes: an experimental conducted for ACTO around this integrated train- mode in which the interaction simply proceeds on ing package indicated that it would result in sav- the basis of the responses and a pedagogical mode ings over the existing materials on the basis of re- in which feedback is immediately provided on the ductions in duplication and distribution costs appropriateness of the response selected. A total alone. of eight disks are planned that will provide over A second innovative use is the SIDE (Soldier In- formation Delivery Equipment) project, which in- ‘W. D. Ketner, “The Video Disk/Microcomputer for Training, ” Train- volves the use of video disk for tank turret main- ing and Development Journal May 1981. 252 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

100 leadership scenarios. A major use of these video disk authoring approaches.11 ACTO has sup- disks is seen to be an effective, objective, and in- ported research on the electronic conversion of expensive assessment of officer candidates.9 print media to video disk and the optional presen- A number of other application areas are being tation features for electronic delivery systems. explored by the Army. One area is the use of video (See table A-7 for a summary of these applica- disk for recruiting. The Joint Optical Information tions.) Service (JOINS) allows local recruiters to show vis- These research projects have all involved inter- ually what type of duties and training are associ- action between a number of different Army/DOD ated with a specific military occupational specialty agencies and contractors. They have also involved (MOS). Currently, some 30 MOSS are available on a variety of different hardware configurations. It JOINS. ’O In the equipment simulation areas, is noteworthy that all of the video disk applica- WICAT, Inc. has developed an electronics trouble- tions discussed have involved externally pro- shooting video disk for the Hawk missile system. gramed interactive capability. Although the Army Perceptronics Inc. has developed a video disk- has conducted a few projects with manual and in- based simulation for the M60 tank gunnery train- ternally programed interactive video disks (not ing. Both of these projects were supported by discussed here), it appears that the Army believes DARPA. the type of interactive capability provided by ex- A number of video disk projects are also under ternal microcomputer control is necessary for the way in the basic skills area. The U.S. Army Europe instructional applications involved in military is supporting the development of functional liter- training. In contrast, industrial training applica- acy instruction using a particular job category tions have focused on the manual and internally (MOS 63, Vehicle Maintenance) as a focus. Also, programed level of interactive video disks, possi- DARPA is exploring the use of the video disk- bly because industry cannot afford the greater based Spatial Data Management System (SDMS), costs of an externally controlled system. originally developed at the Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technology for training in various life-cop- ing skill areas (e.g., spatial orientation, study Direct To The Home skills, listening). In addition to these application projects, which All of the information technologies currently have resulted in the development of actual video used by schools, the military, libraries, museums, disks, the Army and DOD have supported re- and industry can also be used in the home. The in- search projects that explore theoretical or proce- creasing availability of these technologies coupled dural aspects of the technology. For example, ARI with their rapidly declining cost, presents a unique has supported studies of how video disk relates to opportunity for learning in the home. While most the standard instructional system development of the present applications have been directed at methods used to develop training materials in the a specific age group, the focus is now shifting to military. The Navy supported an early study of provide programs for more diverse populations,

‘F. N. Dyer, et al., “Interactive Vidw for Interpersonal Skills Train- ing, ” 1981. ‘OJ. Tice, “Video Disk Could Get Army ‘Off Paper’, ” Army Times, “H. D. Kribs, “Authoring Techniques for Interactive Video Disk, ” Aug. 31, 1981, p. 14. Journal of Educational Technobgy Systems, 8(3), 1980.

Table A-7.—Summary of Military Video Disk Projects

Project Groups involved Hardware involved (player, microcomputer) Call for fire ACTO/WICAT Inc. Magnavox, Pascal MicroEngine (custom) SIDE ACTO/Hughes Aircraft Thompson, Hughes (custom) MOS 26410 ACTO/Signal School DVA 7820, Apple II VISTA ARI/ACTO/TDl Litton-Mellonics DVA 7820, Apple II JOINS ACTO/Recruiting Cmd. DVA 7820, Apple II I HAWK DARPA/WICAT Inc. DVA 7820, Pascal MicroEngine (custom) LCP-I ARI/Perceptronics Inc. DVA 7820, ? (custom) MOS 63 USAEUR/University Utah/ DVA 7820, Apple II University Maryland SDMS ARI/DARPA/HumRRO DVA 7820, Cromeco (custom) SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment —

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies . 253

Findings ing or a high school dropout may feel inadequate- ly prepared in basic knowledge to do well in an- There has been a dramatic increase of micro- other formal instructional setting. Institutional processors, hand-held devices, and information barriers are exemplified by high tuition charges, services provided via cable or public television inconvenient scheduling of courses, and the lack in the home. of student services geared to adult needs. Educa- Educational products and services are increas- tional services delivered directly to the home via ingly being marketed directly to the home. both existing and new technologies may overcome In response to market forces, these educational many of these barriers. z products and services are targeted predom- inantly at professionals and families with rel- atively large disposable incomes. Instructional Television As with other educational markets, there is a In an innovative effort to capture this expanding need for materials that review and evaluate market, 600 colleges and universities in coopera- these products and services. tion with the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) provide college courses for credit via local public Adult Market service stations. These courses are aired national- ly by over 200 stations (80 percent of the public An estimated 37,000 to 73,000 adults participate TV stations). Although institutions and stations in some sort of educational program. Adult pro- can choose from up to nine programs, most offer grams are offered in a wide variety of institutional two per semester. In the fall of 1981, enrollments settings—in elementary and secondary schools, exceeded 20,000. An increase was expected for the universities, private institutions, businesses, li- spring semester. braries, and museums. Adults, the fastest grow- Recognizing the large, virtually untapped home ing segment of American society, represent a po- market, PBS has already designed courses for the tentially large sector, of the educational market. undergraduate student, and, in the near future, However, while many adults might benefit from plans to provide informal learning courses as well continuing education, a large proportion of them as professional and career development programs. have, as yet, remained uninvolved. Current courses, such as “The American Short Apart from their number, there are several rea- Story” and “Personal Finance and Money Man- adults expected to constitute sons why might be agement, ” are of both general and professional in- a growing sector of the educational market: terest. Colleges and universities participating in ● Approximately one-third of all American the program provide materials and counselors on adults are changing or considering changing campus, and give midterm and final examinations. their careers and realize the need for addi- They pay PBS a licensing fee and a small charge tional education. per student enrolled. The student pays approxi- ● More and more States require additional 3 mately $150 per course, which covers materials. educational programs for professionals; e.g., PBS is not alone in providing educational serv- for recertification of physicians. Continuing ices via television. Community colleges such as education has become one condition for license those in the Coast Community College District, renewal in many areas. Dallas Community College District, and Miami- ● Within certain fields, education requirements Dade Community College District have also been are being upgraded, increasing the need for actively involved in instructional television en- continued educational deavors. Cable television companies also supply Adult participation in instructional activities educational materials nationwide. Columbia Cable- has been limited by situational, dispositional, and vision of Westchester Inc., and Qube, in Colum- institutional factors. Situational barriers are, for bus, Ohio, offer courses with an interactive capa- example, lack money, insufficient time because of bility that allow students in the home to answer of job and home responsibilities, lack of child care, and lack of transportation. Attitudes and self-per- ‘C. Dede, Potential Clients for Educational Services Delivered bj’ In- ceptions form the basis of dispositional barriers. formation Technology, contractor report to OTA, March 1981. ‘Public Broadcasting Service, PTV-3/Adult Programing Department, Thus, an aged person may feel incapable of learn- Background Paper on the Partnership Between Public Television and Higher Education to Deliver Adult Learning Cburses, Washington, D. C., n.d.: and Public Broadcasting Service, Adult Learning I+ogram- ‘~blic Broadcasting Service, “program Service, Section IV, Exhibit ing Schedule Fact Sheet for Colleges and Universities for Fall 1981, P-l, ” Washington, D. C., Jan. 6, 1982. Washington, D. C., n.d. 254 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education questions posed by the instructor in the classroom. study (thus, no work time is lost); information Qube (Warner Amex) currently has 50,000 sub- gained from the program can be employed immedi- scribers, approximately 34,000 of whom receive its ately in a working environment; the users become interactive programs. ’ This company offers familiar with the technology, which is not usually courses for credit from four institutions: Ohio the case for most higher level executives; and users State University, Capital University, Columbus are networking with both members of the program Technical Institute, and Franklin Institute. Be- and with others following completion of the pro- cause of its interactive capabilities, the Qube sys- gram.’ tem is educationally unique. A proposal that could greatly expand education- Electronic Learning Devices al services in the home is now under consideration by PBS. The proposed “National Narrowcast Approximately 18 million electronic devices— Service” would establish a resource to nationally microprocessor games such as “electronic base- distribute educational, professional training, cul- ball” and hand-held devices such as Speak and tural, and information video materials. This serv- Spell-were sold between 1979 and 1980. Typical- ice would also alter the local PBS stations’ role, ly, the price for these games ranges from $10 to transforming them into local telecommunications $3,000, the cost of a microcomputer. Users of these centers. Using a satellite distribution system to devices can be as young as four, or they can be interconnect local PBS stations, and Instructional adults. The growth of this market has been rapid Television Fixed Service (ITFS)* to connect the and impressive. Although these games and learn- stations, colleges, and other users, programing in ing devices were not introduced until the mid to the following areas would be available: late 1970’s, there are a vast number on the market. Training material in special skills; safety pro- While OTA has made no attempt to evaluate their grams; material designed for rehabilitation of the effectiveness—and particularly the effectiveness aged, infirm, or mentally disturbed; clinical studies; of those designed for learning, their uses in the new arts and crafts; material intended to keep pro- home will be briefly described. fessional and semi-professional people abreast of the Given the relatively low cost of production and state-of-the-art in various fields; in-service training a growing desire by parents for enhanced educa- for teachers; instructional material for purposes of b tional services, the market for microprocessor entertainment or cultural advancement. games has grown so fast that some major manu- facturers been unable to keep up with it. Sales of Multimedia Instruction nonvideo electronic games have skyrocketed from 7 The School of Management and Strategic Stud- $20 million in 1977 to $1 billion in 1980. The ex- ies of the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute perience of Texas Instruments in the home market offers a management program that relies heavily provides some insight into the development of on information technology. The program is de- learning technologies. One of the early leaders in signed for executives in the private and public sec- this field, Texas Instruments originally sought to tors (Federal and nonprofit). Following a short develop a market in schools and not in the home. study program in LaJolla, Calif., participants con- Their first product was a Texas Instrument calcu- tinue their studies via on-line services, telephone lator accompanied by a package of instructional conversations, teleconferencing, and electronic materials that was designed to assist teachers and mail. The terminals and other equipment are in- students in the classroom. With it the company cluded in the cost of tuition and are retained by hoped to demonstrate the use of the calculator as the user at the conclusion of the formal program. a learning device. Although this initial package Participants install the technology in their homes was unsuccessful, it led the company to focus on or offices. This approach has a number of benefits: the home market and to market directly to the in- the participants continue to work for their spon- dividual consumer. Their next product, Little Pro- soring organization throughout the course of fessor, was a hand-held device that provides a series of mathematical problems and answers de- ‘LINK, Survey of Selected U. S Videotexfl%o Way CA TVE1’eletext signed to become increasingly difficult. Since the @erations (New York: LINK, June 15, 1981). introduction of Little Professor, Texas Instru- *lTFS is ~ short rmge multiple distribution technology mowing for ments has developed and successfully marketed an unlimited number of users in a specific area. PBS is proposing the use of four ITFS channels in each community served by a public serv- ice station. ‘Public Broadcasting Service, op. cit., 1982. —

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 255 several similar games. One of these, Speak and von Beethoven presents his biography, illustra- Spell, differs from earlier games in that it has a tions of his life and musical scores, and musical synthesized voice that helps the user to spell. segments from the composer’s works. Designed to Other manufacturers have also introduced math- be experimental, this disk does not yet cover all ematical games—e.g., National Semiconductor’s 21 volumes of the encyclopedia, although ARETE Quiz Kid. There are also other kinds of hand-held hopes to put the entire encyclopedia on disk in the learning devices such as Coleco’s Quiz Wiz, a future. Still in the research and development multiple-choice game which asks and provides phase, these disks are not commercially available answers to 1,001 questions on a wide variety of for use in the home. When they come on the mar- subjects such as sports, movies, television, and ket, each disk will cost about $500. After purchas- history. ing a disk, each year the consumer can exchange it for an updated version for about $100.8 Video Disk Impacts of Information Since the video disk is relatively new, there are Technology very few examples that demonstrate its education- al applications in the home. Disks that are avail- Of all the information technologies available for able for school use are, however, equally applicable the home, the personal computer is the one that for use in the home. Some examples of these are is expected to have the greatest use and for which the films of Jacques Cousteau, the National Gal- there is expected to be the largest and fastest lery’s art masterpieces, movies such as “Tom growing market. Furthermore, the microcomputer, Sawyer” or “Better Tennis in 30 Minutes. ” in conjunction with other technologies such as the The first video disk designed specifically for chil- video disk or two-way interactive cable, appears dren, the “First National Kiddisc, ” is an interac- to have the greatest potential for home use. tive video disk produced by Optical Programing With the increasing use of microcomputers in Associates. It allows for individually paced in- the home, the educational applications are grow- struction. Games on this disk include The Flag ing at a fast pace. The personal computer market Game, in which the user identifies national flags, was estimated to be a $1.5 billion to $2 billion in- and A Trip to the Zoo, by which the child can learn dustry in 1981. One recent figure notes that the to identify 40 animals. Another section of the disk home market accounts for over $100 million in uses the unique two-channel audio available on the sales of both hardware and software.9 The number video disk players to explain pig latin. On one of personal computers purchased between 1977 channel, a child on camera explains in pig latin how and 1980 was estimated at around 1 million, and to speak pig latin; on the other channel there is a similar figure was estimated for sales in 1981. a voice-over translation. In a section on sign lan- Sales are expected to increase substantially for guage, the manual alphabet is taught by showing several reasons: greater exposure to the technol- the sequence in slow motion. ogy in the schools or in business, the introduction Publishers of educational materials and others of cable services, the availability of information are currently planning new video disk projects. resources such as The Source and Dow Jones/ Walt Disney Production, Children’s Television Retrieval Service, the development of more con- Workshop, and Scholastic Productions as well as sumer-oriented software, and the declining cost of encyclopedia publishers are among those who plan the microcomputer. 10 Also, manufacturers will be to utilize this new technology. actively marketing their equipment to the con- In addition, Arete Publishing in cooperation sumer. with the International Institute for Applied Tech- Together, these factors will lead to a serge in the nology (II AT) has produced an experimental inter- market. Microcomputers are now available for as active optical video disk with information from little as $100. At this price, the microcomputer can Arete’s American Academic Encyclopedia. Sound be used for games or simply to familiarize the user and films were added to articles and illustrations with the technology. Advertising emphasizing the chosen from the encyclopedia. The more than 20 segments on the video disk demonstrate the capa- ‘LINK, Optical Videodisc Applications (New York: LINK, NRM, vol. bilities of the technology. Starting from a general 3, No. 1, First Quarter, 1982). section on the species of dinosaurs, a user may ‘B. Isgur, W. Paine, and H. Mitchell, personal communications, January 1982. branch off to find more information about a ‘“LINK, Using Personal Computers (New York: LINK, NRR, vol. 3, specific type of dinosaur. The segment on Ludwig No. 1, Second Quarter, 1982). 256 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education educational applications in the home has increased games, electronic mail, news, the “electronic col- enormously. In fact, these commercials recall the lege,” and other services. The college, although earlier ones of the encyclopedia salesmen, their limited to three courses this year, plans to expand sales pitch being that the microcomputer will as- its listings within the next few years. CompuServe, sist the student in school.’] Moreover, the prolif- very similar to The Source, acts with the Associ- eration of computer stores and the retailing of the ated Press as the system operator for 13 U.S. technology through department stores and the like newspapers in an experiment of electronic news- has given rise to increased purchases. For exam- paper delivery. Viewtron, a videotex experiment ple, Texas Instruments plans to sell their micro- in Coral Gables, Fla., offered slightly different computers through national chain stores such as services to home users. Knight-Ridder Newspa- J. C. Penney. pers and AT&T sponsored news, shopping, travel, The growing diversity of home applications such banking, games, learning aids, consumer advice, as gaming and word processing, and the develop- and more to over 700 sites via modified television ment of financial and statistical packages such as sets. Similarly, Cox Cable Communications is de- Visicalc and others appeal to a wide range of users. veloping INDAX for use by its cable franchises.13 One indication of this is the formation of a large The introduction of cable services in the home number of computer clubs. All of the clubs swap will give rise to a large number of new educational hardware and software information. Some provide projects. An estimated 28 percent of the homes in training sessions; some are affiliated with a specif- the United States are wired for cable. It is pre- ic manufacturer (e.g., Crab Apples and Crab Pol- dicted that 38 percent will be wired by 1985 and ishers); and some are directed at specific interests 50 percent by 1990.14 Educational services such as (e.g., Theater Computer Users in Dallas, Tex., and those provided by Cox Cable, Qube, and others are the Behavioral Sciences Specialists in Murfrees- expected to grow quickly. boro, Term.’2 There are hundreds of software packages avail- Information Technology and able to assist students in all grades and age groups in many subjects such as mathematics, the sci- Special Education ences, reading, writing, and spelling. The rapid ex- pansion of the personal computer market should Technologies that are now being developed may result in a greatly increased volume of educational offer great benefits to individuals that require software together with a demand for evaluative special educational services-a group that includes materials. As in all other markets for educational the gifted and those with learning, physical, and software, there has been very little evaluation of emotional disabilities. Since special education is new software. While there are catalogs for consum- a field, and not an institution, OTA did not fully ers, there are few reviews of most educational explore the uses, impact, and effects of these tech- packages. Users must depend for their evaluations nologies on special educational services. However, on a limited number of sources: computer newslet- because the technologies will have a considerable ters, computer magazines, an underground net- effect on schools overall, OTA examined some of work, and the few computer manufacturers who their applications for the gifted and handicapped. have begun to produce evaluative reports. Many analysts believe that the market for home Findings and business microcomputers will be driven by the ● Providing educational services for students with need to use the technology to retrieve information special needs is costly and requires more effort and to perform transactions. The technology al- than providing for students in general. lows a user to connect to on-line data bases and ● Information technologies will be particularly other services via a modem, a device that connects valuable to students with special needs because the microcomputer to a telephone line. Home users they will reduce the cost of their education and can now connect to services such as The Source, they will provide them self-paced, individualized CompuServe, the Dow Jones News/Retrieval Serv- instruction. ice, and others. The Source, available through Tele- ● Using information technology could ease the net and Tymnet packet switch networks, offers financial and resource burdens placed on the

“A. Pollack, “price Decline Spurs Sales, ” New York Times, June 17, 1982, pp. D1,6. !3L1NK, Op. cit., 1982. IZLI NK, op. cit., 1982. “LINK Executive Conference, New York City, May 26, 1982. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 257

schools by laws mandating education for the terms of individual disabilities or needs. When de- gifted and handicapped. signed to meet the needs of a particular group, c The overall cost of R&D to address the specific these technologies can be too costly to produce.2 needs of this diverse group is very high, and in Moreover, the time required from their develop- some instances, even prohibitive. Each disabil- ment to their production may take as long as 20 ity may require a unique technological applica- years.3 For these reasons, it has often been pro- tion. It has been suggested that increased Fed- posed that the Federal Government provide sup- eral funding is merited to support the R&D ef- port for research and development in this area. forts needed to encourage the marketing of these technological applications. Technology for Administration ● Although a number of technological applica- tions to help handicapped persons are available, The use of information technology to administer they have not been marketed because they are special education programs is only now in the proc- too costly. ess of being developed, tested, and evaluated. “ Information technologies can help train many There is a large potential for data management ap- handicapped persons for productive work. plications in this field, particularly given the re- Information technologies may offer greater ben- quirement that each student participate in Indi- efits to the gifted and the handicapped than to any vidualized Education Programs (IEP). An IEP de- other segment of the education market. These stu- fines a student’s disability(ies) and appropriate dents benefit from specialized individualization, a education program. This exercise is a very time- capability of many emerging instructional technol- consuming process that could be greatly facili- ogies. For example, computer programs can be de- tated by the judicious use of information technol- signed to translate written material into speech ogy. Computerized diagnostic models are now that is understandable to the blind, or to instruct being developed. One model, developed by Colum- retarded children on a step-by-step basis. Overall, bia Learning Systems, generates a computerized such capabilities can help to make handicapped IEP based on diagnostic information supplied by people more independent. Other types of programs specialists. It contains information about student can help maximize the abilities of gifted students. needs, their areas of deficiencies and suggested Recognition of the special needs of these two ideas and material for remedying them. It also groups have led to the passage of two laws–Pub- monitors the student’s progress. Other programs such as these are becoming more and more com- lic Law 142 and Public Law 80-313. These laws re- 4 quire that, using formula grants and preschool in- mon. centive grants, handicapped and gifted children be The development of diagnostic remedial infor- provided with special services to be funded in part mation technology procedures is relatively new in by the Federal Government. the United States. This type of program tracks Information technologies have several attri- students to discover their strengths and weak- butes that make them particularly useful for ad- nesses in specific skills and how they relate to a dressing the special needs of gifted and handi- student’s approach to a specific problem. This in- capped students.1 Because their individual situa- formation can then be used to determine a course tions vary significantly from case to case, these of remedial action. Most diagnostic models are for s students most often need to have individualized mathematics, instruction that can best be provided by highly Information technologies can also be used to specialized personnel. Thus, their education is gen- schedule the handicapped in specialized working erally labor intensive, and very costly. The new in- or instructional groups using criteria such as in- formation technologies can provide self-paced and individualized instruction at a considerably lower ‘V. W. Stern and M. R. Redden, Draft Case Study of Selected Telecom- cost. munication Devices for the Deaf contractor report to OTA, December 1981. Much of the work done to develop teletypewriters for the deaf The cost and difficulties entailed in developing was done on a volunteer basis, donated by handicapped or concerned these technologies may, however, preclude their individuals. The present rapid advances in information technology, along with declining costs, may reduce this developmental time. widespread application. Although the overall pop- ‘I bid., p. 11. ulation of gifted and handicapped students is sta- 4 M . Lindsey, Statt+of-the-.4rt Report; Computers and the Handicap- tistically large, it is very small when measured in ped (Medford, (1-eg.: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, August 1981 ), p. 133. There is. for example, the Organized Resource Bank of IEP Text (ORBIT), and Programing for Individualized Educa- ‘C. Dede, Potential Clients for Educational Services Deiivered b-v In- tion (PIE). formation Technology, contractor report to OTA, March 1981. ‘Ibid., p, 133. 258 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

structional needs, student academic levels staff- Technology As Instructional ing requirements, and availability of staff and Aids space.6 Information technologies have many applica- Technology As Prosthetic tions as instructional aids. CAI, for instance, is Devices used for a number of different handicaps or disa- bilities. Early use of CAI for the deaf began at the By enabling handicapped persons to speak Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social through video and speech synthesizers, some infor- Sciences (IMSSS) at Stanford University. Assess- mation systems can serve as prosthetic devices. ments of this work with CA I show general in- For example, the Total Talk Full Speech Computer creases in the mathematical skills of 3,000 deaf Terminal, developed by Maryland Computer Serv- students. Nonspeaking autistic children have also ices, converts computer-transmitted data and in- benefited from the use of CAI. Having witnessed formation into synthetic speech. The system has a display of 1,000 different audiovisual experiences an unlimited vocabulary. It uses rules for enunci- on a television-like screen, 13 out of 17 children ation, and inflection for clarity. Total Talk, which began to use some level of speech. The effective- costs around $6,000, can provide two-way informa- ness of using a computer to teach extremely men- tion. Similar devices, the VS-6 and ML-1 voice syn- tally retarded children was also demonstrated, thesizers, developed by the Votrax Division of when substantial gains were noted in the reading Federal Screw Works, produce electronically syn- ability of 40 children. thesized speech from a low-speed, digital input. In Chicago, students with hearing, visual, men- Both of these systems are designed for persons tal, or other learning disabilities have participated with visual impairments, and both enable the users in a project sponsored by the South Metropolitan to work in the areas of computer programing, in- Association for Low Incidence Handicapped. The formation processing, and information retrieval. project used CAI programs-in math, reading, and Many such projects have been successfully in- the language arts-that were prepared by the troduced through joint efforts between the Federal Computer Curriculum Corp. Although evaluations Government and the private sector. One example are still underway, student progress has correlated is the caption decoder, developed under the spon- with the amount of on-line access to programs. sorship of the Department of Health, Education, In an ongoing study at Utah State University’s and Welfare (now the Department of Education), Exceptional Child Center, computer and video the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, the Na- disks are used with the mentally handicapped. The tional Broadcasting Co., and the American Broad- technologies allow for self-paced and individualized casting Co. When attached to a television set, instruction. The project programs focus on dis- these decoders allow deaf viewers to see captions crimination between sizes, shapes, and colors; on on selected networks and programs. Costing $269, telling time; on identification of functional words; 7 they are available through Sears, Roebuck, & C0. and on the identification of colors. If successful, Another example is Optacon. This device, de- this project will not only assist mentally handi- signed for the blind, produces images of printed capped nonreaders but also those with other disa- letters using small, raised, vibrating wires. With bilities.’ one hand the user guides the pick-up along the To “encourage research in devising methods to printed page, while the fingers of the other hand assist handicapped individuals, ” NSF and Radio detect the images on a stationary device. The Shack sponsored a contest in the fall of 1981. Its Kurzweil Reader, also developed for use by the purpose was to “create a partnership between per- blind, “reads” a page of text aloud, using elec- sonal computing and the rehabilitation, educa- tronic voice synthesis. For these projects, Federal tional, and handicapped communities."10 There funds were invested in the R&D efforts as well as were 900 entries in the contest. A few sample proj- in purchasing equipment for the users.8 ects were:

‘R. Throkildson, W. K. Bickel and J. G. Williams, “A Microcomputer/ ‘Ibid., p. 134. Videodisc CAI System for the Moderately Mentally Retarded, ” Jour- ‘Department of Education, The Historical Role of the U.S Depart- nal of Special Education Technology, vol. II, No. 3, spring 1979. ment of Education in Applying Electronic Technology to Education ‘“’’prizes Awarded in Search for Microcomputer Applications to Aid (Washington, D. C.: Department of Education, February 1981). Handicapped People, ” Electronic Learning, vol. 1, No. 3, ‘Ibid. January/February 1982, p. 12. App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 259

● A pocket-sized computer to assist deaf people a screen and then moving them to pronounce to communicate over telephone lines-a Radio words. Shack pocket computer with a coupler and a The entries in the contest used off-the-shelf tech- miniprinter. nology. Most of the projects could be made avail- ● An “Eye Tracker” to aid severely handi- able immediately and would be of some use to a capped individuals to express words via an in- disabled person. The contest demonstrated that frared camera and a computer. The camera there is no immediate need for extensive R&D. notes the position of the user’s eyes with a What is needed instead is a way of identifying and specific word and the computer “speaks” the encouraging the reformatting of the technology to word. address the diverse needs of the handicapped pop- ● A computer that teaches deaf children to read ulation. lips by outlining lips, mouth, and tongue on