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Nuclear Technology

Joseph A. Angelo, Jr.

GREENWOOD PRESS

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

Sourcebooks in Modern Technology

Space Technology

Joseph A. Angelo, Jr.

Sourcebooks in Modern Technology

Nuclear Technology

Joseph A. Angelo, Jr.

GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut • London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Angelo, Joseph A. Nuclear technology / Joseph A. Angelo, Jr. p. cm.—(Sourcebooks in modern technology) Includes index. ISBN 1–57356–336–6 (alk. paper) 1. Nuclear engineering. I. Title. II. Series. TK9145.A55 2004

  • 621.48—dc22
  • 2004011238

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2004 by Joseph A. Angelo, Jr. All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2004011238 ISBN: 1–57356–336–6

First published in 2004 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com

Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984).

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To my wife, Joan—a wonderful companion and soul mate

Contents

  • Preface
  • ix

Chapter 1. History of Nuclear Technology and

  • Science
  • 1

  • Chapter 2. Chronology of Nuclear Technology
  • 65

Chapter 3. Profiles of Nuclear Technology Pioneers,

  • Visionaries, and Advocates
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155 315 375 443
Chapter 4. How Nuclear Technology Works Chapter 5. Impact Chapter 6. Issues Chapter 7. The Future of Nuclear Technology Chapter 8. Glossary of Terms Used in Nuclear

  • Technology
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539 571 605
Chapter 9. Associations Chapter 10. Demonstration Sites Chapter 11. Sources of Information

  • Index
  • 613

Preface

Modern nuclear technology emerged in the twentieth century from the pioneering intellectual achievements of many scientists who struggled to explain the atom, identify and characterize its fundamental components, and apply such previously unanticipated phenomena as radioactivity and nuclear energy. Through a series of dramatic discoveries, these scientists unraveled the secrets hidden within the atomic nucleus. Using the phenomena of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, scientists unlocked the vast energy content of the atomic nucleus. Their pioneering scientific efforts, performed during times of peace and conflict, resulted in a new scientific understanding of matter, its fundamental components, and the physical laws governing the relationship between energy and matter.
Throughout the history of technology, only a few events have dramatically altered the course of human civilization. Amazingly, nuclear technology provided two such world-changing events within three years. On December 2, 1942, a small band of scientists led by the Italian-American physicist Enrico Fermi succeeded in operating the world’s first nuclear reactor at the University of Chicago. Although primitive by modern technology standards, Chicago Pile One (CP-1) inaugurated the modern age of nuclear power. This pioneering experiment in the control of a nuclear fission chain reaction began a new technical era filled with great hope that human beings might wisely harvest the energy within the atomic nucleus. Nuclear scientists quickly recognized that an operating reactor also provided them with a large quantity of neutrons to create many interesting new isotopes for applications in medicine, industry, basic research, environmental science, and space exploration.

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  • PREFACE

Contemporary nuclear science historians suggest that this very special event is analogous to the critical moment in Greek mythology when Prometheus stole fire from Mount Olympus (home of Zeus and the other gods) and bestowed it as a gift to humankind. Prometheus, who was one of the Titans, wanted to help human beings, but Father Zeus was extremely angry at the minor deity’s generous deed and severely punished him. Yet control of fire ultimately enabled the human race to evolve from a nomadic, survival-level, hunter-gatherer existence into the technically complex global civilization we enjoy today. Nuclear physicists may be perceived as the “new Prometheans”—people who have given modern society the gift of a new type of fire: the fire from within the atomic nucleus.
The second world-changing nuclear technology event, the world’s first nuclear explosion, occurred at precisely 05:29:45 A.M. (mountain war time) on July 16, 1945. This event caused an incredible burst of human-made light that pierced the predawn darkness of the southern New Mexican desert and bathed the surrounding mountains in the glow of a nuclear fireball. The bulky, spherical plutonium-implosion device, called Trinity, exploded with a yield of 21 kilotons—completely vaporizing the tall steel support tower upon which it rested. The tremendous blast signaled the dawn of a new age in warfare—the age of nuclear weaponry. From this fateful moment on, human beings were capable of unleashing wholesale destruction on planet Earth. Nuclear war represents an instantaneous level of violence unavailable in all previous periods of human history.
While observing the first nuclear fireball, the American physicist J.
Robert Oppenheimer, who lead the team of atomic bomb scientists at Los Alamos, New Mexico, recalled the ancient Hindu declaration: “I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.” Contemporary philosophers soon began to question whether this weapon extended technology beyond the ability of human social and political institutions to control it.
Over the span of just a few decades in the twentieth century, the achievements of nuclear scientists greatly changed the world in which we live. The intellectual significance of the work of many of these individuals has been publicly acknowledged through the presentation of prestigious awards, such as the Nobel Prize in physics or chemistry. Others helped bring about new levels of scientific understanding in a less publicly recognized, but nonetheless equally important, way. In addition to the nuclear reactor and the nuclear weapon, scientific breakthroughs gave rise to many of the other interesting, but sometimes controversial, nuclear technology applications described in this book.

In Nuclear T e chnology, the physical principles behind the operation of

nuclear reactors for power, propulsion, research, and isotope production

  • PREFACE
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are explained. Discussions also include the use of radioactivity and radiation in such areas as nuclear medicine, radiology, and food preservation. The many beneficial uses of radioactive isotopes in medicine, basic research, agriculture, industry, archaeology, geology, environmental science, and space exploration are also presented. Next, the social and political impact of nuclear technology is described. For example, nuclear technology has played a dominant role in national security and geopolitics since World War II.
Looking to the future, this book suggests and encourages the family of nations to make a unanimous decision to promote and harvest only the beneficial aspects of nuclear technology. Instead of becoming the destroyer of worlds, nuclear technology should represent a powerful technology that serves as the saver of worlds and the protector of Earth. As suggested in these chapters, a future generation may apply advanced forms of nuclear technology to defend the home planet against a wayward celestial object that threatens to destroy all life in a giant cosmic collision.
Astrophysicists note that the biogenic elements—those basic chemical elements found in our bodies that are necessary for life—came from a complex series of nuclear transformations (called nucleosynthesis) within exploding ancient stars. As a result of such primeval processes that took place on a cosmic scale, we are now literally made out of stardust. In the future, nuclear technology may allow the human race to travel back to the stars from which we came.

Nuclear T e chnology is part of a special series of comprehensive reference

volumes that deals with the scientific principles, technical applications, and societal impacts of modern technologies. The present volume serves as an initial, one-stop guide to the exciting field of nuclear technology. Its chapters provide a detailed history of nuclear technology; a chronology of important milestones in the development of nuclear technology; profiles of important scientists; a detailed but readable explanation of how the technology works; discussion of the impact, issues, and future of nuclear technology; a glossary of important terms; and listings of relevant associations, demonstration sites, and information resources.
The contents were carefully chosen and the writing carefully focused to meet the information needs of high school students, undergraduate university and college students, and members of the general public who want to understand the nature of nuclear technology, the basic scientific principles upon which it is based, how nuclear technology has influenced history, and how it is now impacting society. This book serves as both a comprehensive, stand-alone introduction to nuclear technology and an excellent starting point and companion for more detailed personal inves-

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tigations. Specialized technical books and highly focused electronic (Internet) resources often fail to place an important scientific event, technical discovery, or applications breakthrough within its societal context. This volume overcomes such serious omissions and makes it easy for readers to understand and appreciate the significance and societal consequences of major nuclear technology developments and the historic circumstances that brought them about. As a well-indexed, comprehensive information resource designed for independent scholarship, this book will also make electronic searches for additional information more meaningful and efficient.
I wish to thank the public information specialists in the U.S. Department of Energy and its national laboratories, the U.S. Department of Defense, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) who generously provided much of the technical material used in developing this volume. A special thanks is extended to my editors at Greenwood Press—especially John Wagner—for their continuous encouragement throughout the arduous journey that began with an interesting concept and ended with a publishable manuscript. The wonderful staff at the Evans Library of Florida Tech again provided valuable support throughout the development of this book. A special thanks also goes out to the many students of my radiation protection and nuclear waste management classes at Florida Tech. By actively participating in the lectures and asking many interesting questions, these young men and women identified specific information needs that helped shape the technical content of this book. Finally, without the patient support of my wife, Joan, this book would never have emerged from chaotic piles of class notes, lecture materials, and technical reports to become a comprehensive treatment of nuclear technology.

Chapter 1

History of Nuclear Technology and Science

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

Throughout history, only a few events have dramatically altered the course of human civilization. Two such world-changing events involve the field of nuclear technology. Amazingly, these events happened less than three years apart. On December 2, 1942, the Italian-American physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–1954) led a small team of scientists at the University of Chicago in operating the world’s first nuclear reactor. Though primitive by modern technology standards, Fermi’s CP-1 inaugurated the modern age of nuclear power. This pioneering experiment started a new technical era—one filled with the great hope that human beings might wisely harvest the energy within the atomic nucleus in a controlled manner. In addition to power generation, the reactor’s core contained a large quantity of neutrons that could create many interesting new isotopes for applications in medicine, industry, basic research, environmental science, and space exploration.
The first human-initiated, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction took place in wartime secrecy in very unassuming surroundings—the unused squash court beneath the west stands of Stagg Field, the athletic stadium of the University of Chicago. Contemporary nuclear science historians suggest that this very special event is similar to the critical moment in ancient Greek mythology when the Titan Prometheus stole fire from Mount Olympus (home of Zeus and the other gods) and bestowed it as a gift to humankind. Prometheus just wanted to help people, but Father Zeus was not too happy with his generous deed and severely punished the lesser god. Yet control of fire ultimately enabled the human race to evolve from a no-

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madic, survival-level, hunter-gatherer existence into the technically complex global civilization we enjoy today. Extending this analogy, we might consider nuclear physicists like Fermi as the new Prometheans—people who have given the human race the gift of a new type of fire from within the atomic nucleus.
Fermi’s first reactor also provided the key technology needed for the production of large quantities of plutonium. This human-made transuranic element (discovered early in 1941) was highly prized by physicists as the more efficient candidate nuclear fuel for the first American atomic bomb. The other fissile material for making an atomic bomb was highly enriched uranium 235, a relatively rare isotope extracted from natural uranium. During World War II, fear that scientists in Nazi Germany were trying to develop a similar superweapon gave high-level priority to the massive U.S. atomic bomb effort, code-named the Manhattan Project. It was the Manhattan Project that also produced the second world-changing event of nuclear technology.
At 05:29:45 A.M. (mountain war time) on July 16, 1945, the world’s first nuclear explosion took place. An incredible burst of human-made light pierced the predawn darkness of a remote portion of the southern New Mexican desert and bathed the surrounding mountains in the glow of a nuclear fireball. The bulky, spherical plutonium-implosion device, codenamed Trinity, exploded with a yield of 21 kilotons and completely vaporized the 33-meter-tall steel support tower upon which it was hoisted. The tremendous blast signaled the dawn of a new age in warfare—the age of nuclear weaponry. From this fateful moment on, as a species, humankind was now capable of unleashing wholesale destruction on our planet in an instantaneous level of violence unavailable in all previous periods of human history.
While observing Trinity’s fireball, the American physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904–1967), who lead the team of atomic bomb scientists at Los Alamos, New Mexico, recalled the ancient Hindu declaration: “I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.” Less than a decade later, almost like the hero in a classic Greek tragedy who successfully completes a difficult quest and receives punishment as a reward, this brilliant physicist would be ushered off-stage in disgrace when government officials denied him further access to classified information.
Another brilliant American physicist, Ernest O. Lawrence
(1901–1958), reported that “the [Trinity] explosion produced a kind of solemnity in everyone’s behavior immediately afterwards. There was a restrained applause, but more a hushed murmuring bordering on reverence as the event was commented on.” It was Lawrence’s pioneering work on

  • HISTORY OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
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accelerators that enabled teams of scientists at the University of California in Berkeley to create the first transuranic elements in the early 1940s.
At Trinity, most of the scientists who helped develop the world’s first nuclear explosive device were more concerned with ending World War II than with contemplating the long-term social consequences of their work. In fact, many of them, like Fermi, were political refugees who had fled fascist governments in Europe and sought freedom in the United States before the war began. Although Nazi Germany had just surrendered, the brutal war with imperial Japan still raged in the Pacific. The anticipated invasion of the Japanese home islands by Allied forces promised to yield several million casualties on both sides. Considering the possibility of a prolonged and bloody conflict, President Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) made the incredibly difficult decision to drop atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945). At the time, his decision was viewed and accepted by many Americans as a necessary step in bringing World War II to a rapid conclusion. However, more than five decades later, some historians are revisiting his momentous decision and questioning whether this particular action was actually necessary. Much to his personal credit, for the remainder of his life Truman accepted full responsibility for his now-controversial decision to use the newly developed atomic bomb as a weapon of war.
Nuclear technology is a fascinating and powerful discipline whose various applications and potential consequences often invoke great controversy and political debate. Yet from a scientific perspective, when used wisely and carefully, the various forms of nuclear technology have provided great benefits. For example, the widespread use of radioactive isotopes and X-rays have revolutionized the practice of medicine. But when used carelessly, unwisely, or maliciously, nuclear technology can inflict destructive consequences that have both immediate and very long-term impacts. Unlike those of other modern technologies, the social and political consequences of nuclear technology are without precedent in human history. For example, a regional nuclear war between India and Pakistan (as was threatened but avoided in spring 2002) would cause millions of casualties and instantly reduce both nations to rubble and ruin. Furthermore, independent of any additional nuclear technology developments and activities in the twenty-first century, the environmental and political legacy of the early nuclear age (such as the need to safeguard tons of surplus plutonium from the cold war nuclear arsenals of the United States and the former Soviet Union) extends for many millennia into the future.
In this chapter, we will explore the history of nuclear technology. Modern nuclear technology emerged from the pioneering intellectual achieve-

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ments of scientists as they struggled to explain the atom, identify and characterize its fundamental components, and apply newly discovered nuclear phenomena like radioactivity and ionizing radiation. They also unlocked the energy content of the atomic nucleus through the processes of fission and fusion. Their overall efforts, performed during times of both peace and great conflict, resulted in an important new scientific understanding of matter, its fundamental components, and the physical laws governing the relationship between energy and matter. Never before had the human mind created such compact devices that could quickly release such vast quantities of energy. Contemporary philosophers, including gifted nuclear scientists such as Andrei Sakharov (1921–1989), have openly questioned whether humanity’s advances in nuclear technology (especially nuclear weaponry) are beginning to extend well beyond the management ability of current social and political systems.
Over the span of just a few decades in the twentieth century, the achievements of nuclear scientists greatly changed the world in which we live. Some individuals have had their contributions publicly acknowledged through the reception of such prestigious awards as the Nobel Prize in physics or chemistry. Others have helped bring about new scientific understanding in a less generally recognized but, nonetheless, equally important way. Breakthroughs in nuclear science have given rise to many interesting, but often controversial, new engineering applications.
This chapter summarizes how nuclear technology relates to the operation of nuclear reactors for power, propulsion, research, and isotope production; includes the application of radioactivity and radiation in such areas as nuclear medicine, radiology, and food preservation; and addresses the many beneficial uses of radioactive isotopes in basic research, agriculture, industry, archaeology, geology, environmental science, and space exploration. Starting with the Manhattan Project, we will also examine the dominant role nuclear science and technology has played in military and global affairs.

THE DISCOVERY OF THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS
What Is Matter?

We can trace the general concept of the atomic structure of matter back to ancient Greece. In the fifth century B.C.E., the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his famous pupil Democritus (c. 460–c. 370 B.C.E.) introduced the theory of atomism within a society that assumed the world consisted of four basic elements: air, fire, water, and earth. In founding the school of

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atomism, they speculated that all matter consisted of an infinite number of minute, indivisible particles. Democritus pursued this interesting line of thought much further than his mentor. As a natural philosopher, but not an experimenter, Democritus considered what would happen if he kept cutting a piece of matter, any piece of matter, into finer and finer halves. He reasoned that he would eventually reach the point where further division would be impossible. So he called these final indivisible pieces atoma. Thus the modern word atom comes to us from Democritus and the ancient Greek word atomos (ατοµος), which means “not divisible.”
For Democritus, these tiny indivisible particles always existed and could never be destroyed. Different substances resulted from the way they connected or linked together. Like those of the majority of his contemporary Greek natural philosophers, the concepts in Democritus’s school of atomism resulted from hypothesis and the exercise of logic but did not emerge from the rigorous experimentation and observation characteristic of the scientific method. However, we should not treat Democritus too harshly from the perspective of twenty-first century science. About 2,500 years ago his ideas were genuinely innovative and represented the beginning of atomic theory.
Unfortunately for Democritus, the great Greek philosopher Aristotle
(384–322 B.C.E.) did not favor atomism, so the concept languished in the backwaters of Greek thinking. The innovative ideas of another ancient Greek thinker, the astronomer Aristarchus (c. 320–c. 250 B.C.E.) suffered a similar Aristotelian fate. In about 260 B.C.E., Aristarchus suggested that the Earth moved around the Sun. But Aristotle supported geocentric cosmology, and the sheer power of his thinking suppressed any support for heliocentric cosmology until Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) revived the concept in 1543. Heliocentric cosmology started the scientific revolution—a revolution that swept away many of the Aristotelian concepts restricting scientific thinking in Western civilization for over two millennia.
However, another Greek philosopher, Epicurus (c. 341–c. 270 B.C.E.), did accept the atomistic theory of Democritus. Through his writings, amplified and preserved by the Roman philosopher-poet Titus Lucretius Carus

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    Technical Data Heater Element Specifications Bulletin Number 592 Topic Page Description 2 Heater Element Selection Procedure 2 Index to Heater Element Selection Tables 5 Heater Element Selection Tables 6 Additional Resources These documents contain additional information concerning related products from Rockwell Automation. Resource Description Industrial Automation Wiring and Grounding Guidelines, publication 1770-4.1 Provides general guidelines for installing a Rockwell Automation industrial system. Product Certifications website, http://www.ab.com Provides declarations of conformity, certificates, and other certification details. You can view or download publications at http://www.rockwellautomation.com/literature/. To order paper copies of technical documentation, contact your local Allen-Bradley distributor or Rockwell Automation sales representative. For Application on Bulletin 100/500/609/1200 Line Starters Heater Element Specifications Eutectic Alloy Overload Relay Heater Elements Type J — CLASS 10 Type P — CLASS 20 (Bul. 600 ONLY) Type W — CLASS 20 Type WL — CLASS 30 Note: Heater Element Type W/WL does not currently meet the material Type W Heater Elements restrictions related to EU ROHS Description The following is for motors rated for Continuous Duty: For motors with marked service factor of not less than 1.15, or Overload Relay Class Designation motors with a marked temperature rise not over +40 °C United States Industry Standards (NEMA ICS 2 Part 4) designate an (+104 °F), apply application rules 1 through 3. Apply application overload relay by a class number indicating the maximum time in rules 2 and 3 when the temperature difference does not exceed seconds at which it will trip when carrying a current equal to 600 +10 °C (+18 °F).
  • Historical Dictionary of Russian and Soviet Intelligence

    Historical Dictionary of Russian and Soviet Intelligence

    Russia • Military / Security Historical Dictionaries of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, No. 5 PRINGLE At its peak, the KGB (Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti) was the largest HISTORICAL secret police and espionage organization in the world. It became so influential DICTIONARY OF in Soviet politics that several of its directors moved on to become premiers of the Soviet Union. In fact, Russian president Vladimir V. Putin is a former head of the KGB. The GRU (Glavnoe Razvedvitelnoe Upravleniye) is the principal intelligence unit of the Russian armed forces, having been established in 1920 by Leon Trotsky during the Russian civil war. It was the first subordinate to the KGB, and although the KGB broke up with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the GRU remains intact, cohesive, highly efficient, and with far greater resources than its civilian counterparts. & The KGB and GRU are just two of the many Russian and Soviet intelli- gence agencies covered in Historical Dictionary of Russian and Soviet Intelligence. Through a list of acronyms and abbreviations, a chronology, an introductory HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF essay, a bibliography, and hundreds of cross-referenced dictionary entries, a clear picture of this subject is presented. Entries also cover Russian and Soviet leaders, leading intelligence and security officers, the Lenin and Stalin purges, the gulag, and noted espionage cases. INTELLIGENCE Robert W. Pringle is a former foreign service officer and intelligence analyst RUSSIAN with a lifelong interest in Russian security. He has served as a diplomat and intelligence professional in Africa, the former Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe. For orders and information please contact the publisher && SOVIET Scarecrow Press, Inc.
  • April 4, 2003, Board Letter Establishing a 60-Day Reporting

    April 4, 2003, Board Letter Establishing a 60-Day Reporting

    John T. Conway, Chairman A.J. Eggenbe,ger, Vice Chairman DEFENSE NUCLFAR FACILITIES John E. Mansfield SAFE'IY BOARD 625 Indiana Avenue, NW, Suite 700, Washington, D.C. 20004-2901 (202) 694-7000 April 4, 2003 The Honorable Linton Brooks Acting Administrator of the National Nuclear Security Administration U.S. Department ofEnergy 1000 Independence A venue, SW Washington, DC 20585-0701 Dear Ambassador Brooks: During the past 16 months, the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board (Board) has held a number of reviews at the Pantex Plant to evaluate conduct ofoperations and the site's training programs. The Board is pleased to see that procedural adherence and conduct ofoperations for operational personnel are improving and that a program to improve operating procedures is ongoing. However, a review by the Board's staff has revealed problems at Pantex with the processes used to develop training, to evaluate personnel knowledge, to assess training program elements, and to conduct continuing training. These training deficiencies, detailed in the enclosed report, may affect the ability to improve and maintain satisfactory conduct of operations at the Pantex Plant. Therefore, pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 2286b(d), the Board requests a report within the next 60 days regarding the measures that are being taken to address these training deficiencies. Sincerely, c: The Honorable Everet H. Beckner Mr. Daniel E. Glenn Mr. Mark B. Whitaker, Jr. Enclosure DEFENSE NUCLEAR FACILITIES SAFETY BOARD Staff Issue Report March 24, 2003 MEMORANDUM FOR: J. K. Fortenberry, Technical Director COPIES: Board Members FROM: J. Deplitch SUBJECT: Conduct ofOperations and Training Programs at the Pantex Plant This report documents a review by the staff ofthe Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board (Board) ofconduct ofoperations and the training programs at the Pantex Plant.
  • Bob Farquhar

    Bob Farquhar

    1 2 Created by Bob Farquhar For and dedicated to my grandchildren, their children, and all humanity. This is Copyright material 3 Table of Contents Preface 4 Conclusions 6 Gadget 8 Making Bombs Tick 15 ‘Little Boy’ 25 ‘Fat Man’ 40 Effectiveness 49 Death By Radiation 52 Crossroads 55 Atomic Bomb Targets 66 Acheson–Lilienthal Report & Baruch Plan 68 The Tests 71 Guinea Pigs 92 Atomic Animals 96 Downwinders 100 The H-Bomb 109 Nukes in Space 119 Going Underground 124 Leaks and Vents 132 Turning Swords Into Plowshares 135 Nuclear Detonations by Other Countries 147 Cessation of Testing 159 Building Bombs 161 Delivering Bombs 178 Strategic Bombers 181 Nuclear Capable Tactical Aircraft 188 Missiles and MIRV’s 193 Naval Delivery 211 Stand-Off & Cruise Missiles 219 U.S. Nuclear Arsenal 229 Enduring Stockpile 246 Nuclear Treaties 251 Duck and Cover 255 Let’s Nuke Des Moines! 265 Conclusion 270 Lest We Forget 274 The Beginning or The End? 280 Update: 7/1/12 Copyright © 2012 rbf 4 Preface 5 Hey there, I’m Ralph. That’s my dog Spot over there. Welcome to the not-so-wonderful world of nuclear weaponry. This book is a journey from 1945 when the first atomic bomb was detonated in the New Mexico desert to where we are today. It’s an interesting and sometimes bizarre journey. It can also be horribly frightening. Today, there are enough nuclear weapons to destroy the civilized world several times over. Over 23,000. “Enough to make the rubble bounce,” Winston Churchill said. The United States alone has over 10,000 warheads in what’s called the ‘enduring stockpile.’ In my time, we took care of things Mano-a-Mano.
  • Cornell Gets a New Chair

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    PEOPLE APPOINTMENTS & AWARDS Cornell gets a new chair Two prominent accelerator physicists and Cornell alumni, Helen T Edwards and her husband, Donald A Edwards, have endowed a chair in accelerator physics at Cornell.The chair is named after Boyce D McDaniel, pro­ fessor emeritus at Cornell. The first holder of the new chair is David L Rubin, professor of physics and director of accelerator physics at Cornell.The donors David Rubin is the first incumbent of the new Boyce McDaniel Chair of Physics at Cornell, asked that the new professorship should be endowed by Helen and Donald Edwards. The chair is named after Boyce D McDaniel. Left awarded to a Cornell faculty member whose to right: Boyce McDaniel, Donald Edwards, David Rubin, Helen Edwards and Maury Tigner, discipline is particle-beam physics and who director of Cornell's Laboratory of Nuclear Studies. would teach both graduate and undergradu­ ate students in addition to doing research. McDaniel, a previous director of nuclear ingthe commissioning of the Main Ring at Helen Edwards is a 1957 graduate of science at Cornell, was Helen Edwards' thesis Fermilab and providing advice for numerous Cornell, where she also earned her PhD in adviser. Initially a graduate student at Cornell, accelerator projects throughout the US, in 1966. She works at Fermilab and at DESY in he left during the Second World War to join the addition to his notable contributions to the Germany. She played a prominent role in the Manhattan Project and returned to complete accelerator and elementary particle physics construction of Fermilab'sTevatron and has his PhD, joining the faculty in 1946.
  • Resumo Dos V´Ideos Propostos De F740

    Resumo Dos V´Ideos Propostos De F740

    Resumo dos V´ıdeosPropostos de F740 - Grupo 2 Gabriel Martins (197328), Ian Barboza (174822), Anderson Pitoli (166188) Junho 2020 1 Atom: Clash of Titans - Ep. 1 Neste epis´odio,´ediscorrida a hist´oriada teoria at^omicano s´eculo20, desde seus prim´ordios at´esuas considera¸c~oesatuais. No final do s´eculo19, tal teoria n~aoera de interesse da comunidade cient´ıfica,visto que ate ent~aon~aoparecia ter utilidade pr´atica;foi com o surgimento de motores `avapor que as aten¸c~oes se voltaram a esse campo de estudo, buscando uma maior efici^enciados gases utilizados. A prova de exist^enciado ´atomoveio atrav´esde Einstein em 1907, visando explicar a vibra¸c~aodas part´ıculasde p´olenem ´agua,e a partir da´ı, come¸cou-sea especula¸c~aode como tais ´atomosseriam e como se comportariam. O primeiro modelo que aparece no document´ariofoi o de Rutherford, que afirmava que toda a carga positiva do ´atomo,e portanto toda sua massa, est´a concentrada em seu centro, numa regi~aochamada de n´ucleo,que era cerca de 100.000 vezes menor que a elestrosfera que o cobria. O modelo resultou dos experimentos com a radia¸c~ao,particularmente a radia¸c~aoalfa, e sua reflex˜ao em uma folha de ouro. Por´em,havia um fen^omenoque n~aopodia ser explicado pelo modelo de Rutherford, as linhas espectrais observadas ao energizar gases. Niels Bohr cria ent~aoseu modelo, junto com a ´areade estudo que ficou conhecida como mec^anicaqu^antica, ele utilizava a teoria de saltos qu^anticos, que dizia que as linhas espectrais aconteciam devido `alibera¸c~aode energia na forma de radia¸c~aoem saltos que os el´etronsrealizavam entre suas poss´ıveis ´orbitas.