A Biographies of Contributors (In Alphabetical Order by Last Names)

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Appendix A

A Biographies of Contributors (in alphabetical order by last names)

Timiebi Aganaba – Jeanty

Timiebi Aganaba-Jeanty is a post-doctoral fellow with the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI)’s International Law Research Program. At CIGI, she researches law and policy instruments for monitoring and verification of climate change agreements. With a focus on satellite technology and geoengineering solutions, she analyzes the evolving legal principles that would be required to regulate the use of emerging and high technologies in the fight against climate change. Prior to joining CIGI, Timiebi was Executive Director of the World Space Week Association, coordinating the global response to the UN declaration that World Space Week should be celebrated from October 4 to 10, annually. She was also a space policy consultant with Montreal-based consultancy, Euroconsult, and a legal and international cooperation officer at the Nigerian Space Research and Development Agency. She is called to the Nigerian bar. Timiebi holds a Ph.D. and LLM in aviation and space law from McGill University. Her Ph.D. research was focused on the concept of “common benefit” and the effect of the international space law regime on the development of space programs in emerging nations. She has an MSc in Space Management from the International Space University, Strasbourg, France, and an LL.B. from the University of Leicester, UK.

Md. Tanveer Ahmad

Md. Tanveer Ahmad is currently the Executive Director of McGill University’s Centre for Research in Air and Space Law (CRASL), an Erin J.C. Arsenault Postdoctoral Researcher in McGill University’s Institute of Air and Space Law (IASL), and the Editor of the Annals of Air and Space Law, a peer-reviewed journal published by the CRASL. He also teaches the Government Regulation of Space Activities course at McGill’s Faculty of Law as a Course Lecturer and holds an Assistant Professor position at the Department of Law, North South University,

Bangladesh. He has earned his Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) and Master of Laws (LLM) degrees from the IASL in 2016 and 2010, respectively. While pursuing his doctoral studies, he held the Assad Kotaite Fellowship of the UN International Civil Aviation Organization and the Boeing Fellowship in Air and Space Law. He has authored a book, several articles in various peer-reviewed law journals, several book chapters, policy papers, and working papers. He has presented papers in various conferences (including UN conferences), and has assisted with the editing of, among other things, Monograph Series I, II & III of CRASL, and Routledge Handbook of Space Law.

Ntorina Antoni

Ntorina Antoni holds an advanced LLM in Air and Space Law from the International Institute of Air & Space Law (IIASL), Leiden University (2014-2015) and a LLM in International and European Public Law from Tilburg University (2012-2013) in the Netherlands. She obtained her law degree from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens in Greece in 2012, while her interest in space law was raised during her participation at the ECSL/IISL Manfred Lachs Moot Court Competition and the ECSL Summer Course in Space Law and Policy in 2011. She is an Attorney-at- Law, admitted to the Athens Bar Association since January 2016. Currently she is the In-House Counsel at Swiss Space Systems Holding SA – S3, a company which is planning to perform parabolic flights worldwide and is developing an innovative air launched suborbital Shuttle – Sub-Orbital Aircraft Reusable (SOAR) - that will allow for delivery of small satellites into low Earth orbit and for the operation of sub-orbital flights. Being extremely interested in both topics Ntorina, is involved in the establishment of the framework for the operation of these missions under the scope of aviation and space law.

Natalia Archinard

Dr. Natália Archinard was seconded by the State of Geneva to the Space Programme Office of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 2005. In 2006, she joined the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs in Berne where she has since dealt with science and space policy with a focus on international relations. Her responsibilities include leading the Swiss delegation at the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) as well as representing Switzerland in the process led by the European Union (EU) with regards a proposal for an International Code of Conduct on space activities. As a Swiss delegate to the European Space Agency (ESA) and to the former ESA-EU High-Level Space Policy Group, she has developed a cross-cutting view on European and global space policies as well as on space security issues. She is involved in the Swiss space policy and contributes to the national positions on outer space in the disarmament forums. Dr. Archinard was educated in mathematics at the University of Geneva and at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich where she obtained her Ph.D. in 2000. She was postdoctoral fellow at McGill University, Montreal, from 2001 to 2002. A Biographies of Contributors 607

Werner Balogh

Dr. Werner Balogh is a Programme Officer with the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) in Vienna, Austria. In this role, he serviced meetings of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and is presently coordinating and organizing capacity building activities in space science, technology and its applications under the United Nations Programme on Space Applications. He first joined the United Nations in 1997 as an Associate Expert on Space Applications and participated in the planning and organizing of the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE III), held in 1999. Before returning to the United Nations in 2006, Dr. Balogh worked for the Austrian Space Agency and for the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). He holds Dipl.-Ing. and Dr. degrees in technical physics from the Vienna University of Technology, a MSc degree in space studies from the International Space University and a MA degree in international relations from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy.

Sandy Belle Habchi

Ms. Sandy Belle Habchi obtained her Bachelor of Laws degree from the University of Nicosia, Cyprus, after which she assumed the position of a Corporate Officer at Papantoniou & Papantoniou LLC, Cyprus, where she dealt with international clients looking to expand their businesses and offices in Cyprus. She then pursued a Master of Laws at the Institute of Air and Space Law, McGill University, Canada, with a focus on “Criminal Litigation in Aviation following an Accident/Incident and its effect on the Investigation Process” for her thesis. Upon her admission at McGill University, she was awarded the Professor Masao Sekiguchi Fellowship in Air and Space Law. Ms. Habchi holds the position of Research Assistant at the Institute, where she edited and revised chapters in Professor Paul Stephen Dempsey’s upcoming edition of Public International Air Law book. She is also an Assistant Editor of the Annals of Air and Space Law, a Teaching Assistant in the graduate level course Comparative Air Law, and Research, and Administrative Assistant for the Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space (MILAMOS) project.

Duncan Blake

Wing Commander Duncan Blake has been a Legal Officer in the Royal Australian Air Force for the past 22 years working at the tactical, operational and strategic levels at home and on deployment overseas. He has also been a prosecutor for the military. He served as the Deputy Director of Operations and International Law for the Australian Department of Defence, providing operations and international law advice and support at the highest levels within Defence and across government. More recently, Duncan was legal advisor to the Defence Space Coordinating Office and he chaired inter-departmental and international working groups in respect of strategic space law. 608 A Biographies of Contributors

Duncan has contributed widely to legal aspects of military space policy and strategy within the Department of Defence, and has also written several articles in this area (one of which earned the Lieber Society Military Prize in 2011). Duncan recently transferred out of the permanent Air Force in order to commit himself more fully to the MILAMOS Project (www.mcgill.ca/milamos) and his Ph.D., but he continues to contribute to the Australian Department of Defence as a Reserve Legal Officer. He is also starting a consultancy in law and strategy for aerospace services to create a better-connected world. Duncan has undergraduate degrees in Law and Economics from the University of Western Australia, a Master of Laws degree from the University of Melbourne and a Master of Laws degree from McGill University.

P.J. Blount

Dr. P.J. Blount (Ph.D., Global Affairs, Rutgers University, 2016; M.S., Global Affairs, Rutgers University, 2015; LLM, Public International Law, King’s College London, 2007; J.D., University of Mississippi School of Law, 2006; B.A./A.B.J., University of Georgia, 2002) is an Adjunct Professor in the LLM in the Air and Space Law at the University of Mississippi School of Law. He also teaches at Montclair State University and New Jersey City University. Previously, he served as Research Counsel for the National Center for Remote Sensing, Air, and Space Law at the University of Mississippi School of Law. He teaches Space Security Law, International Telecommunications Law, Cyberlaw, Human Rights Law, Intellectual Property, and US Foreign Policy. Blount’s primary research areas are legal issues related to space security and cyberspace governance. He has published and presented widely on the topic of space security law and has given expert testimony on space traffic management before the House of Representatives Subcommittee on Space. Blount serves as the co-editor-in-chief of the Proceedings of the IISL; as the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Space Law; and as an editorial board member of the Journal of Astrosociology. Additionally, he serves on the Board of Directors of the International Institute of Space Law and participates as a judge in the Manfred Lachs Space Law Moot Court Competition. He is a member of the State Bar of Georgia.

Ulrike Bohlmann

Dr. Ulrike M. Bohlmann is a German Attorney working for the European Space Agency since 2002. She joined ESA’s Strategy Department in 2015, where she is involved in a number of transversal files, including the preparation of Council meetings at Ministerial level. In addition, she provides the entry point for a number of Member States, establishing systematic exchanges and supporting effective relations. From 2002 to 2015, she held a position in ESA’s Legal Department, where she advised the Agency on legal solutions concerning the carrying out of space programs. She prepared, negoti- A Biographies of Contributors 609 ated and presented to ESA’s delegate bodies international cooperation agreements and internal policy documents. Ulrike represented ESA at the UNCOPUOS Legal Sub-Committee and several other international conferences. In the institutional field, she managed legal disputes and represented ESA in these proceedings. She was in charge of proposing ESA’s IPR policy and provided legal advice on the interpretation and application of the ESA Convention. She has published a book on commercial space activities and intellectual property, a number of book chapters in the field of space law and general public international law, as well as numerous conference papers and articles in law and policy journals. Before joining ESA, Ulrike held the position of full-time Senior Research Associate at the Institute of Air and Space Law of the University of Cologne, where she also earned her doctoral degree magna cum laude. She continues to contribute to academic research projects, lectures regularly on space law and policy at university level and continues to publish regularly.

Tare Brisibe

Dr. Brisibe is an Independent Legal Consultant currently in private practice. A member of the Nigerian Bar, he was former Chairperson of the Legal Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, for the bien- nium 2012 to 2014. He began a career in 1991 practicing in civil litigation, general commercial law, mergers and acquisitions with two leading Nigerian law firms. A former Legal Adviser to the National Space Research and Development Agency of Nigeria, he served as a Regulatory Affairs Officer with mobile communications satellite operator Inmarsat Global, as well as aeronautical communications consortium SITA during which he was the Director - Regulatory Affairs for SITA subsidiary SITAOnAir. He previously held an appointment with a Luxembourg based law firm focused on space and communications. He has been involved with multiple expert working groups, as: Legal Expert (International Space Law Group) for the Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space; member of the Hague Space Resources Governance Working Group; peer reviewer for the NATO CCD COE Tallinn Manual (version 2.0) on International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare; member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, Advisory Group on Optional Rules for Arbitration of Disputes Relating to Outer Space Activities; member of the UNIDROIT Committee of Governmental Experts for preparation of a Space Protocol to the 2000 Cape Town Convention; and Vice Rapporteur of the International Telecommunication Union Development Sector (ITU-D) Study Group Question on Satellite Regulation for Developing Countries. He has been a: Visiting Fellow, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva (2011); Zhang Yong Fellow, Chinese Journal of International Law Research Group (2008); Recipient of the First Prize, Pacific Telecommunications Council Research Essay Contest (1999). He obtained a Master’s degree in Space Studies, from International Space University, Strasbourg and a Doctorate in International Law, from Leiden University. 610 A Biographies of Contributors

Julio Carbajal Smith

Julio Carbajal Smith received his Major in Law and a postgraduate degree in International Law at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Faculty of Law. Prof. Carbajal Smith has worked as Legal Expert on translation of English at Federal Conciliation and Arbitration Tribunal; Legal expert on International Law and translation of English at Federal Court of Tax and Administrative Justice; and as Sub-manager at Social Development Secretariat, managing an international contract with the Interamerican Development Bank. Recently, he has been included as member of METI Advisory Council, http://meti.org/advisors Prof. Carbajal Smith has taught International Law at Faculty of Law, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; and currently at Escuela Superior de Comercio y Administración Tepepan del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (Superior School of Trade and Management Tepepan, National Polytechnic Institute).

Michael Chatzipanagiotis

Dr. Michael Chatzipanagiotis is a legal advisor in Cyprus and an adjunct lecturer at the University of Cyprus. His areas of expertise comprise aviation and space law, consumer protection law, intellectual property, unfair competition, international law and banking law, in which he has also extensive advising and litigation experience. He is an external instructor of aviation law at the International Air Transport Association (IATA), while he holds seminars, presentations and guest lectures on specialised issues of his areas of expertise. He obtained his Bachelor’s Degree in Law (LLB) from the Law School of the National University of Athens, and his Master’s Degree in Law (LLM) and PhD in Law from the Law School of the University of Cologne, Germany. He speaks English, German and French.

Kuan-Wei Chen

Mr. Kuan-Wei (“David”) Chen is the Deputy Project Manager of the Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space (MILAMOS) Project at the Centre for Research in Air and Space Law of McGill University, where he is also a Course Lecturer at the Faculty of Law. Previously, Kuan-Wei served as the Editor of the Annals of Air and Space Law, and was the Co-Editor of Monograph Series I: Regulation of Emerging Modes of Aerospace Transportation, II: Emerging Trends in Aviation and Space Applications - Legal, Safety and Policy Issues, and III: Global Space Governance, all published by the Centre. Prior to McGill, he was a Teaching and Research Assistant at the Van Vollenhoven Institute for Law, Governance and Development of Leiden University; and the Coordinator of the Telders International Law Moot Court at the Grotius Centre for International Legal Studies. Kuan-Wei holds an undergraduate degree in Law and Politics from the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London, an LLM (cum laude) in Public International Law from Leiden University and an LLM in Air and A Biographies of Contributors 611

Space Law from the Institute of Air and Space Law, McGill University, where he was also the Boeing Fellow in Air and Space Law. He received scholarships to attend the International Space University Space Studies Program (SSP08) and the European Centre for Space Law (ECSL) Summer Course on Space Law and Policy (2007).

Allison Christians

Professor Allison Christians is the H. Heward Stikeman Chair in the Law of Taxation at the McGill University Faculty of Law where she teaches and writes on national, comparative, and international tax law and policy. She focuses especially on the relationship between taxation and economic development; the role of government and non-government institutions and actors in the creation of tax policy norms; and the intersection of taxation and human rights. She has written numerous scholarly articles, essays, and book chapters, as well as editorials, columns, and articles in professional journals, addressing a broad array of topics. Recent research focuses on the role of activists in reforming disclosure rules for multinational companies; evolving international norms of tax cooperation and competition; the relationship between tax and trade; and evolving conceptions of taxpayer rights. Professor Christians also engages on topics of tax law and policy via social media with her Tax, Society, and Culture blog and on twitter @taxpolblog.”

Maria D’Amico

Ms. Maria D’Amico joined McGill University, Faculty of Law in 1978 and is currently Senior Administrative Coordinator. Working full time under the umbrella of McGill’s Institute of and Centre for Research in Air and Space Law since 2009, Maria holds several responsibilities as financial administrator and marketing/conference manager for activities. Maria was awarded the Principal’s Award for Administrative and Support Staff in 2006-2007 and, most recently, was presented with the “Lifetime Dedicated Service Award” at the 65th Anniversary celebration of the Institute.

Eric Dahlstrom

Dr. Eric Dahlstrom is President of International Space Consultants, consulting on projects involving spacecraft design, space science, and space business. He is a space engineer and astronomer who has been involved with space projects for 30 years. He is on the faculty of International Space University. He worked on the design of the International Space Station for eight years at NASA Langley, where he analyzed design issues involving all engineering systems, as well as preliminary design of the interface with Russian systems. At NASA Headquarters, he was a co-author of the NASA Lessons Learned from Challenger 612 A Biographies of Contributors report and calculated the risk of another Shuttle accident. During the NASA studies of human exploration to the Moon, Mars, and the Asteroids, he helped coordinate transportation architecture studies at five NASA centers. Mr. Dahlstrom has supported entrepreneurial space companies such as Space Adventures, Constellation Services, TGV Rockets, Odyssey Moon Ventures, International Lunar Observatory Association, Moon Express, and Hypercubes. He managed team projects at Singularity University, which included Made in Space and other space startups. Recently, he served as an advisor to the NASA Frontier Development Lab, applying machine learning to mitigating the risk of asteroid impact.

James Dator

James Allen Dator is Professor Emeritus and former Director of the Hawaii Research Center for Futures Studies, Department of Political Science, and Adjunct Professor in the College of Architecture, of the University of Hawaii at Manoa; Co-Chair and Core Lecturer, Space Humanities, International Space University, Strasbourg, France; Adjunct Professor, Graduate School of Futures Strategy, Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology; Daejeon, Korea, and former President, World Futures Studies Federation. He is editor-in-chief of the World Future Review. He also taught at Rikkyo University (Tokyo, for six years), the University of Maryland, Virginia Tech, the University of Toronto, and the InterUniversity Consortium for Postgraduate Studies in Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia. He received a BA in Ancient and Medieval History and Philosophy from Stetson University, an MA in Political Science from the University of Pennsylvania, and a Ph.D. in Political Science from The American University. He did post-graduate work at Virginia Theological Seminary (Ethics and Church History), Yale University (Japanese Language), the University of Michigan (Linguistics and Quantitative Methods), and Southern Methodist University (Mathematical Applications in Political Science).

Philip De Man

Philip De Man is a senior researcher on international, national and European space law at the Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies, Belgium. He also lectures on these topics in the courses Space Law, Policy, Business and Management and Advanced Topics of Space Law, Policy, Business and Management at the Master of Space Studies programme at the University of Leuven, Belgium. He obtained his doctoral degree in 2015 for a dissertation on the exploitation of natural resources in outer space, which compares the ITU regime on satellite registration with the UN regime for resource exploitation. Philip has published extensively on international and European space law, the law of international organizations, international humanitarian law, international criminal law and other subjects. He is the Flemish coordinator for YouSpace, a Belgian platform for bringing space industry in contact with stu- A Biographies of Contributors 613 dents and young professionals with an interest in spacefaring. Previous professional engagements include the position of case manager at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and project manager on Horizon 2020 projects for the EU.

Frank De Winne

Frank de Winne is an astronaut who works for the European Space Agency from Ghent, Belgium. He currently serves as Goodwill Ambassador for UNICEF Belgium, Chairman, Space and Education Forum, and as a Member of the SESAR Scientific Committee. He was the first non-American pilot to receive the Joe Bill Dryden Semper Viper Award for demonstrating exceptional skills during a flight. He has been awarded the Medal of Friendship by the Russian Federation and also appointed Officier in de Orde van Oranje Nassau by Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands for showing leadership during operation Allied Force. He is a graduate of the Royal School of Cadets, Lier, Belgium,? and received his Masters degree from the Royal Military Academy, Brussels, Belgium. He also completed the Staff Course at the Defence College in Brussels, gaining the highest distinction. He also received the best thesis award from the Brussels Royal Military Academy in completing his MS in telecommunications and civil engineering. He is also a graduate from the Empire Test Pilot’s School in Boscombe Down, United Kingdom, where he was awarded the McKenna Trophy. After completing his pilot training with the Belgian Air Force in 1986, Frank flew Mirage V aircraft. He was detached to SAGEM in Paris, France in 1989 where he worked on the Mirage Safety Improvement Programme. He was responsible for preparing operational and technical specifications. He was subsequently selected to be an astronaut for the European Space Agency where he currently serves.

George Dietrich

George is the President of Dietrich Law Professional Corporation. He graduated from the University of Windsor Law School in 1989. He also holds Bachelors degrees in Science (Physics and Math) and the Arts (Political Science). He received his Masters in Law from McGill University’s Institute of Air and Space Law in 2002. He has been specializing in Personal Injury Law, Disability Law and Insurance Law since 1991 and has acted exclusively for plaintiffs since 1999. George is the President of SPACE Canada, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to the promotion of solar energy from space through support, encouragement and facilitation of international dialogue through education, research and commercialization. George is a former director of the Ontario Trial Lawyers Association and formerly served as chairperson of the Canada Pension Plan Review Tribunal. George resides in Kitchener, Ontario. 614 A Biographies of Contributors

Karl Doetsch

Karl Doetsch, BSC (Eng), DIC, PH.D., Hon Dr. Eng, ACGI, FCAE, FCASI, FCSSE, MIAA Karl has spent a career in aerospace leadership roles involving all major Canadian human space flight programs, international cooperation, education and outreach. He was a senior leader of the Canadian Space Agency both as Vice President and Acting President, and of Canada’s contributions to major international space programs, Canadarm for the Space Shuttle, the International Space Station and the Canadian Astronaut Program. He furthered international space education as President of the International Space University in Strasbourg France. As Chair of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Science and Technology subcommittee he led the implementation of recommendations for space activities to benefit all of humanity. He has provided sustained leadership in national and international space organizations, congresses and workshops. Karl has been recognized through honors for his contributions to the advancement of space activities on a number of occasions, including the naming of a theatre after him at ISU, an Honorary Doctorate of Engineering from Kingston University, the Royal Society of Canada Thomas Eadie Medal, the CASI CD Howe Award, the IAF Alan D Emil Memorial Award and the NASA Public Service Award.

Stephen Earle

Stephen Earle is currently the space traffic management lead and orbital debris subject expert for the FAA Office of Commercial Space Transportation. In that role, he is responsible for overseeing a variety of activities to promote and ensure orbital safety, including projects and initiative toward building a civil space traffic capability. He also supports the development of national space policy and advances safety issues for launch vehicles and on orbit safety. Stephen holds degrees from the US Air Force Academy, the University of North Dakota, and the Air Force Institute of Technology. During his Air Force career, he worked as a Missile Combat Crew Commander for the Minuteman ICBM, performed space surveillance and tracked ballistic missiles, space launches, and all low and mid Earth-orbiting satellites at a space surveillance radar facility, and at Cape Canaveral Air Station he served as the lead Air Force launch controller for numerous rocket launches to include missions to Mars and a Global Positioning Satellite. In addition to a number of headquarter assignments, Stephen’s last active duty assignment was as Chief of the Space Policy Branch on the Joint Staff where he worked countless national level space issues including national strategies, policies, and issues.

Lorna Jean Edmonds

Dr. Lorna Jean Edmonds is the Vice Provost for Global Affairs and International Studies at Ohio University. She also serves as a Professor of Health Sciences and Professions. Dr. Edmonds joined OHIO in 2013 after having worked in four of A Biographies of Contributors 615

Canada’s research-intensive universities. She served as the University of Toronto’s Assistant Vice President, International Relations; Executive Advisor, Research, University of Ottawa; Executive Director, International Research and Advancement, Western University; and Director, Research Services and the Director, International Center for the Advancement of Community Based Rehabilitation, Queen’s University. Dr. Edmonds’ expertise in higher education strategy, research performance, and globalization is based upon more than 20 years of experience in academia, government relations and international development. She has extensive international experience, working with universities, governments, industry and research funding and development agencies, and banks in more than 60 countries in Asia, the Americas, Europe and Africa. She received her Ph.D. from the University of East Anglia, UK; her M.H.A. from the University of Ottawa; and her B.A. (Sciences) at Queen’s University. Dr. Edmonds is widely published and serves on several international boards including National Academy of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine International Research Collaborations Working Group.

Kim Ellis

Kim Ellis, Director of Earth Space Technology Pty Ltd, is a qualified resource industry research scientist, lawyer and most recently recognized in 2015 as Adjunct Faculty of the International Space University (ISU). Kim’s career in Metals and Mineral Processing Research began with BHP- Billiton and then she was recruited by Rio Tinto Australia for their new Melbourne Research Centre at the Latrobe University Technology Park. Returning to work for BHP-Billiton Shortland Research laboratory in New South Wales, Kim worked almost exclusively on the Uranium technology team for Olympic Dam Pilot Plant Process development. When the BHP-Billiton technology team restructured, her work was transferred to the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation at Lucas Heights with the ANSTO Minerals research team. Her international research project on Asteroid Mining, roadmap and applications was published and presented at the International Astronautical Congress in 2010 and since then Kim has continued to work for the International Space University (ISU) publishing a range of legal and technical papers. She speaks regularly about Space Science and Technology for ABC Radio and on numerous television and radio programs both domestically and internationally. She is launching her own internationally syndicated science, technology and law talk radio program on the iHeartMedia network.

David Finkleman

Professor Dr. David Finkleman is an Academician of the International Academy of Astronautics and the International Institute for Space Law. He is an Emeritus Lifetime Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Astronautical 616 A Biographies of Contributors

Society, the International Association for the Advancement of Space Science, and Rotary International. He is Chief Engineer for SkySentry, which provides analysis and services for collaboration among aircraft, aerostats, airships, and satellites. He is a retired USAF Colonel, a retired Federal Senior Executives, and retired Senior Scientist for Analytical Graphics, Inc. Dr Finkleman is past chair of the Space Operations Working Group of the International Organization for Standardization. He earned his PhD. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dr Finkleman is distinguished in several fields: astrodynamics, aerodynamics, laser technology, computational physics, and operations research. He has published more than one hundred scholarly papers. His recognition includes the United States Defence Distinguished Service Medal and the AIAA Bronze Medal for Excellence in Aerospace Aerospace Standardization.

Donald Flournoy

Donald Flournoy, Professor of Telecommunications, Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University, is the founding editor (2002-present) of the Online Journal of Space Communication, and author of eight books, including Solar Power Satellites (Springer Science and Business Media, 2012). His early interest in space was sparked during the four years he served under T. Keith Glennan, founding Administrator of NASA, later to become President of Case Institute of Technology. Don Flournoy was Assistant Dean, Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, 1965-1969. Later, Associate Dean, State University of New York/Buffalo, 1969-1971, and Dean of the University College, Ohio University, 1971-1981.Prof. Flournoy was Education VP of the Board of Directors, Society of Satellite Professional International, 2002-2008, and currently serves as an Advisor to the National Space Society. He and his students have managed the international Sunsat Design Competition: Visualizing Space Solar Power, 2013-2016. He is responsible for the Ohio University designation by the NSS as a Center of Excellence in Space Solar Power and Power Beaming. His educational background includes the Ph.D. and M.A., University of Texas, 1964/1965; Postgraduate Associateship, University of London, 1962; B.A., Southern Methodist University, 1959.

Melissa Kemper Force

Melissa Kemper Force is General Counsel for Spaceport America. After obtaining her LLM in International Air and Space Law, she worked in the Office of Space Commerce in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and ran a successful consulting firm in Los Angeles, California where she provided legal advice on complex international policy and legal issues to clients in the commercial aerospace industry and taught Aviation and Space Law as an adjunct professor at Loyola Law School and Webster University. She is an elected member of the International Institute of Space Law (IISL) and Co-Chair of its Manfred Lachs A Biographies of Contributors 617

International Space Law Moot Court Committee. Prior to her consultancy, she was the Vice President and Associate General Counsel heading international and domestic claims for HOK, Inc. and a partner in the Los Angeles office of Carroll, Burdick & McDonough LLP. Ms Force has served as moderator, panellist and presenter for the Air Law Institute’s Air and Space Law Symposium, the American Bar Association’s Forum on Air & Space Law and the IISL’s Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space and has authored, published and presented papers on a wide array of issues, including space traffic management, space debris, extra-terrestrial resource extraction, the Moon Agreement and suborbital spaceflight in forums as diverse as the International Aeronautical Congress, the IAASS Space Safety Conference, the Canadian Space Commerce Association National Conference, the International Space Development Conference and the Global Space Exploration Conference.

Steven Freeland

Steven Freeland is Professor of International Law at Western Sydney University, Australia, where he teaches International Criminal Law, Commercial Aspects of Space Law, Public International Law and Human Rights Law. He is also a Visiting Professor at the University of Vienna, a Permanent Visiting Professor of the iCourts Centre of Excellence for International Courts, Denmark, a Visiting Professor at University-Toulouse 1 Capitole, a Member of Faculty of the London Institute of Space Policy and Law. He was a Marie Curie Fellow in 2013-2014. He has been an Expert Assessor of Research Proposals for Research Councils in Australia, Canada, The Netherlands, South Africa, and Hong Kong, and has taught courses at Universities in over 20 countries. He has also been a Visiting Professional within the Appeals Chamber at the International Criminal Court (ICC), and a Special Advisor to the Danish Foreign Ministry in matters related to the ICC. He has represented the Australian Government at United Nations Conferences and Committee Meetings and has been appointed to advise both the Australian Commonwealth Department of Industry, Innovation and Science, and the New Zealand Government, on issues related to the regulation of space activities. Among other appointments, he is a Director of the International Institute of Space Law and a member of the Space Law Committee of the International Law Association. He has authored approximately 300 publications on various aspects of International Law. He is a frequent speaker at national/international conferences, having been invited to present conference papers and keynote speeches in over 30 countries.

Danielle Fultz

Danielle Fultz is a graduate of the Honors Tutorial College at Ohio University, with a degree in French Language & Literature and History. She currently works in international education administration. 618 A Biographies of Contributors

Peter Garretson

Lt. Col. Peter Garretson is an Instructor of Joint Warfare at Air University’s Air Command and Staff College (ACSC), and lead for the Air University Center for Space Innovation (AU/CSI) Space Horizons Initiative, which seeks to “Re-imagine Spacepower in the Age of Asteroid Mining.” Lt. Col. Garretson has participated in numerous OSD and USAF wargames focused on Future Warfare and the role of space in future conflict. He is the former Chief of USAF Future Technology, and has served at the Defense Advanced Projects Agency (DARPA) as a Service Chief Fellow, and a Los Alamos National Laboratory as an Academy Research Associate. He has been a strategy and policy advisor to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force on Space and Great Power conflict in Asia. He was the first serving military officer to be detailed as a visiting fellow to Asia’s premier think-tank, the Ministry of Defense Funded Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis (IDSA) in New Delhi, India, where he worked with India’s President Dr. APJ Kalam on long-term US-India collaboration in Space. Lt. Col. Garretson has over 50 publications including on the topics of space governance, space policy, space based solar power, asteroid mining, planetary defense, strategic culture, and US military strategy and security cooperation in Asia.

Francesco Gaspari

Dr. Francesco Gaspari is Attorney-at-Law in Italy, Researcher and Adjunct Professor of European Union Law at G. Marconi University in Rome and with a Ph.D. in Law, obtained in 2011. Dr. Gaspari is Senior Research Fellow (and former fellowship holder) at Demetra Research Center based in Rome. In addition, between 2012 and 2013 he was granted a fellowship by the Italian Space Agency (ASI), and between 2009 and 2010, Dr. Gaspari was a Graduate Research Trainee (GRT) at the McGill Institute of Air and Space Law. In 2010 he did an internship program at the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) – ATB. Dr. Gaspari is also Author of more than 40 publications in well-known Italian and international journals and he is a Member of different international associations and organizations. Dr. Gaspari graduated in Law at Sapienza University of Rome in 2004 and obtained a Master of Law (SSPL) at the same University in 2007.

Bayar Goswami

Bayar Goswami is a student of Masters of Law at the Institute of Air and Space Law, McGill University (IASL). He finished his first law degree in the year 2015, with distinction and honors in Business Laws from Institute of Law, Nirma University, India. Currently, he is an Erin J.C. Arsenault Fellow at the McGill University, writing his thesis on international space law titled “Theorizing Cosmic Environmental Laws” dealing with cosmology and studying the Anthropocene epoch vis-à-vis the A Biographies of Contributors 619 international responsibility & liability. Presently, he is working as a Research Assistant to Professor Ram Jakhu and is closely associated with the research undertaken at the IASL. He has contributed in key research projects like the Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space and the Space Security Index, 2016.

Martin Griffin

Martin Griffin is the sponsor of GriffinAssist providing non-profit support to air navigation service provision in Africa. Prior to this, he worked in EUROCONTROL Brussels for 22 years including time within the Air Navigation Bureau ICAO, Montreal and as ICAO Director Air Navigation Services for Bosnia & Hertzegovina based in Sarajevo. During his EUROCONTROL career he was Head of Unit for Air Traffic Control Operations and Systems responsible for the development of future Air Traffic Control Systems. Before joining EUROCONTROl he was an operational Air Traffic Controller, training officer and examiner.

Andrea Harrington

Andrea Harrington serves on the faculty of the University of Mississippi Law School as Air and Space Law Instructor/Research Counsel and is a licensed Massachusetts attorney. She is also the Executive Editor for the Journal of Space Law. Andrea received an Erin J.C. Arsenault Fellowship in Space Governance and served as a Teaching Fellow at the McGill University Institute of Air and Space Law, where her doctoral research focused on insurance and liability issues for the commercial space industry. She holds an LLM, also from the McGill IASL, as well as a JD from the University of Connecticut, an MSc from the London School of Economics, and a BA from Boston University. While at McGill, Andrea earned numerous awards, including the: P.E.O. Scholar Award, IAWA Scholarship, SWF Young Professionals IAC Scholarship, and Setsuko Ushioda- Aoki Prize. Andrea has served as Assistant Editor for the Annals of Air and Space Law, Jr. Project Manager for Secure World Foundation, and researcher on projects for the FAA Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation, IAASS, ICAO, and Space Security Index. Prior to transitioning to air and space law, Andrea obtained a combined 5+ years of experience in the insurance and financial compliance fields.

Niklas Hedman

Niklas Hedman is Chief of Committee, Policy and Legal Affairs Section of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA). He serves as Secretary of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and its Scientific 620 A Biographies of Contributors and Technical Subcommittee and Legal Subcommittee. He is also Secretary of the United Nations Inter-Agency Meeting on Outer Space Activities (UN-Space), which is the central coordination mechanism for space related activities in the United Nations system. He is responsible for OOSA capacity-building activities in space law and policy. Before joining the United Nations in 2006, he worked in the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs, particularly in the areas of ocean affairs and law of the sea; space law and space policy; as well as disarmament and non- proliferation, including PAROS and the Hague Code of Conduct Against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (HCOC). He represented Sweden to COPUOS for 10 years and held various positions, including Chair of the UNISPACE III+5 report A/59/174. Mr. Hedman represented Sweden to the final rounds of negotiations on the International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (ISS-IGA), and was chief negotiator to the governmental framework agreement on space cooperation between Sweden and the United States of America. He is a member of the International Space Law Committee of the International Law Association (ILA), International Institute of Space Law (IISL) and International Academy of Astronautics (IAA).

Victoria Hipkin

Dr. Victoria Jane Hipkin is currently the Senior Program Scientist for Planetary Exploration at the Canadian Space Agency where she has been employed since 2005. She received her undergraduate degree in physics and a MSc in Remote Sensing and Image Processing from the University of Edinburgh, and a Ph.D. in Antarctic atmospheric science from University of Leeds and the British Antarctic Survey. She has extensive space mission experience through project and science team roles. In particular, she received the NASA Exceptional Public Service medal for her work as mission scientist for the Canadian MET instrument investigation on NASA Mars Phoenix Lander mission, and, before its cancellation, was briefly co-Principal Investigator for the Mars Atmospheric Trace Molecule Occultation Spectrometer selected for launch on the ESA ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. Recently her work has focused on planning and program development for the exploration of space. She serves as a Vice Chair on the COSPAR Planetary Protection Panel, and a member of the International Space Exploration Co-ordination Group Science Working Group.

Ram S. Jakhu

Ram S. Jakhu is Director of, and a tenured Associate Professor at, the Institute of Air and Space Law, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. He teaches and conducts research in international space law, law of space applications, law of space commercialization, space security, national regulation of space activities, law of telecommunications, and public international law. Dr. Jakhu heads a multi-million dollars research and outreach program for space law and policy. He served as A Biographies of Contributors 621

Director, Centre for the Study of Regulated Industries, McGill University, during 1999-2004. He also served as the first Director of the Master of Space Studies Program of the International Space University, Strasbourg, France, during 1995-1998. Professor Jakhu is Chair of the Management Board of the McGill Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space Project (MILAMOS); Member of the World Economic Forum’s Global Agenda Council on Space Security; Fellow of the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety; Managing Editor of the Space Regulations Library Series; a Member of the Editorial Boards of the Annals of Air and Space Law and the German Journal of Air & Space Law. In 2016, he received the “Leonardo da Vinci Life-Long Achievement Award” from the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety and in 2007 the “Distinguished Service Award” from International Institute of Space Law for significant contribution to the development of space law. Prof. Jakhu has co-authored three books, over 80 articles and 20 research reports and edited 9 books. He holds Doctor of Civil Law (Dean’s Honors List) and Master of Law (LLM) degrees from McGill University, Canada, as well as LLM, LL.B., and B.A. degrees from Panjab University, India.

Bhupendra Jasani

Bhupendra Jasani has an MSc in nuclear physics and a Ph.D. in nuclear physics and nuclear medicine, from the University of London. Between 1958 and 1972, he worked for the British Medical Research Council and then joined the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) in Sweden in February 1972. His main interests are nuclear non-proliferation and militarization of outer space. In 1984 he conceptualized the European Union Satellite Centre, an Agency of the Council of the European Union, one of the key institutions for EU’s Security and Defence policy. In 1990, he joined the Department of War Studies, King’s College London, University of London where he developed the use of commercial remote sensing satellites for applications to monitor multilateral arms control treaties (nuclear, chemical and conventional weapons).. He was a Member of the World Economic Forum’s Council on Space Security 2011-2014. He is an Adjunct Professor, Faculty of the International Strategic and Security Studies Programme, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India. More recently he was appointed an Adjunct Professor at the International Space University (ISU). He is on the editorial board of the Space Policy, a journal that specifically deals with all aspects of outer space activities. Apart from 25 scientific publications, he has published over 200 papers on nuclear and space arms control issues. He has written, edited and co-edited some 21 books and monographs on these subjects. 622 A Biographies of Contributors

Nandasiri Jasentuliayna

Dr. Nandasiri Jasentuliyana, a national of Sri Lanka, is President Emeritus of the International Institute of Space Law. He holds advanced degrees in Law and International Relations from Universities of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), London and McGill, and is an Attorney-at-Law. He holds a Graduate Diploma in Air and Space Law from the International Institute of Air & Space Law in Montreal, Canada, and has served as an intern at the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). He was formerly Deputy Director-General of the United Nations Office at Vienna and Director of the Office for Outer Space Affairs. He is the author of the four-volume Manual of Space Law (Oceana (1979)), International Space Law and the United Nations (Kluwer Law (1999)), International Space Programmes and Policies (North Holland (1984)); and Editor of Space Law: Development and Scope (Prager (1991)), and Perspectives on International Law (Kluwer (1995)). He has been a visiting lecturer at Princeton, Stanford, Columbia and McGill. He is a Trustee of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA), Member of the Board of Directors of International Space University (ISU), Member of the Bureau of the International Astronautical Federation (IAF), and served as a member of the Editorial Advisory Board of the Journal of Space Policy and the Journal of Space Law. He was the recipient of the 1982 Testimonial Award of the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) awarded annually in recognition of important contribution to Space Law & Policy and the 1989 Leadership Award of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA). He was selected by the United States National Space Society to its unique worldwide list of “100 space people who have had the greatest impact on our lives”.

Sanat Kaul

Dr. Sanat Kaul has been a Civil Servant in India for a span of 36 years. He has specialized in issues of Aviation, Space and Tourism. He was Joint Secretary in the Ministry of Civil Aviation and was on the Board of Air India and Airport Authority of India. He has lead India’s delegation to a large number of bilateral air service negotiations and has been instrumental in setting up of green field airports as well as leasing of airports in its early years. He was also India’s Permanent Representative to the Council of International Civil Organization in Montreal, Canada. During his stint at Montreal as India’s representative to the Council of ICAO, he also started a not-for-profit society called International Foundation for Aviation and Development (IFFAAD) and was its founding Chairman. On return to India, he opened a Chapter of the same foundation but as a separate legal entity. He is currently the Chairman of International Foundation for Aviation, Aerospace and Development (India Chapter). The society continues to hold seminars and conferences, the details of which can be found at www.iffaadindia.org. He was also Chairman-cum-Managing Director of Delhi Tourism & Transportation Development Corporation (DTTDC) from 2005 to 2007. Dr. Kaul has been writing regularly on aviation issues in leading newspapers in India and presenting papers in conferences concerning aviation and space governance. A Biographies of Contributors 623

He initiated the discussions in ICAO regarding sub-orbital flights and space tourism. His articles have been published in newspapers and books. Dr. Kaul has a Masters degree from the London School of Economics, a Ph.D. from University of London and a Graduate Diploma from the Institute of Air and Space Law, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

Icho Kealotswe

Icho Kealotswe is a legal consultant at Kealotswe Legal Consulting in Pretoria, South Africa. She is a legal researcher, policy analyst, and an advocate for space law. She is capable of handling company and government statutory, legal and compliance matters regarding aviation, space and telecommunications law. In her current consultancy, she conducts legal research, drafts pleadings and provides opinions for advocates and law firms. She also deals with formulation of space policy and provide advice and regulatory review to government departments and agencies. Icho Kealotswe holds LLB from University of Botswana, LLM from University of Pretoria, South Africa. She is advocate of the High Court of Botswana.

David Kendall

Dr. Kendall is the current Chair of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space for 2016-2017. During his professional career he has held senior positions with the Canadian Space Agency including as the Director General of Space Science and Space Science and Technology. He is also a faculty member of the International Space University based in Strasbourg, France. Dr. Kendall obtained his doctoral degree in Atmospheric Physics from the University of Calgary. After his Ph.D. he worked in private industry as an R&D scientist and then for the Canadian federal government, first with the National Research Council of Canada and later, with the newly created Canadian Space Agency. Dr. Kendall is an Academician of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA) and, during his career, has acted in various capacities on a number of national and international bodies, including the International Space University, the International Astronautical Federation, the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), UN COPUOS, the European Space Agency, IADC, and the Group on Earth Observations. In 2002, Dr. Kendall was awarded the Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal in recognition of his significant contributions and achievement to Canada.

Aram Kerkonian

Aram Daniel Kerkonian is currently an LLM candidate at Institute of Air and Space Law at McGill University’s Faculty of Law. Aram works as a Research Assistant to the IASL. In this capacity, he has drafted space-related policy reports for the Government of Canada, edited book chapters on both air and space law and is in the 624 A Biographies of Contributors process of organizing the upcoming 2017 Manfred Lachs Space Law Conference. Aram is also an Assistant Editor of the Annals of Air and Space Law and currently appointed as the IASL’s representative to the US Federal Aviation Administration’s Center for Excellence on Commercial Space Transportation. Prior to joining the IASL, Aram completed an Honours Bachelor of Arts degree at Queen’s University in 2011 and his Juris Doctor at the University of Windsor in 2014. During his studies, Aram spent a term at Harvard University and was selected as a member of the International Peace and Security Institute’s inaugural symposium on Post-Conflict Transitions and International Justice in The Hague, The Netherlands. Aram completed his articles as a judicial law clerk to the Ontario Superior Court of Justice in 2015 and was called to the Bar of Ontario as a licenced Barrister and Solicitor that same year. Aram is the recipient of numerous academic awards, the most recent being the Joseph A. Bombardier Scholarship in support of his research on the legal issues associated with the permanent human settlement of celestial bodies in outer space, awarded through the Government of Canada’s Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. Aram has also participated in several moot court competitions during his studies, through which he has been twice selected as Top Oralist as well as winning the North American rounds and having the Best Memorials in the World Finals of the Manfred Lachs Space Law Moot Court Competition.

Ivan Kosenkov

In 2008, Ivan graduated the Law Faculty of the Novosibirsk State University. In 2009 obtained Master’s degree in Space Activities and Telecommunications Law at the University of Paris-Sud XI (France). From 2010 until 2013, he worked in the main research institute of the Roscosmos (Russian space agency) - TsNIIMash. Since 2011, he is a Ph.D. candidate at the State Institute of International Relations in Moscow (MGIMO). His subject of research - international legal framework for space debris remediation. Since 2013, he works at the Cluster of Space Technologies and Telecommunications of Skolkovo - one of the leading development institutions of Russian Federation, promoting the development of private space activities. Main areas of his interest include space law, space economy and space policy in the changing technological and institutional environment of space activities.

George D. Kyriakopoulos

Born in Athens, Greece. BA in Law Studies, Faculty of Law, University of Athens. DEA in International Law, DEA in Political Science, Paris 2 University, France. Ph.D. in International Law, Paris 2 University (La sécurité de l’aviation civile en droit international public), which was awarded the Prix de thèse of the French Society of Air and Space Law. Attorney at Law, member of the Athens Bar Association. 1998-2002, Professor of International and Air Law, Military Aviation Academy. 2005-2006, Legal adviser A Biographies of Contributors 625 of the Minister of National Defense (Greek Government) in Air Law and International Law matters. 2008-2010, Member of the Greek Air Accident Investigation and Aviation Safety Board. 2009-, Expert, Committee for the amendment of the (Greek) Code of Air Law, Ministry of Transport. 2009-, Lecturer in International Law, University of Athens (Fields of teaching and research: Public International Law, Air Law, Space Law, Law of the Sea, Telecommunications Law, International Institutions). 2010-2014, Guest Lecturer in International Law, Law of International Institutions, Air Law, Space Law, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Law and University of Macedonia, Department of International and European Studies, Greece. 2011-, Member of the Board of Directors of the Hellenic Society of International Law and International Relations. 2014-, Visiting Professor in Air & Space Law, Panteion University, Athens, Greece. 2014-, Visiting Professor in Space Law, Université Nice Sophia Antipolis, Faculté de droit et science politique, France. Point of contact (Greece) for the European Center of Space Law (ECSL). Member of the International Institute of Space Law (IISL). Member of the International Study on Global Space Governance (GSG) currently undertaken by the Institute of Air and Space Law of the McGill University.

Tyson Lange

Mr. Lange is a senior lawyer with a major Australian law firm working on government and commercial matters. He graduated from the Australian National University in 2014 having completed a Juris Doctor (Hons) and Graduate Diploma in Legal Practice. Mr Lange wrote his honours thesis on ways to redefine the ‘province of mankind’ in the Outer Space Treaty. Mr Lange was awarded the 2012 Thomson Reuters Award for International Mooting, Advocacy and Process, mooting on a space law topic. Since 2008, he has worked in a number of commonwealth government departments specialising in defence, trade and international policy issues. Mr. Lange graduated from the University of Melbourne with a Bachelor of Arts in 2007.

Paul B. Larsen

Professor Larsen is Adjunct Professor of Law and attorney in private practice. He obtained his LLB from University of Cincinnati, LLM degrees from New York University and the Institute of Air and Space Law, McGill University, Montreal. Professor Larsen practiced law in the US Department of Transportation (1970- 1998) and provided counsel to the Administrative Conference of the United States and the Urban Institute. Professor Larsen was a research scholar of the Alexander V. Humbolt Foundation at the University of Cologne and at the Max Planck Institute for Private International Law in Hamburg (1997-1998). Professor Larsen was a US Delegate to UNCITRAL, IMO, ICAO, OAS, and bilateral negotiations. As Adjunct Professor at Georgetown University Law Center, Washington DC, since 1973, he has taught Comparative Law, Conflicts of Law, International Law, and Property Law in addition to the Space Law Seminar. Professor Larsen was an assistant 626 A Biographies of Contributors professor at Southern Methodist University School of Law from 1966 to 1969 and a visiting professor at Georgetown University Center in 1978.

Donna Lawler

Donna Lawler is Assistant General Counsel for Optus Satellite, an Australian satellite operator, and a member of the International Institute of Space Lawyers. Over more than seventeen years in the satellite industry she has had key involvement in the build and launch programs for six satellites on behalf of Optus and its parent company SingTel. These include the Optus C1 satellite, which is a hybrid civilian and military spacecraft, jointly owned by Optus and the Australian Defence Forces. Today she is relied on by Optus for advice on all legal aspects of its satellite business, including securing the use of orbital slots, advising on risk, liability and insurance issues for space-related projects and negotiating civilian and military satellite-related contracts. She has published joint papers on Space Law topics internationally and has been a presenter on commercial space law topics in Australia (including the International Space University’s Southern Hemisphere Space Program), Europe, South Africa, Canada and the United States.

Juqian Li

Ph.D, professor of China University of Political Science and Law (CUPL), Associate Dean of School of International Law of CUPL, Associate Director of International Law Center of CUPL, Executive Council-Member of China Space Law Institute. Ex-member in the WEF Space Security Council. Prof. LI has published about fifteen books and twenty articles on international law and international economic law, including Space Law (textbook for Taikonauts), Commentary on International Laws (Co-author), Legality and Legitimacy: China’s ASAT Test, The Bending Force of International Law, Progressing Towards New National Space Law: Current Legal Status and Recent Developments in Chinese Space Law and Its Relevance to Pacific Rim Space Law and Activities, Air Defense Identification Zone: the Restriction on the Free Sky due to the Residual Right Principle, WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism (monograph), Trade and Environmental Law Issues under the WTO (monograph). He also acted as the executive organizer of first Chinese national round WTO Moot Competition supported by the Ministry of Commerce, CUPL and SWUPL. He teaches many courses on international law to Chinese students and foreign students both in Chinese and/or English, such as Selected WTO Cases, International Law, International Trade Law, International Space Law Mooting, etc. As visiting professor, he taught Chinese Trade Law in Korea in 2004 and 2005 and Iceland in 2006. He is a frequent speaker in many international conferences and workshops, including Space Security Conference in UNOG. A Biographies of Contributors 627

Prof. LI graduated in 1999 in CUPL obtaining doctorate degree of law, specializing international law. His research field covers public international law, especially outer space law and WTO law. Dr LI obtained his bachelor degree on law in 1991, master degree on International Economic law in 1996 in CUPL.

Shouping Li

Prof. Dr. Li Shouping is a corresponding academician of IAA, professor of international law and the Dean of law school of Beijing Institute of Technology, the General Director of Space Law Institute of BIT. He is the Editor-in-Chief of Chinese Yearbook on Space Law. He is an executive director of Chinese Institute of Space law, a vice president of Chinese Association of EU law, the General Secretary of Beijing Society of International law. Prof. Li published a series of publications and papers on space law in China. Because of his excellent contributions in space law, he was awarded the New Century Talents by the Ministry of Education of China and one of Beijing Hundred Excellent Social Science Talents by Beijing local government.

Siqing Li

Siqing Li currently works at Slaughter and May, Beijing office. She graduated from the University of Oxford, Magister Juris program, and obtained her Bachelor of Law degree from China University of Political Science and Law. She began space law research when she competed in the Manfred Lachs Space Law Moot Court Competition in 2012, and later attended a number of international conferences, including IAASS and IAC. Her interests in space are space debris remediation, lia- bilities under space law and commercial space activities. Her thesis Legality of Non- cooperative Satellite Removal discusses the nature of active satellite removal and the justifications of such removal under international law.

Gil Lotan

Gil Lotan is General Counsel at Spacecom and leads Spacecom’s legal and regulatory team. Mr. Lotan joined Spacecom in 2002 from I. Gornitzky & Co., one of Israel’s leading law firms, where he was a senior attorney. Mr. Lotan possesses extensive experience in commercial law and transactions (national and international), as well as litigation. Mr. Lotan has co-authored the book Class Actions, and was awarded for academic excellence for an academic paper in this field. Mr. Lotan holds an LLB from the Law Faculty of Tel Aviv University, an MBA, with honors, from the School of Business of the College of Management and an Executive Master of Science in Finance from Baruch College of the City University of New York. 628 A Biographies of Contributors

Scott Madry

Dr. Scott Madry is the executive director of the Global Space Institute and is on the faculty of the International Space University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He has 30 years of experience in satellite applications, including natural and cultural resources management and disaster applications, integrating satellite remote sensing, GIS, and GNSS with ground and ancillary data. He is the author of two books and over 75 publications, and is the co-editor of the 1,200 page Handbook of Satellite Applications by Springer Press, and has presented over 150 courses and programs in over 30 countries around the world.

Maria Manoli

Maria Manoli is a doctoral candidate at McGill University, Institute of Air and Space Law, where she also pursued her LLM in Air and Space Law (2015-2016), during which she was an Erin JC Arsenault fellow (2014) in Space Governance and the recipient of the Nicolas M Matte award (2015). Currently, she is also an Erin JC Arsenault doctoral fellow as well as a Robert E. Morrow Fellow. Prior to her enroll- ment at McGill, she completed an LLM in Public International Law (2012) and an LLM in Civil Law (2013) at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, where she also obtained her undergraduate degree in Law in 2012. Maria Manoli is a registered lawyer at the Athens Bar Association and has worked for several governmental and non-governmental organizations such as the Court of Appeals in Athens (2012-2013), the Legal Counsel of Greece and the Hellenic Competition Commission (2014). In summer 2015, she interned at the Secure World Foundation (Colorado, US) as a junior project manager and conducted research on the legal aspects of space natural resources exploitation. Parallel to her doctoral studies, she is also working as a research assistant for the Institute of Air and Space Law at McGill University and her main research interests revolve around the legal aspects of the commercialization of space activities.

Peter Martinez

Peter Martinez has made several key contributions to the development of the South African national space program as well as national policy and regulatory development and capacity building. From 2009 to 2015, he was the Chairman of the South African Council for Space Affairs. He chairs the UNCOPUOS Working Group on the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities. He served on the UN Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence Building Measures in Outer Space Activities in 2012 and 2013. He is a Professor of Space Studies at the University of Cape Town and Associate Editor of Advances in Space Research. Member of the International Academy of Astronautics and the International Institute of Space Law. He is the author, coauthor or editor of 215 publications. A Biographies of Contributors 629

Kadriye Merve Bilgic

Kadriye Merve Bilgic has completed a joint civil and common law degree (BCL/ LLB) at McGill University’s Faculty of Law. Prior to law school, she completed a Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics and Political Science from Carleton University, graduating on the Dean’s Honor List. In law school, Merve was a legal intern at National Bank of Canada, as well as a Senior Editor at the McGill Journal of Dispute Resolution. As a law student, Merve was a strong advocate of being an active member of both the law school and local community. To this end, Merve volunteered for the Legal Information Clinic at McGill, and undertook a stage with Mile End Legal Clinic. Currently, Merve is an Assistant Editor at Annals of Air and Space Law journal.

Elina Morozova

Elina Morozova is Head of the International and Legal Service at the Intersputnik International Organization of Space Communications. Specializing in the field of international space and telecommunications law, she focuses on issues related to the use of the radio frequency spectrum and satellite orbits, operation of geostationary and non-geostationary satellites, provision of access to the satellite capacity and satellite telecommunications services. Elina Morozova earned two university degrees in law and economics from the All-Russian Academy of Foreign Trade under the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of the Russian Federation and holds an LLM in International Business Law from the University of Manchester. She is a member of the Russian Association of International Law, heads the working group for the revision of the regulatory instruments of the Regional Commonwealth in the Field of Communications (RCC) and serves as Director on the Board of the International Institute of Space Law (IISL).

Sa’id Mosteshar

Sa’id Mosteshar is Director and Professor of International Space Policy and Law at the London Institute of Space Policy and Law (ISPL), member of the UK Space Leadership Council (2010-2016), and Adviser to the UK Delegation to the UNCOPUOS. His memberships include the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety (IAASS), the International Institute of Space Law (IISL) and Fellowship of the Royal Aeronautical Society (FRAeS). A practicing Barrister and California Attorney, with degrees also in physics and econometrics, he has advised governments, international agencies and major space corporations on legal and policy matters for about thirty years. He is the recipient of the 2016 IISL Distinguished Services Award “in recognition of his outstanding services to the international community, to the developments in the field of Space Law both as an academic and a practitioner”. 630 A Biographies of Contributors

K.R. Sridhara Murthi

Prof. Murthi is currently Director of International Institute for Aerospace Engineering and Management at Jain University and adjunct faculty at National Institute of Advanced Studies Bangalore, India. He is a Vice President of IISL and also an advisor to MARS ONE initiative. He served earlier as a Senior Expert in the Office of Adviser to PM on Public Information Infrastructure and Innovations in India. He has 35 years of rich experience in the Indian space program and had driven space commercialisation, space policy and international cooperation.

Kiran Krishnan Nair

Wing Commander Kiran Krishnan Nair has been the Joint Director (Space Operations) at Air HQs, New Delhi since 2004. Additionally, he is deputed to undertake research duties at the Centre for Airpower Studies, New Delhi on issues related to outer space security and development. He has been dealing with space issues for the last 15 years and has also served on a variety of Space Committees and national/ international space projects of the Government of India. Academically, he obtained a BSc (Physics), MSc (Geo-Informatics) as well as an LLB and PG Diploma in Air and Space Law from the WB National University of Juridical Sciences.

Peter Nesgos

Peter D. Nesgos is a partner at Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy LLP in New York and has more than 30 years of experience working with the aerospace and communications industries and the financial and insurance communities in structuring commercial space and satellite projects. He has represented financial institutions, space manufacturers and satellite operators in numerous financings involving asset based and project financings, tax- motivated leases, manufacturer support, public offerings and private placements. He is a graduate of McGill University’s Institute of Air and Space Law (from which he holds Masters and Doctoral degrees in space law) and is an Adjunct Professor of Law at McGill’s Faculty of Law. A chairperson of and speaker at various space and communications conferences, he is also the author of the chapter titled “Satellites and Transponders” in the text on Equipment Leasing published by Matthew Bender & Company.

Yaw Nyampong

Dr. Yaw Nyampong is currently a Legal Officer within the Legal Affairs and External Relations Bureau of the International Civil Aviation Organization in Montreal, Canada. Previously he served as: Senior Legal Officer at the Pan African University, A Biographies of Contributors 631

African Union Commission, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; the Executive Director (Academic Associate) of the Centre for Research in Air and Space Law, McGill University, Montreal; and post-doctoral research fellow at the Faculty of Law, McGill University. He holds both a Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) degree and a Master of Laws (LLM) degree in Air and Space Law from the Institute of Air and Space Law, McGill University. He also holds a Qualifying Certificate in Professional Law from the Ghana School of Law (2000), and a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B) degree from the Faculty of Law, University of Ghana, Legon (1998). He is a member in good standing of the Ghana Bar Association and the Law Society of Upper Canada (Ontario). Dr. Nyampong practiced law first as a pupil and later as an associate in the Ghanaian law firm of G. A. Sarpong and Co. He has authored a book, co- authored and co-edited several book chapters and manuscripts as well as several articles published in professional peer-reviewed journals.

Alessandra Oliva

Alessandra Oliva graduated in International relations at Sapienza University of Rome in 2013 writing her final degree thesis in space law under the supervision of Professor Sergio Marchisio. She then attended the Masters in Diplomatic Studies at the Società Italiana per l’Organizzazione Internazionale (SIOI) in Rome and Naples. Between 2012 and 2013, she was selected for a six-month internship at the Inter-ministerial Committee for Human Rights at the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and she was granted a scholarship by Demetra Research Center based in Rome. Previously, from 2008 to 2010, Mrs. Oliva worked as Executive Assistant for the Italian National Committee for the World Energy Council for the organization of the 2009 G8 Energy Ministers Meeting (24-25 May 2009, Rome) in partnership with the Italian Ministry for the Economic Development. She also co-authored a number of papers in the field of space law, some of which in course of publication in conference proceedings, for instance the second edition (2014) of the Manfred Lachs International Conference in Montreal and the XXXVIII Jornadas Latino Americanas de derecho aeronautico y especial.

Deganit Paikowsky

Dr. Deganit Paikowsky holds a Ph.D. in political science from Tel Aviv University. Dr. Paikowsky is a senior researcher at the Yuval Neeman Workshop for Science, Technology and Security at Tel Aviv University. She is also a research associate at the George Washington University Space Policy Institute. Since 2012, she serves as a consultant to the space committee of Israel’s National Council for Research and Development. In this position she leads strategic planning relating to space policy, R&D and regulation at the national level. Her research examines the interconnec- tions between technology and international relations with a unique focus on space policy and security. 632 A Biographies of Contributors

Neta Palkovitz

Neta Palkovitz is an advocate, member of the Israeli Bar Association. Since 2011 she is the legal advisor of ISIS- Innovative Solutions in Space B.V., a Dutch company specializing in small satellites technology and launch services. She is also a Ph.D. candidate at the International Institute of Air and Space Law at Leiden University.

Dhananga Pathirana

Dhananga Pathirana is an Attorney from Sri Lanka and currently pursuing the LLM in Air & Space Law at the Institute of Air & Space Law at McGill University. Upon graduating from Sri Lanka Law College she was called to the Bar in 2013. Before commencing her studies at McGill, she was in the private practice and was focused on corporate matters, insurance and aviation. She is a Research Assistant to the McGill Institute of Air & Space Law and has contributed to the Space Security Index 2017 publication.

Dmitry Payson

Dr. Dmitry Payson is Director, Information and Research Center, United Rocket and Space Corp. (URSC) since 2014. His responsibilities include analysis and research as part of the national space activities reform. URSC is an ‘umbrella’ holding structure created in 2014 to manage the Russian government-owned space assets and to lead the space industry reform. Previously he worked as Director of Research, Space Technologies and Telecommunication Cluster, Skolkovo Foundation building the institutional support structure for 100+ space and telecom startup companies as part of the national level innovation effort, as well as participation in a number of public/government efforts for space industry restructuring and strategy planning. Dmitry’s other experience includes positions in the major research organizations of the Russian space industry. Dmitry’s research and practical activities play a significant role supporting the current restructuring processes in the Russian space industry as well as providing the basis for public-private partnership development in space field. Dmitry holds Engineer and Ph.D. degrees in Spacecraft Design from Moscow Aviation Institute and Doctor of Science in economics from the Central Economics and Mathematics Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences. He is IAA Full Member and Member of the ROSCOSMOS Science and Technical Council.

Walter Peeters

Walter Peters began his career holding management positions in construction and the petrochemical industry. In 1983, he joined the European Space Agency (ESA) in a number of project control and management functions, among others in the A Biographies of Contributors 633

HERMES project in Toulouse, France. Since 1990, he became involved in astronaut activities as Head of the Coordination Office of the European Astronaut Center in Cologne. Walters joined the International Space University (ISU) in 2000 as professor in Space Business and Management, and in 2005, he was nominated as Dean of ISU, and has since 2011 acted as the President of the ISU. Walters is the Director of IISC (International Institute of Space Commerce), an Isle of Man based think-tank, since 2009. He is also a Corresponding Member of International Academy of Astronautics, and a member of the editorial board of New Space Journal and Astropolitics. He is the author of articles on incentive contracting, project management and space commercialization, as well as the author of the book Space Marketing (Kluwer, 2000). Walters’ more recent research focuses on NewSpace, space tourism and commercial spaceflights. Walters holds a Bachelors degrees in Engineering and Applied Economics (Catholic University of Louvain), a Master of Business Administration degree (Louvain, Cornell University), and a Ph.D. degree in Industrial Organization, department of Aerospace (TU Delft, the Netherlands).

Joseph N. Pelton

Dr. Joseph N. Pelton is the former Dean and Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the International Space University with its main campus in Strasbourg, France. He is also the Director Emeritus of the Space and Advanced Communications Research Institute at George Washington University. He is currently on the Executive Board of the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety and chair of its International Academic Committee. He is the award-winning author and editor of nearly 50 books and over 300 articles in the field of space, satellite communications systems, future technologies and urban planning. Dr. Pelton has also served as Director of the Interdisciplinary Telecommunications Program at the University of Colorado-Boulder. He has also served in a number of executive capacities at Intelsat and the Comsat Corporation earlier in his career, including as Director of Strategic Policy and Director of Project SHARE at Intelsat. He is currently the principal of Pelton Consulting International based in Arlington, Virginia. He is a coordinator of Global Space Governance: An International Study. His principal project at this time is Chairing the Oversight Committee for the Satellite Gallery at the US-based National Electronics Museum and is to open in the late Spring of 2017. His latest books include: The New Gold Rush: The Riches of Space Beckon, Handbook of Cosmic Hazards and Planetary Defense, Handbook of Satellite Applications (2nd Edition), Space Mining and its Regulation, Small Satellites and their Regulation, and Launching into Commercial Space. His numerous books include Global Talk which was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and won the IAA Literature Award. In July 2013 he received in the United Kingdom British Interplanetary Society Award known as “The Arthur” in honor of Arthur C. Clarke. He also received the Arthur C. Clarke Foundation’s Lifetime Achievement Award in 2001. He is the Founder of the Society of Satellite Professionals, the Arthur C. Clarke Foundation and played a key role in the founding of the International 634 A Biographies of Contributors

Space University. He announced the formation of the Clarke Foundation at the White House in 1983 while he was acting a Managing Director of the National Committee for World Communications Year —a US presidential appointment.

Reuben Pessah

Mr. Reuben Pessah earned am M.A. in economics from Boston University and a Bachelor and M.A. in economics from Tel Aviv University. His research focused on industrial organization, labor and game theory. Mr. Pessah is currently researcher at the Research and Economy Department of the Israeli Ministry of Economy. Previously he served as the Chief Economist of the Department of Internal Trade and as Commissioner of Trade Levies. Mr. Pessah further served as panel member on WTO’s Dispute Resolution panel in a trade dispute between United States and Brazil.

Serge Plattard

Serge Plattard is Senior Resident Fellow at the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) in Vienna, Austria, since 2012, working on space governance, dynamics of exploration of the solar system, and space security. He is also Honorary Professor of University College London (UCL) since 2013 where he teaches in two Master courses. After earning a doctorate in nuclear physics (Université d’Orsay, 1973), he worked in low energy nuclear physics at the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) and in two American national laboratories. He then moved to S&T policy matters at the policy planning staff of the French Ministry of External Relations (1981-83), and returned to CEA (Directorate for Planning and Programmes, 1983- 87). Starting a career in science diplomacy, appointed deputy counsellor/counsellor science & technology in several French Embassies (1987-98) respectively in India, Japan, and the USA, serving one year as assistant director for science and technology cooperation of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1990). He became Director for international relations of CNES (1998-2003), CNES Deputy Director for Planning, Strategy, Programmes and International Relations (2003-04). Plattard served as the first secretary general/CEO of ESPI (2004-07), and was appointed Science & Technology counsellor to the French Embassy in London (2008-12). He was a French delegate to the European Southern Observatory (ESO) Council (1990-91), Vice-Chair of the Committee for International Relations of ESA (2003-04), and chairs the IAF Committee on Space Security since October 2015. Dr. Plattard is also life member of the American Physical Society, founding member of Euroscience, member of the International Academy of Astronautics. He is author/co-author of more than 50 publications/communications and a book Nucléaire, merveille ou menace? (1984). He is an alumnus of the French Institute for Higher Defence Studies (IHEDN), 56th national session, 2003-04. He lectured on nuclear physics (1976-1986) at A Biographies of Contributors 635

Université d’Orsay, economy of research and innovation (1984-85) at Université Paris-Dauphine, technology management and industrial innovation (1999-2002) at the French business school ESSEC. Plattard holds the Golden Rays in the Order of the Sacred Treasure (Japanese distinction, 1994), and is Knight in the Order of the Légion d’Honneur (1998).

Daniel Porras

Daniel Porras is currently an Associate for LMI Advisors (Washington, DC) where he advises clients on a wide range of international legal issues related to space activities, particularly in the fields of telecommunications and experimental equipment. Previously, Mr Porras was a Project Manager at the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (Geneva), focussing on outer space security and law. He was also an Associate Officer for UNIDROIT (Rome) where he worked on the Space Protocol, an international instrument for financing space assets. He has held a visiting fellowship at the Observer Research Foundation (New Delhi) and just completed his LLM in International Business and Economics Law at the Georgetown University Law Center.

Maria A. Pozza

Dr. Maria A. Pozza is a corporate and commercial lawyer based in New Zealand where she is part of the Lane Neave corporate team. Dr Pozza is recognised as a leading lawyer in space law within Australasia and also offers specialist legal services in aviation law, unmanned aerial vehicles law and technology law. She regularly provides specialist comments in the media, is an active presenter and published author, and her legal expertise has been called upon by a number of international and national institutions. Dr. Pozza’s reputation and work has been recognised by a number of prestigious awards including: the Peace and Disarmament Educations Trust Award; the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade Historical Research Grant; and, a visiting Lauterpacht Fellowship at the Lauterpacht Centre for International Law at the University of Cambridge, UK. Dr Pozza is the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand Advisor on Space Law.

Andy Quinn

Dr. Andy Quinn has over 30 years’ experience in the military and civil aerospace industry. He is the Managing Director of Saturn Safety Management Systems Limited based in the United Kingdom. His company specializes in providing System Safety Engineering and Safety Management services to the aerospace industry and 636 A Biographies of Contributors also the emerging suborbital and orbital commercial spaceflight industries. Andy studied suborbital spaceflight for his Master’s degree and then complete his Ph.D. with City University, London. Andy is currently undertaking contract work with Reaction Engines Ltd (UK) as interim Product Assurance Manager on the Synergistic Air-Breathing Rocket Engine development and has also conducted systems safety analysis as well as undertaking certification and regulatory-based work. He is also completed Spaceport Risk Assessments and regulatory framework aspects for the UK CAA and is working on safety and regulatory aspects for vertical launchers operating to operate from the UK. Andy is Chair of the IAASS Commercial Human Spaceflight Safety Technical Committee (CHSS TC) which aims to address the emerging issues of the nascent commercial spaceflight industry by providing ratio- nalized guidelines – the CHSS TC has thus far produced a Suborbital Guidance Manual and continues to provide position papers on current space topics.

Lucien Rapp

Prof. Rapp lectures at the Law School of the University of Toulouse where he has been holding a tenure position for 1988 and teaches international business law and competition law. He acts currently as the scientific director of SIRIUS (Space Institute for Research on Innovative Uses of Satellites), an academic chair created in 2013 by its three sponsors: CNES, Airbus Defense and Space (ADS) and Thales Alenia Space (TAS). Prof. Rapp is a member of several international scientific societies (including the International Institute for Space Law) and authored – to date - 10 books and a hundred scientific communications on various legal aspects of space communications. As an expert of legal issues relating to space matters, he has been appointed as: –– a member of the High Level Expert Group, in charge of amending the French legislation to the opening to competition on 1 January 1998 of the French telecommunications market activities (interconnection charges, universal service funding, regulation of the local network); –– a Director of the Summer Research Centre of the Academy of International Law in The Hague on Global Telecommunications; –– a member of the High Level Expert Group convened by the EU Commission on the Galileo project; –– a Chairman of the Working Group on Space Telecommunications, set up by the Ministry in charge of Space for the development of a French space law; –– a member of the working group “Space Law” created under the auspices of the French Conseil d’Etat (Council of State) to draft the Law on Space Operations (Act No. 2008-518 of 3 June 2008). Lucien Rapp has acted as an expert-consultant to several international organizations, including the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). Lucien Rapp was awarded the Academic Palms (Officer, 2009) and is a Chevalier of the prestigious Legion d’Honneur (since 2011). A Biographies of Contributors 637

Jana Robinson

Dr. Jana Robinson is currently Space Security Program Director at the Prague Security Studies Institute (PSSI). She previously served as a Space Policy Officer at the European External Action Service (EEAS) in Brussels, as well as a Space Security Advisor to the Foreign Ministry of the Czech Republic. From 2009 to 2013, Ms. Robinson worked as Resident Fellow at the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI), seconded from the European Space Agency (ESA), leading the Institute’s Space Security Research Programme. Prior to joining ESPI, Dr. Robinson served as Development Director at PSSI from 2005 to 2009, and administered its affiliate organization in Washington DC, PSSI Washington. Ms. Robinson is an elected member of the International Institute of Space Law (IISL) and the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA). She is also a member of the Advisory Board of the George C. Marshall Missile Defense Project of the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) in Washington, D.C. Ms. Robinson holds a Ph.D. from the Charles University’s Faculty of Social Sciences, Institute of Political Studies, in the field of space security. She also holds two Masters degrees, from George Washington University’s Elliott School of International Affairs and Palacky University in Olomouc, respectively. She received scholarships to attend the International Space University’s (ISU) 2009 Space Studies Program (SSP09), the 2008 Summer Training Course at the National Taiwan Normal University in Taipei, and a one-year course of study at Shanghai University 1999-2000.

George Robinson

George S. Robinson graduated from Bowdoin College in Maine, where he majored in biology and chemistry. He holds an LL.B. from the University of Virginia, School of Law, and LLM and Doctor of Civil Laws degrees from McGill University, Montreal, Canada. For twenty-five years, Dr. Robinson served as Legal Counsel at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, and pursued a broad law practice worldwide relating primarily to domestic and international science and business-related research activities. Before that, he served as an International Relations Specialist at NASA, and also as legal counsel at the Federal Aviation Agency/Administration in the US Department of Transportation. Dr. Robinson has authored over a hundred articles and books, including public and private international law relating to space activities, space commerce, and international aviation. Dr. Robinson has taught and lectured in law and business relating to space commerce at numerous universities in the United States and abroad. Dr. Robinson currently serves on the Editorial Boards of Advisors for the Journal of Space Philosophy and the Journal of Space and Evolution. He hosts at the COSMOS Club the Annual Eilene Galloway International Space Law Symposium co-sponsored by the University of Mississippi and the International Institute of 638 A Biographies of Contributors

Space Law (IISL), of the International Astronautical Federation. Dr. Robinson’s unique contributions to the development of domestic and international space law, the Institute of Air and Space Law at McGill University, annually awards the Ann K. George S. Robinson Space Law Prize.

John Rummel

Dr. John Rummel is a Senior Scientist with the SETI Institute in Mountain View, California, and a Visiting Scholar at McGill University’s Institute of Air and Space Law in Montreal. He retired as a Professor of Biology at East Carolina University in Greenville, North Carolina. Dr. Rummel is the former (and founding) Chair of COSPAR’s Panel on Planetary Protection, and a former member of the NASA Advisory Council’s Planetary Protection Subcommittee. In view of that experience, he participates as an observer for COSPAR in The Hague Space Resources Governance Working Group. He has also been an advisor to Mars One with respect to planetary protection and EVA systems. Previously, Rummel worked at NASA Headquarters (1986 to 1993 and 1998 to 2008), as NASA’s Senior Scientist for Astrobiology and as NASA’s Planetary Protection Officer (PPO). Between NASA assignments he was the Director of Research Administration and Education at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. He first served NASA as Exobiology Program Manager and Research Programs Branch Chief in the Life Sciences Division begininng in 1986, and was responsible for both the Life Support and Exobiology Implementation Teams under the US-USSR Joint Working Group in Space Biology and Medicine. A holder of eight NASA Group Achievement Awards, Rummel is also a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1990) “for leadership in fostering NASA-sponsored life science research,” the recipient of the Life Sciences Award from the International Academy of Astronautics (2005) “for significant and lasting contributions to the advancement of the astronautical sciences,” and was awarded the NASA Exceptional Performance Award (2008) “for outstanding management of space science programs…” He received his Ph.D. in Community Ecology and Evolution from Stanford University, and his undergraduate degree in Environmental Biology from the University of Colorado.

Daniel Sagath

Daniel Sagath, born in 1986 in Slovakia, is currently a full-time research Ph.D. at the VU University in Amsterdam, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration. His Ph.D. project is conducted in cooperation with the Netherlands Space Office (NSO) and the European Space Agency (ESA). In January 2012, he obtained M.A. degree in Political Science and European studies at the Palacky University in Olomouc, the Czech Republic. After his university studies, he A Biographies of Contributors 639 completed a several traineeships at the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) - Committee Service and Research Section, and at the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI). Before starting his Ph.D., he conducted eighteen months International Research Fellowship at the Director General’s Cabinet at the ESA’s Headquarters. Additionally, over the last years he actively participated at several conferences organized by the International Astronautical Federation or by the United Nations (e.g. UNESCO, UNCOPUOS). Throughout these last years, he developed a profound commitment to the European and global space policy research or/and small satellite programs management, business development and studies considering entrepreneurship in space sector. Over his academic career he already published or is a co-author of several reports, academic papers or book contributions considering the European space policy and entrepreneurship development, or the ESA Member States. These studies were published in peer-review or professional journals (e.g. Acta Astronautica) or edited book volumes published by the Routledge or Brill-Nijhoff. Additionally, he is a co-founder and currently acting as a vice-chair of the Slovak Space Policy Association and since 2016 he has been mandated as the Head of the Slovak delegation to the UN COPUOS Legal Subcommittee.

Lisa Saloukvadze

Lisa Saloukvadze is completing a Bachelor of Laws and a Bachelor of Commerce at the University of Adelaide. In 2015, Lisa was awarded an academic scholarship to participate in an intensive summer program at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, focusing on International and Humanitarian Law and specifically on the Arab/Israeli conflict. Lisa recently completed a semester abroad studying Business Law in a Global Context (LLM) at the Université de Montréal. While in Quebec, she became an active member of the Space Generation Advisory Council, a group focused on connecting young adults with the space industry and the United Nations.

Bruno Savoie

Before pursuing a joint BCL-LLB at the McGill University Faculty of Law, Bruno Savoie studied Literature at the University of Toronto. He is currently Assistant Editor of the Annals of Air and Space Law, and was previously associate editor for the McGill International Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy. He was also a research assistant for Professor René Provost at the McGill Faculty of Law. Bruno Savoie has worked for an international boutique law firm in Singapore and was an intern in New York City at an international criminal law NGO. He is currently on the board of Generation Centraide for United Way Montreal. After graduation, he will be working in the Toronto office of the Canadian law firm Borden Ladner Gervais LLP. 640 A Biographies of Contributors

Juliana Scavuzzi dos Santos

Juliana is the Chair of Space Policy and Law at the Canadian Space Society and the Aviation Environmental Specialist at ACI World, where she is the observer of ACI at the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP) and the Secretary of the ACI World Environment Standing Committee (WESC). Juliana has also worked at the ICAO Environment branch and has also contributed with the Brazilian National Civil Aviation Authority (ANAC) representation at the Brazilian Delegation of ICAO, including representing Brazil at the first ICAO Model Council formed by young professionals in 2014. Juliana has also done a Research Fellowship at the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) in Geneva in 2013. Ms. Scavuzzi has been member of the Brazilian Association of Air and Space Law (SBDA), since 2013, where she has contributed as a legal expert on several projects and has been part of the Brazilian delegation as an observer advisor to the legal subcommittee of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). Juliana has a Bachelor of Laws from UNICAP in Brazil, where she is a member of the Brazilian Bar since 2010, a Master of Science (MSc) in Juridical Science from UNIVALI in Brazil and a Master of Laws (LLM) in Air and Space Law from the Institute of Air and Space Law at McGill University (IASL), where she has been actively collaborating with research since 2011. Juliana is also an elected member of the International Institute of Space Law (IISL) and has several publications addressing space policy and law, aviation and environmental issues and human rights.

Francis Schubert

Dr. Francis Schubert is Chief Corporate Officer and Deputy CEO for Skyguide, Swiss Air Navigation Services Ltd., in Geneva, Switzerland. Francis Schubert serves as ex officio General Counsel for CANSO (Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation), President of EUROCAE (European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment) and is past President of the Swiss Air & Space Law Association. Francis Schubert started his career as an air traffic controller, and moved to other positions after several years of Air Traffic Control practical experience. His current responsibilities include international relations, corporate strategy and legal affairs for Skyguide. He is also Adjunct Professor at the Institute of Air & Space Law, McGill University, in Montreal, Canada and lecturer at the Faculty of Law of the University of Lausanne, in Switzerland. Dr. Schubert holds a Ph.D. in international aviation law from the University of Geneva and a Diploma in Higher Studies in International Relations from the Graduate Institute for International Studies in Geneva. A Biographies of Contributors 641

Christian Schwarz

Christian Schwarz is an engineer for instrumentation at the European Space Agency at ESTEC, NL. Previous posts included staff positions at DLR and in the semicon- ductor industry in the Munich area and in Upstate New York. His Ph.D. in Optical Sciences is from the University of New Mexico, and his Diploma in Physics from the LMU in Munich, Germany.

Clair Seid

Claire Seid is a senior sociology major with certificates in Diversity Studies and Teaching English as a Second Language in the Honors Tutorial College at Ohio University. She is a Margaret Boyd scholar, Multicultural Leadership Ambassador, and the president of Embody Consent. In her free time, she enjoys cooking, swim- ming, and playing in a band.

Alexandra Seneta

Alexandra Seneta is based in Canberra, Australia, at the (Commonwealth) Department of Industry, Innovation and Science, where she works on civil space issues, including application and review of the Space Activities Act 1998. Her work includes understanding Australia’s ‘story’ in space, as well as consideration of, and input to, developing the way forward. Previously, she worked at the Australian Communications and Media Authority, for the most part in satellite communication regulation. She has attended International Telecommunication Union World Radiocommunication Conferences; representing Australia in the treaty level negotiations regarding frequencies for communications; and worked to implement these treaty level arrangements into domestic law and policy. She has participated in bilateral and multilateral negotiations regarding satellite communications. Previously an on the road television news and current affairs reporter for SBS Television, she is also a graduate of UNSW law school, and a qualified legal practitioner. She is Faculty with the International Space University (ISU), having worked with the Space Studies Program, Southern Hemisphere Space Studies Program; and has previously been based at ISU in Strasbourg, France.

Tommaso Sgobba

Tommaso Sgobba is IAASS Executive Director and Board Secretary. Tommaso Sgobba has been IAASS co-founder and first President in the period 2005-2013. Until June 2013, Tommaso Sgobba has been responsible for flight safety at the 642 A Biographies of Contributors

European Space Agency (ESA). He joined the European Space Agency in 1989, after 13 years in the aeronautical industry. At ESA, Tommaso Sgobba initially supported the developments of the Ariane 5 launcher, several application satellites, and the early phase of the European Hermes spaceplane. Later he became Product Assurance and Safety Manager for all European manned missions on Shuttle, MIR station, and for the European research facilities of the International Space Station (ISS). He chaired for 10 years the ESA ISS Payload Safety Review Panel. Tommaso Sgobba is the ESA inventor of the R-DBAS (Re-entry, Direct Broadcasting Alert System), to alert the air traffic of fall- ing space fragments. Tommaso Sgobba holds an M.S. in Aeronautical Engineering from the Polytechnic of Turin (Italy), where he was also professor of space system safety (1999-2001). He has published numerous articles and papers on space safety, and co-edited the text book Safety Design for Space Systems, published in 2009, and served as Editor-in- Chief of the book Safety Design for Space Operations published in 2013. He is Managing Editor of the Journal of Space Safety Engineering and member of the editorial board of the Space Safety Magazine. Tommaso Sgobba received the NASA recognition for outstanding contribution to the International Space Station in 2004, and the prestigious NASA Space Flight Awareness (SFA) Award in 2007.

Venkatasubbiah Siddhartha

Dr. Venkatasubbiah Siddhartha during 2007-09 served on invitation of the Secretary General of the United Nations as a member of the Experts Group in New York of the Committee on UN Security Council Resolution 1540. Upon returning, Siddhartha served in 2009-10 with the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India as Scientific Consultant (Advanced Technologies). An Emeritus Scientist in India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation, he retired in 2004 after working directly with four Scientific Advisors to the Defence Minister of India over nearly twenty years. Dr. Siddhartha has been twice Consultant to the Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, on export control and S&T issues in international security, and on the Indian WMD Act, 2005. Dr Siddhartha served for some time as Secretary of the Science Advisory Council to the Prime Minister of India. He has also served with different arms of India’s S&T system including the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) as well as the Department of Science and Technology (DST). Dr. Siddhartha is a founder-member of the Institute of Social and Economic Change, Bangalore. He is a member of the Aeronautical Society of India, and of the United Service Institution of India, as also of several technology associations and bodies. He was Research Fellow at the Science Policy Research Unit at the University of Sussex, UK. He has served on the Editorial Board of the journal Current Science of the Indian Academy of Sciences. A Biographies of Contributors 643

Dr. Siddhartha holds a Ph.D. from the Imperial College of Science & Technology, London, and a B.Tech in mechanical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras.

Michael K. Simpson

Dr. Michael K. Simpson is Executive Director of the Secure World Foundation and former President of the International Space University. He has also been President of Utica College and the American University of Paris with a combined total of 22 years of experience as an academic chief executive officer. He currently holds an appointment as Professor of Space Policy and International Law at ISU. After graduating from Fordham University, Simpson accepted a commission as an officer in the US Navy, retiring from the Naval Reserve in 1993 with the rank of Commander. His naval experience included service as a Political-Military Action Officer at US European Command in Stuttgart, Germany. He is the author of numerous scholarly papers, presentations, articles and book contributions. His practical experience includes service as an observer representative to the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, participation in the IAF committees on Commercial Spaceflight Safety and Space Security, participating organization representative to the Group on Earth Observations and member of its Ministerial Working Group, the Board of Directors of the World Space Week Association, and the Board of Governors of the National Space Society. He also serves as Vice Chair of The Hague Space Resources Governance Working Group. He completed his Ph.D. at Tufts University, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, holds a Master of Business Administration from Syracuse University; and two Master of Arts degrees from The Fletcher School. He has also completed two one-year courses in Europe: the French Advanced Defense Institute (Institut des Hautes Études de Défense Nationale) and the General Course of the London School of Economics. He is a member of the International Academy of Astronautics, a member of the International Institute of Space Law and a Senior Fellow of the International Institute of Space Commerce.

Jai Singh

Jai Singh is a veteran of over 40 years in developing, implementing and managing advanced satellite communications systems (fixed, broadcasting, mobile, and navigation) and associated wireless businesses. His professional experience in India, Europe and the US covers engineering, procurement, programme management, regulatory/orbit-spectrum management affairs, business development and fund raising for major satellite programmes. He is now retired from full-time senior executive management and works part-time providing strategic advisory services to firms and investors in the development of new satellite communications systems and allied ventures and in associated acquisitions. His past professional assignments 644 A Biographies of Contributors include India’s Programme Director for INSAT for its first formative 11 years, Inmarsat’s first Manager for Navigation & Applications, first General Manager for Land Mobile Services and then an Executive Vice President, an EVP & the Programme Director in the initial years of ICO, and President & CEO of ASC in India. In 1995, he was elected a Member of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA) in its Engineering Sciences Section.

Lauren Small-Pennefather

Lauren Small-Pennefather joined the Public Service of Canada in January 1997, and has served in both science and international portfolios. She is currently Senior Advisor to the Director General, Space Utilization for the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). Mrs. Small-Pennefather holds a Bachelor’s degree in Science and Human Affairs, and the School of Community and Public Affairs (1995), and a Master’s degree in Public Policy and Public Administration from Concordia University (1997). She recently completed a Graduate Certificate in Air and Space Law at McGill University, Faculty of Law, Institute of Air and Space Law (2014). Prior to joining the CSA, Mrs. Small-Pennefather worked for Environment Canada, and Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. Spanning her 18 year career, Lauren has been instrumental in three major legislative projects including the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, the Species at Risk Act, and the Remote Sensing Space Systems Act. In May 2015, Mrs. Small-Pennefather was awarded the Alumna of the Year Award by Concordia University for outstanding professional and personal achievements and was named as one of five Concordia graduates making a difference in the world in 2016. Ms. Small is a member of the International Institute of Space Law (IISL) and the Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute (CASI).

Lionel Smith

Lionel Smith is the William C. Macdonald Chair at McGill University’s Faculty of Law. He is interested in all aspects of fundamental comparative private law. He is the author numerous articles, book chapters, notes and reviews, including The Law of Tracing (Oxford University Press, 1997); co-author of Waters’ Law of Trusts in Canada, 4th ed. (Carswell, 2012); contributor to Canadian Corporate Law: Cases, Notes and Materials, 4th ed. (Butterworths, 2010), Oosterhoff on Trusts: Text, Commentary and Materials, 7th ed. (Carswell, 2009); and editor of three works on comparative trust law. Lionel Smith is a Full Member of the Paul-André Crépeau Centre for Private and Comparative Law. He is also a member of the American Law Institute, the European Law Institute, the International Academy of Comparative Law and the International Academy of Estate and Trust Law. He is a non-practising member of the Bar of Alberta. In March 2014, he was a recipient of the Arts Council of Canada Killam Fellowship. He holds the following degrees: LL.B. Université de A Biographies of Contributors 645

Montréal; D. Phil., Lincoln College, Oxford; LLM, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; LL.B., Faculty of Law, University of Western Ontario; B.Sc., Faculty of Arts and Science, Trinity College, University of Toronto.

Cassandra Steer

Cassandra Steer is the Executive Director of Women in International Security (WIIS) Canada, and a Wainwright Junior Fellow at the McGill Faculty of Law. Formerly she was an Erin J.C. Arsenault Postdoctoral Fellow and the Executive Director of the McGill Centre for Research in Air and Space Law. Her current main research interest is the application of the law of armed conflict to military uses of outer space. Prior to coming to Canada at the beginning of 2015, Cassandra was a Junior Professor at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands for 8 years, teaching criminal law, international criminal law, public international law, and legal research methods. She holds a B.A. (Philosophy) from the University of New South Wales, undergraduate and LLM degrees in Dutch Law and International Law from the University of Amsterdam, and a Ph.D. in International Criminal Law. She has interned at the International Criminal Court under Judge Navi Pillay in 2004, and been a Visiting Researcher at universities in Argentina, Canada, Germany and the USA, where she was also a Fulbright Scholar. Currently she is the member for Canada on the International Law Association Space Law Committee, the Secretary of the IAF Space Security Committee, and a member of the International Institute of Space Law, Women in Aerospace, the Centre for International Peace and Security Studies, the NATO Association of Canada, and the International Society for Military Law and the Law of War.

Olga Stelmakh

Dr. Olga Stelmakh is a Postdoctoral Fellow in Space Governance at McGill Institute of Air and Space Law where she coordinates the International Study on Global Space Governance and conducts research on space sustainability and security. She also serves as a Global Partnerships Manager for the World Space Week Association. Prior to that, she was with the George Washington University’s Space Policy Institute, Parliament of Ukraine, German Aerospace Center, Ukrainian Space Agency and European Space Agency. Olga has been in the space sector for more than 13 years, of which 7 years as a public officer (including governmental and parliamentarian experience). In 2013, Olga was honored with the IAF Emerging Space Leaders recognition award and is a member of the International Institute of Space Law, Women in Aerospace, Global Diplomacy Lab and Global Future Council of the World Economic Forum. In 2015 and 2016, she judged the regional rounds of the Manfred Lachs Moot Court Competition and currently heads the Election Committee of the International Institute of Space Law. 646 A Biographies of Contributors

Institute of Space and Telecommunication Law (Paris) and International Space University (Strasbourg) alumna, she worked both nationally and internationally, combining public service with academic work and legal practice. She holds 2 LLM degrees, 2 Masters in Business and a Doctorate in International Law with concen- tration on Space Security. Her main scientific interest lies in the fields of space security, space governance, space diplomacy, international space cooperation and commercial space.

Ruth Stilwell

Dr. Stilwell is the Executive Director at Aerospace Policy Solutions, LLC. She previously served as the Industry Expert for Air Traffic Controllers to the ICAO Air Navigation Commission representing the International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers’ Associations, a position she held from 2010 through 2015. The Air Navigation Commission is the technical body serving the ICAO Council. Her experience in air traffic control includes 25 years of operational duty at the Miami Air Route Traffic Control Center, two years as liaison to the FAA Requirements Service and six years as Executive Vice President of the National Air Traffic Controllers Association. In addition, she served as founding chairperson of the Air Traffic Services Committee of the International Transport Workers Federation, a position she held for four years. She is a current member of the technical committee on Sub- Orbital Human Space Flight of the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety. Her academic background includes research and publication in diverse topics including integration of commercial space operations in civil airspace, projecting controller retirement and staffing requirements, the risk cost of ATC facility consolidation, and air traffic control financing. She earned her BA in Labor Studies at the National Labor College and her MPA and DPA at the University of Baltimore.

Charles Stotler

Charles Stotler is an Associate with Aviation Advocacy, a boutique consultancy that provides market insight, regulatory counsel and commercial consulting to aviation, aerospace and telecommunications stakeholders. Mr. Stotler has served as a Program Officer and Mirzayan Science and Technology Policy Fellow with the US National Academies’ Committee on Science, Technology and Law; as a legal intern with the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs and the UN Counter-Terrorism Executive Directorate; and as a policy intern with Aerospace Industries Association, assisting with representation of industry stakeholders on the ICAO Space Learning Group. He was a contributing researcher for the 2015 Space Security Index and is the author a growing collection of peer reviewed and other publications. Mr. Stotler is a member of the California and New York bars and the International Institute of Space Law. He served as the 2015 – 2017 Co-chair of the Space Law Interest Group of the A Biographies of Contributors 647

American Society of International Law. He holds a Master of Laws in Air and Space Law from McGill University and a Juris Doctor with a Certificate in International Legal Studies from the Loyola University College of Law in New Orleans, Louisiana.

Jinyuan Su

Jinyuan Su is currently a Professor at Xi’an Jiaotong University School of Law, China. His research interests lie in outer space law, the law of the sea, and international aviation law. Dr. Su holds a Ph.D. in International Law from Xi’an Jiaotong University. He was an Erin J.C. Arsenault Fellow (2014-2015) at the McGill Institute of Air and Space Law, a visiting research fellow (2009-2010) at the Lauterpacht Centre for International Law, University of Cambridge, and a visiting scholar (2008-2009) at School of Law, King’s College London. Dr. Su is a member of Governance Group of the Space Security Index (SSI), a Core Expert in the International Space Law Group of the Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space (MILAMOS) project, and a member (2016-2018) of the Global Future Council on Space Technologies of the World Economic Forum (WEF).

Kalev Tamm

Kalev Tamm earned his BCL/LLB from McGill University and has an LLM. in Taxation from the University of British Columbia. His academic interests focus on international tax law and policy. Mr Tamm has worked with the OECD’s Centre for Tax Policy and Administration on the BEPS Project and will be clerking with the Tax Court of Canada.

Su-Yin Tan

Dr. Su-Yin Tan is a Senior Lecturer and Director of the Applied Geomatics Research Laboratory at the University of Waterloo, Canada. She is a Faculty Member and chairs the Academic Council of the International Space University (ISU). At ISU, she has served as Co-Chair and Space Applications Department Chair of the Space Studies Program (SSP) and lectures at the Masters of Space Studies (MSS) program. Dr. Tan’s specialization is in geographic information systems, remote sensing, and spatial data analysis. She is a distinguished Gates Scholar and received her Ph.D. degree from the University of Cambridge (UK), two Masters degrees from Oxford University (UK) and Boston University (USA), and BSc (Env) from the University of Guelph (Canada). She was previously a Visiting Fellow at the University of Cambridge, Visiting Researcher at the Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford (UK), and member of Christ Church College. Dr. Tan has an interdisciplinary background in geospatial 648 A Biographies of Contributors technologies with applications in climate change, ecosystem modelling, and environmental health. In the past decade, Dr. Tan has received over 16 awards and scholarships, including a prestigious Presidential University Graduate Fellowship and Overseas Research Scholarship. Dr. Tan received the prestigious 2014 Outstanding Performance Award for exceptional contributions to teaching and scholarship, which recognizes the top professors at the University of Waterloo. Originally from Papua New Guinea, she has a diverse international background and built a record of teaching and research excellence in North America, Australia, Asia, South America, and Europe.

Leslie I. Tennen

Leslie I. Tennen is an attorney in private practice in Phoenix, Arizona, and has focused on space law matters for more than 30 years. He is a partner in Sterns and Tennen, the first law firm to be elected to membership in the International Astronautical Federation. Mr. Tennen received his Juris Doctor degree from the University of Arizona, and studied international and comparative law at the Hebrew University at Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem. He is a member of the State Bar of Arizona, and was awarded the highest score on the February, 1977, Arizona Bar Exam. He is admitted to practice before the United States District Court, the United States Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit, and the United States Supreme Court. Mr. Tennen was appointed by the Governor of the State of Arizona to serve as a Commissioner on the Arizona Space Commission from 1994 to 2000, and is a frequent lecturer at aerospace conferences and colloquia. Mr. Tennen has been a consultant and advisor on space matters to public and private organizations on the state, national and international levels, and has been a participant at workshops and congresses around the world. He has authored and co-authored several dozen articles which have been published in leading legal and scientific journals. He is a member of the International Institute of Space Law, and the International Academy of Astronautics. In 1998, Mr. Tennen was the co-recipient, with Patricia Margaret Sterns, of the International Institute of Space Law Award of Appreciation. Mr. Tennen received the International Institute of Space Law Distinguished Service Award in 2006.

Eytan Tepper

Dr. Tepper earned a double bachelor degree in Law and Economics from Tel Aviv University, a Master’s degree in law from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Dr. Tepper practiced law in Israel working mainly for the Bank of Israel and the Ministry of Economy (Foreign Trade Administration) and served as Vice-Chairman of the Israeli Bar Association’s Economic Forum. Recently earned a Doctor of International Law degree from China University of Political Science and Law. A Biographies of Contributors 649

Jean-Jacques Tortora

Since 1 June 2016, Jean-Jacques Tortora has been serving as the Director of the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI). From 2007 to mid-2016, he was the Secretary General of ASD-Eurospace, which is the trade association of the European Space Industry. From 2004 to mid-2007, he was head of the French Space Agency (CNES) office in North America and the Attaché for Space and Aeronautics at the Embassy of France in Washington, DC. Previously he was Deputy Director for Strategy and Programs, responsible for the Industrial Strategy of CNES, the French Space Agency. From 1998 to 2000, Mr. Tortora was adviser to the French Ministry of Research for Industrial Policy Funds management. From 1996 to 1998, he was appointed by Arianespace in Evry, France. From 1990 to 1996, Mr. Tortora was based in Kourou, French Guiana, as Head of Arianespace Operations Quality Department. Mr. Tortora started his career in 1984 at the French military procurement agency, DGA, as a naval weapons integration and test engineer, expert in signal processing and warships acoustic discretion.

Branislav Turcina

Branislav Turcina is an LLM candidate at McGill University Institute of Air and Space Law and an Erin J.C. Arsenault Master’s Fellow in Space Governance. He holds an LLM degree from the University of Cambridge, UK, and an LL.B. degree from The Hague University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands. Specializing in a variety of fields within public international law and European law, he acquired his professional experience working for the European Commission and Eurojust.

Brian Weeden

Dr. Brian Weeden is the Technical Advisor for Secure World Foundation and has 16 years of professional experience in space operations and policy. His wealth of technical knowledge and expertise allow him to provide critical analysis that supports development of space policy. In his current role as Technical Advisor, Dr. Weeden conducts research on space debris, global space situational awareness, space traffic management, protection of space assets, and space governance. He also organizes national and international workshops to increase awareness of and facilitate dialogue on space security, stability, and sustainability topics. He is a member and former Chair of the World Economic Forum’s Global Agenda Council on Space. Dr. Weeden is also a member of the Advisory Committee on Commercial Remote Sensing (ACCRES) to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Prior to joining SWF, Dr. Weeden served nine years on active duty as an officer in the United States Air Force working in space and intercontinental ballistic missile 650 A Biographies of Contributors

(ICBM) operations. As part of US Strategic Command’s Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC), Dr. Weeden directed the orbital analyst training program and developed tactics, techniques and procedures for improving space situational awareness. Respected and recognized as an international expert, Dr. Weeden’s research and analysis have been featured in The New York Times, The Washington Post, National Public Radio, USA Today, The BBC, Fox News, China Radio International, The Economist, The World Economic Forum’s Annual Meeting in Davos, academic journals, presentations to the United Nations, and testimony before the US Congress. Dr. Weeden holds a Bachelor of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering from Clarkson University, a Master of Science Degree in Space Studies from the University of North Dakota, and is also a graduate of the International Space University Space Studies Program (2007, Beijing). He has a Ph.D. in Public Policy and Public Administration from George Washington University in the field of Science and Technology Policy.

Edythe E. Weeks

Weeks is a professor, international scholar and author of Outer Space Development, International Relations and Space Law (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012). Her primary research examines the intersection between international law and international politics as it applies to international space law and policy and political exercises of power. She was elected into the International Institute of Space Law in 2004 and has been published in a wide variety of international scholarly journals including Acta Astronautica, Revue de Droit International de Sciences Diplomatiques et Politiques, and the Colloquium Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law. Weeks has participated in a IAC congresses in many countries and recently participated in the IAC2016 as the Fulbright Specialist to Mexico, to heighten the level of awareness and knowledge regarding space law, policy and the globally significant event. Weeks maintains a close working relationship with Institute of International Education’s Council for International Exchange of Scholars, specializing in strategies for institutional linkages to expand global reach. Weeks has a heightened level of expertise for developing and teaching in person and online courses, while for maintaining scholarly projects through remote technology. She is affiliated with three US universities, one Russian university and two Mexican universities. Weeks is a Fulbright Specialist Program alumnus, after successful completion of teaching appointments at Omsk F.M. Dostoevsky State University, in Siberia (2015) and Universidad Veracruzana, North American Studies Program, Escuela para Estudiantes Extranjeros in Xalapa, Mexico and Universidad de Guadalajara Pacific Studies Department, Social Sciences and Humanities Campus, Jalisco Guadalajara, México (2016). Teaching experiences include various projects to teach children A Biographies of Contributors 651 space law. She is committed to assisting people to reach their full potential as scholars and academics. Weeks currently serves as Adjunct Full Professor, developing and teaching space themed courses for masters in international relations students at Webster University and will develop and teach a new course at Washington University on US race and ethnic relations – from the original thirteen colonies into outer space. Weeks has been serving joint faculty appointments at Webster University and Washington University for over eight years. Weeks is currently researching how international space law can help create and expand polar law towards creating peaceful solutions as the Arctic region melts. Dr. Weeks holds a Ph.D. Political Science/International Relations, Department of Politics & International Affairs from Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff; a Juris Doctors from the University of Missouri-Columbia, School of Law, and a Bachelors in Economics, also from the University of Missouri-Columbia.

Chris Welch

Chris Welch is Professor of Space Engineering at the International Space University in Strasbourg, France. He started his professional career working as a space scientist at the University of Kent on the Giotto and Ulysses missions but later redirected his focus to the technical side of space activities in particular non-chemical space propulsion and its applications. Prior to joining ISU in 2011, Prof Welch worked for many years at Kingston University, London where he was responsible for Astronautics and Space Technology activities. During this period, he was also a specialist advisor on two government enquiries into UK space policy. Prof. Welch is a Vice-President, Council Member and Fellow of the British Interplanetary Society, a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, an Associate Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and a member of the Institute of Engineering and Technology and the Institute of Physics. Further, Prof. Welch is a Vice President of the International Astronautical Federation, with which has an association of more than 20 years, having twice chaired the IAF’s Space and Education and Outreach Committee and is a member of the Space Universities Committee and the Committee for the Cultural Utilisation of Space. In 2015, he was the recipient of the IAF Distinguished Service Award. Prof. Welch sits on the boards of the World Space Week Association and the Spacelink Learning Foundation and the Advisory Board of the Space Generation Advisory Council. In 2009, he was awarded the Sir Arthur Clarke Award for Space Education. Other board memberships include the Arts Catalyst and the Initiative for Interstellar Studies. Prof. Welch has BSc (Hons) in Physics from Cardiff University, an MSc in Space Physics from the University of Leicester and Ph.D. in Spacecraft Engineering from Cranfield University. Appendix B

BGlossary of Terms

ABM Anti-ballistic missile ABM treaty Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty of 1972. Signed between the United Sates and the Soviet Union with the objective of reducing the use of anti-ballistic missile systems. The treaty was signed in 1972 as a response to the use of anti- ballistic systems against ballistic missile nuclear weapons. The ABM treaty was terminated in 2002 when the United States withdrew from it. Absolute liability Absolute liability is attributed to States when the mere occurrence of damage is caused by States or organs under its jurisdiction and control regardless of the existence or degree of fault. Article II of the Liability Convention establishes the terms for absolute liability for damage caused by a space object of a State. See Limited Liability as defined in Article III. Access without discrimination Article I of the Outer Space Treaty establishes the principle of freedom of use and exploration of outer space in a non-discriminatory manner. The specific wording of Article I of the Outer Space Treaty “irrespective of the degree of their economic and scientific development” grants all States the same rights as to their access and use of outer space. Active debris removal Consists of various techniques used in order to remove orbital debris by changing their orbits or by somehow attaching to a derelict space object and directly removing it from orbit. Such techniques, for instance, can consist in grabbing debris and transferring them to other orbits, or changing their orbit through the use of ground-based laser technologies. Airspace There is no internationally agreed altitude that defines the altitude that is considered outer space as well as the demarcation between airspace and outer space. Commercial airspace is considered to reach from the ground to 20 km. The von Karmann line is the altitude where no winged vehicle can sustain itself (i.e., 100 km from the surface of Earth). At the altitude of 160 km a satellite does not have sufficient velocity to sustain itself in orbit. States have “complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above [their] territory” as per Article 1 of the Chicago Convention. This is not entirely clear in its meaning as to altitude, but clearly this covers commercial air space up to 20 km and presumably higher

areas that are used for military aircraft and will be used by supersonic and hypersonic aircraft. ALC African Leadership Conference on Space Science and Technology for Sustainable Development ANC Air Navigation Commission ANSI American National Standards Institute ANSP Air Navigation Service Provider APRSAF Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum, a forum established in 1993 among Asia-Pacific regions for the purposes of enhancement of space activities of the region. Members of APRSAF constitute private companies and organizations, governmental bodies, international organizations as well as independent entities. It supports space-related projects and holds annual meetings and workshops. APSCO Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization. This organization expands to the area of Asia-Pacific and has as its objective the mutual cooperation in space technology and space applications among the States that are members to the organizations. Sixteen countries became members of the organization that was established in 1992, with the APSCO Convention signed ten years later, in 2002, and eight countries becoming formal Member States of the organization. ARMS African Resource and Environment Monitoring Satellite constellation ASATs Anti-satellite weapons – ground, air, or sea-based systems that use technologies in order to destroy or cease the function of satellites used mainly for military purposes ASETA Andean Telecommunication Enterprises Association ASTRO Autonomous Space Transport Robotic Operations ATC Air traffic control. Service used to control airspace through the use of ground- based systems with the capacity to direct aircraft for the purposes of collision avoidance and airspace traffic management. ATM Air traffic management: A series of systems that assist aircraft during depar- ture and landing operations as well as during flight, including meteorological systems and air traffic control (ATC) services ATS Antarctic Treaty System BeiDou Navigation Satellite System This is the Chinese satellite network that provides GNSS services. BMD Ballistic missile defense Bogota Declaration of 1976 Signed in 1976 by Brazil, Colombia, Congo, Ecuador, Indonesia, Kenya, Uganda, Zaire, the accord through which these States claimed sovereignty over the geostationary orbit above their territory, considering it as part of their airspace. The declaration was not received positively by the international community. BR Radiocommunication Bureau of the International Telecommunications Union BRICS An acronym used to cover the grouping of countries that include Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa CASIS Center for the Advancement of Science in Space CAST China Academy of Space Technology B Glossary of Terms 655

C-Band C-band spectrum for satellite communication CCA Canadian Commerce Association CCP Commercial Crew Program CCSDS Consultative Committee on Space Data Systems CD Conference on Disarmament. This forum was established in 1979 in order to negotiate the Biological Weapons Convention. Initially it had 40 Member States, a number that as of now has elevated to 65. It was “the result of the first Special Session on Disarmament of the United Nations Assembly held in 1978.” It current purpose relates to arms control and disarmament efforts. Although not considered as a U. N. organization, a representative of the U. N. Secretary- General contributes as well the secretary general of the conference. CEA Space Conference of the Americas CGSIC Civil Global Positioning System Service Interface Committee Chicago Convention Convention on International Civil Aviation, Chicago, December 7, 1944. The Chicago Convention was signed in Chicago in 1944 and currently counts 191 States Parties to it. It established the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and introduced, among other things, rules and processes that relate to international coordination of safety and security in civil aviation, environmental issues, air navigation, and airport functioning. CIGS Copper Indium Gallium Selenide CME Coronal mass ejection CNES Centre national d’études spatiales, the French Space Agency CNSA China National Space Administration CoCoSL Cologne Commentary on Space Law “Common heritage of mankind” This concept in international law refers to certain areas of the globe that cannot be exploited or used by specific States or private entities unless they benefit humankind as a whole. The concept is embodied in Article 11(1) of the Moon Agreement in order to characterize the nature of celestial bodies and their natural resources, as well as in Article 136 of the U. N. Convention on the Law of Sea (UNCLOS) with regards to the Deed Seabed and its natural resources. COSMOS Moscow Aviation Institute’s International Center for Advanced Studies COSPAR Committee on Space Research. This committee was established in 1958 with its main objective to promote international cooperation in the scientific research that relates to uses of outer space, and its main goal is to achieve effective circulation of relevant information at the international level. It was established by the International Council for Science and hosts annual conferences, workshops, and assemblies. COSPAR PEX study Study of the Committee on Space Research, Panel on Exploration COSTIND Commission of Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense, China COTS Commercial Orbital Transportation Services CSA Canadian Space Agency CSLAA Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of 2004 656 B Glossary of Terms

Customary law Custom is one of the sources of international law (as per Article 38 of the ICJ Statute) and consists in State practice and opinio juris. Customary law could be defined as the whole range of rules that emerge from the practice that is followed by States and is believed to be binding without entailing the form of conventional law. Cyberattack Every effort (successful or unsuccessful) that uses a computer and any other kind of IT networks in order to cause partial or total dysfunctionalities and/or destroy those networks, which can be satellites. DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DEM Digital elevation model DEW Directed energy weapons Disaster Charter Charter On Cooperation To Achieve The Coordinated Use Of Space Facilities in the Event of Natural or Technological Disasters.Charter established in 2000 as a result of the discussions and proposals that took place over the UNISPACE III. The charter provides data in a timely manner and at no cost, and it has been activated almost 90 times. Entities such as GEO (Group on Earth Observations), (GMES) Global Monitoring for Environment and Security and STDM (U. S. Space Technology Disaster Management) contribute to the charter. DLR Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft und Raumfarht – German Aerospace Center DoC U. S. Department of Commerce DoT U. S. Department of Transportation Dual-use satellites/payloads Satellites and payloads that can be used for both civilian (mainly commercial) and military purposes simultaneously or alternatively. Due diligence Refers to a concept of international law, according to which States should consider the consequences of their activities before undertaking them and abstain from them if it is foreseen that they will cause harm or hinder activities of other States; or they should ensure to take all necessary measures in order to avoid such consequences. The same concept in the Outer Space Treaty character- izes the manner in which space activities should be undertaken. Due regard Refers to the obligation of States to undertake their activities in a manner so as not to cause harm to other States. The difference of the term from due diligence is that the former refers to the stage of operation, whereas the latter to the stage of preparation. In space law, the term is encountered in Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty. EC European Commission EEO Extremely Eccentric Earth Orbit or Molniya Orbit EGNOS European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service EMI Electromagnetic interference EMP Electromagnetic pulse ENAC Ente Nazionale per l’Aviazione Civile – Italian Civil Aviation Authority ENMOD Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques of 1977 EPFL École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne – Switzerland Equal non-discriminatory sharing/uses of outer space This notion was introduced in the corpus juris of space law with the Outer Space Treaty and later B Glossary of Terms 657

reiterated in the Moon Agreement and requires the equal participation of States to the sharing and uses of outer space “irrespective of their degree of economic and scientific development.” Equitable sharing/uses of outer space In contrast to an “equal sharing,” “equitable sharing” of the benefits that emerge from the uses of outer space refers to a balanced sharing according to the needs of the States and not blindly equal among all of them. The Moon Agreement establishes this notion as it refers to benefits that result from the uses of natural resources of celestial bodies. Erga omnes obligations Refers to prerogative norms of international law that cannot be disrespected, disregarded, or alternated by other norms of international law. Such norms can be part of customary or conventional law and may entail major concepts of international law such as the right to self-determination. ESA European Space Agency ETLFs Extraterrestrial life forms ETSI European Technical Standards Institute EU Draft Code EU Draft Code of Conduct of 2008 Eumetsat European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites EUTELSAT European Telecommunications Satellite Organization FAA Federal Aviation Administration. National aviation authority of the United States that is responsible for the “advancement, safety and regulation of civil aviation.” Within its jurisdiction fall also air traffic control (ATC) activities. A part of the FAA is the Office of Commercial Space Transportation, which is responsible for the safety oversight and commercial licensing of private space launches for the United States as well as, in a separate department, the promotion of the U. S. commercial space transportation industry. “Fair return” principle The principle used by ESA in the financing of its space activities, which contradicts the concept of the “best value for money principle.” It requires attribution of economic benefits to the ESA members equal to their respective contribution to the space activities. FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Fault-based liability In contrast to the absolute liability as founded in Article II of the Liability Convention, fault-based liability requires the existence of fault by the State in order to attribute liability to it. This kind of liability is provided in Article III of the Liability Convention FCC Federal Communications Commission, United States FIA Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile, Switzerland FIR Flight Information Region FOSA French Operations Space Act GA resolutions General Assembly resolutions GAGAN GPS-Aided Geo-Augmented Navigation system Galileo This is the European satellite network that is being deployed to provide GNSS services. GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GEO Geostationary Earth orbit. This is also to denote geosynchronous satellite network. See GSO that is also used to denote geostationary satellite orbit. 658 B Glossary of Terms

GGE Group of Governmental Experts GLONASS GLObal'naya NAvigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema. This is the Russian satellite system for GNSS service. GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety System GNSS Global Navigation Satellite Systems. These systems provide for precise positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) from a constellation of satellites in Earth orbit. GPS Global Positioning System. This is the U. S. MEO satellite system used to provide GNSS services GSO Geosynchronous Earth orbit HAND High-altitude nuclear detonation HAPS High-altitude platform systems HPOs High-Performance Organizations IAASS International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety. Established in 2004, IAASS is a non-profit organization that has as its objective the achievement of broad international cooperation for the advancement in the field of safety of space systems. IAASS was granted the status of observer at the UNCOPUOS. IAC International Astronautical Congress, which has annual meetings IADC Inter-Agency Space Debris Committee. International governmental forum for the coordination of issues that relate to manmade and natural debris in space at the international level. It was founded in 1993. IAF International Astronautical Federation IATA International Air Transport Association IAU International Astronomical Union, which means every three years IAWN International Asteroid Warning Network. Established in 2013, it was recognized by the UNCOPUOS with the GA Res. 68/75. Its purpose is to manage recommendations made with regards to response to risks emanating from near- Earth objects and asteroids. IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IC Infrastructure Committee ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization. Specialized U. N. agency that was established in 1944 in order “to manage the administration and governance on the Chicago Convention.” The ICAO adopts SARPs (Standards and Recommended Practices) through the member States to the Chicago Convention with the purpose of achieving safe, secure, economically, and environmentally sustainable aviation. It is comprised of the 191 States Parties to the Convention. ICC International Chamber of Commerce ICC International Criminal Court ICDs Interface Control Documents ICJ International Court of Justice ICOC International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities ICSID International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions ICT Information and Communications Technology IEC International Electro-Technical Commission B Glossary of Terms 659

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IEFT Internet Engineering Task Force IGC International Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems IGS International GNSS Service IHL International humanitarian law IISL International Institute of Space Law, founded in 1969 with the objective of promoting cooperation in order to foster space law development through cooperation with appropriate international organizations. ILC International Law Commission, established in 1948 by the U. N. General Assembly and since then has held annual sessions in Geneva with main objective of the effective codification of international law and its development. ILC Articles International Law Commission Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. Articles drafted by the International Law Commission concerning international responsibility was one of the 14 topics of its establishment in 1948. Between 1998 and 2000 the commission was preparing the Draft Articles on State Responsibility, which were later adopted by the General Assembly in 2001 with an annex to its Resolution 56/83. Although they have not been transformed into a treaty yet, and thus they are not binding, they are highly respected by States and international tribunals, as many of the provisions of the ILC articles codify customary international law. IMCO Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organization IMF International Monetary Fund IMO International Maritime Organization or International Meteorological Organization INMARSAT International Maritime Satellite Organization INTELSAT International Telecommunications Satellite organization International Charter on Space and Major Disasters Space data that relate to natural or manmade disasters. The data that the charter contains source from satellites such as Sentinel-1A, RADARSAT, ALOS, Landsat, Quickbird, etc., and are managed by agencies such as ESA, CNES, CSA, ISRO, NOAA, JAXA, in order to be used by States in need. IOAG Interagency Operations Advisory Group IRNSS Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System ISO International Standards Organization ISRO Indian Space Research Organization ISRU In-situ Resource Utilization ISS International Space Station ISS IGA International Space Station Inter-Governmental Agreement. Treaty signed in 1998 in order to establish “a long term international co-operative framework on the basis of genuine partnership, for the detailed design, development, operation, and utilization of a permanently inhabited civil Space Station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.” It was followed by 4 MoUs between NASA and each of the space agencies that participate in the ISS. The ISS IGA constitutes the main legal framework that surrounds ISS. ISS MoUs International Space Station Memoranda of Understanding 660 B Glossary of Terms

ISSF International Space Safety Foundation ISU International Space University. Established in 1987, the ISU constitutes an educational organization that provides courses on space-related topics, including space law and policy, on an annual basis. It is located in Strasbourg, France. ITARs International Traffic in Arms Regulations. Regulations that control the traffic (export and import) of articles and services that relate to defense purposes. They constitute, in essence, implementation of the 22 USC 2778 of the Arms Export Control Act and are issued by the U. S. Department of State. ITLOS International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea ITSO International Telecommunications Satellite Organization ITU International Telecommunication Union. Specialized U. N. agency for information and communication technologies. It is the oldest U. N. agency, as it was established in 1865. It is located in Geneva, Switzerland, and its legal framework consists of the ITU Convention, the ITU Constitution, and the ITU Radio Regulations. ITU Convention Convention of the International Telecommunication Union JAXA Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group J-SSOD JEM Small Satellite Orbital Deployer Ka-Band Ka-band spectrum for satellite communications KEW Kinetic energy weapons Ku-Band Ku-band spectrum for satellite communications Launching authority Entity that authorizes the launching of space objects into outer space. Notion distinct from the “launching State” and often linked to licensing entities. Launching State State that launches or procures the launching of a space object, or a state from the territory or facilities of which the launch takes place. (Article I of the Liability Convention and Registration Convention). LEO Low Earth orbit Liability Convention Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, March 29, 1972. After ten years of negotiations the UNCOPUOS Legal Subcommittee adopted the Resolution 2777 (XXVI) in 1971, which introduced the Liability Convention. The convention entered into force in 1972 and covers liability issues that emerge from space activities by distinguishing between absolute liability and fault-based liability. It is a victim-oriented treaty, as it provides for absolute liability for damages caused on the surface of Earth and fault-based liability for damages occurring in outer space. LTSOSA Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities MCTR Missile Technology Control Regime MDG U. N. project Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015 MENA Middle East and North Africa region MEO Medium-Earth orbit MILAMOS McGill Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space MIRACL Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser B Glossary of Terms 661

MOCs Memoranda of cooperation Moon Agreement Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, New York, December 5, 1979. The agreement was adopted by the GA in 1979 with Resolution 34/68 and reiterates many of the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty. It also introduces the concept of “common heritage of mankind” to relation to celestial bodies and their natural resources. MPEG Motion Picture Expert Group NAM Non-Aligned Movement NASA U. S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA is an independent agency of the executive branch of the U. S. federal government that is responsible for the civilian space program and undertakes aeronautical and aerospace research. Near-space Refers to the stratospheric regions above commercial air space and below outer space. The terms sub-space and the protozone are also used to refer to the upper regions of airspace where there is now an expanding range of new activities and transportation taking place. NEO Wise Near-Earth objects Wise NEOs Near-Earth objects/NEAs are near-Earth asteroids. These are “comets and asteroids that have been nudged by the gravitational attraction of nearby planets into orbits that allow them to enter the Earth's neighborhood.” (NASA) NEPA U. S. National Environmental Policy Act of 1970 NewSpace Activities and Commercialization Commercialization of outer space and NewSpace activities has not only spurred new space technologies but many innovations in design, use of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components, and lower cost ways of accomplishing space activities both for spacecraft and launch vehicles. The range of such new commercial space activities aimed at finding new faster, cheaper, and better ways of undertaking space missions is referred to as “NewSpace.” NFIRE Near Field Infrared Experiment NGOs Non-governmental organizations NIAC NASA Innovative Advanced Concept NMD National Missile Defense Systems NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Part of the U. S. Department of Commerce, NOAA is a scientific agency that was initially formed in 1807 and re-established in 1970 with the objective of warning about hazardous alterations of the environment and the oceans and informing about potential dangers. “No First Placement” The term refers to the U. N. GA Resolution 69/32, which was adopted in 2014 with 126 votes in favor, 4 against, and 46 abstentions. The resolution urges States to make unilateral declaration of “no first placement” of space weapons. NPT Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1970 NTIA National Telecommunications and Information Administration NTM National Technical Means of verification NTP Nuclear Thermodynamic Propulsion/Nuclear Thermal Propulsion 662 B Glossary of Terms

OATS Organization for Andean Telecommunication by Satellite OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development On-orbit servicing Refers to the installation, maintenance, and repair activities of an object in orbit (a satellite, space station or space vehicle, for example) in order to extend the life of the object or enhance its capabilities. On-orbiting servicing can consist of manned or unmanned missions. OOSA Office of Outer Space Affairs. Functions as part of the U. N. Secretariat and implements decisions of the General Assembly and of the UNCOPUOS. It was formed in 1962 and is located in Vienna. Opinio juris One of the two main elements that comprise custom. It refers to the perception of States that a certain behavior is binding upon them although not conventionally binding. Together with the “state practice,” it forms the elements of custom. Outer space There is no multilaterally accepted definition of what outer space consists of, mainly due to the lack of agreement as to the division between airspace and outer space. Although many theories present different perceptions (e.g., spa- tialist approach, functionalist approach, aerodynamic lift theory, etc.), the most commonly accepted point where outer space begins is 100 km above the surface of Earth (von Karman line). As a result outer space can be defined as the area above the airspace starting at approximately 100 km above the surface of Earth. Outer Space Treaty Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. Moscow, London, Washington, January 27, 1967: The Outer Space Treaty was opened for signature in January 1967 and entered into force in October 1967. The OST established the basic framework in international space law through core principles. It has currently been ratified by 104 countries. P3 Public Private Partnership Consortium PAROS U. N. GA Resolutions on Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space Peaceful uses From the outset, space law was focused on the uses of outer space for peaceful purposes. Although there is no specific provision that prohibits the use of space for military purposes it was generally agreed during the negotiations of the Outer Space Treaty that outer space can be used for military purposes as long as it was not in an aggressive manner. Hence peaceful uses can entail military purposes. PECS Program of European Cooperating States PHAs Potentially hazardous asteroids Planetary defense Term used to describe all the techniques, precautionary measures, and technological capabilities used or planned to be used for the protection of Earth from risks and dangers emanating from outer space. PNT Positioning, navigation, and timing service. This is also known as Precise Navigation and Timing service. Capability is provided by several GNSS satellite systems around the world. See also: GPS of the US, GLONASS of Russia, Galileo of Europe, the Japanese Quazi-Zenith Satellite network, the Chinese BeiDou system, and IRNSS of India. PPP Planetary Protection Policy B Glossary of Terms 663

PPWT Draft Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects of 2008 “Province of mankind” The concept of province of mankind was referring to outer space appeared in the outer space treaty and was later reiterated in the Moon Agreement. The term was meant to indicate that outer space was accessible to all states and to build foundations for a free use and access of outer space by all countries. PQR Scientific Planetary Quarantine Requirements Protozone Near-space or the so-called protozone can be characterized as the region below the altitude that a satellite can maintain orbit (i.e., 160 km) and above commercial airspace (i.e., 21 km). This area is currently not under any organized international regulation and control despite a number of new applications that are emerging with regard to the use of this stratospheric region. PTBT Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963. The PTBT is the abbreviated name of the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water (1963). The treaty prohibits all test detonations of nuclear weapons on Earth, in the airspace, and in outer space (except if conducted underground). The PTBT is the first international instrument that introduces binding rules that relate to outer space. Quasi-Zenith satellites This is a system deployed by Japan in what is also called a figure eight or 45 degree shifted geosynchronous orbit. This system is designed so as to provide navigation and mobile communications for Japan. Radio frequencies Radio frequencies are electromagnetic wave frequencies within the range of around 3 kHz to 300 GHz. They include, for example, frequencies used for communications or radar signals. Registration Convention Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, New York, November 12, 1974. The Registration Convention was adopted by the U. N. General Assembly in 1975 and entered into force on September 15, 1976. It mainly addresses the issues that can arise with respect to the State Parties’ responsibilities concerning their space objects and registration with the U. N. Office of Outer Space Affairs of spacecraft launched into space. Res communis a Latin term that was used in Roman law and refers today to the concepts of public domain and is often linked to the concept of “common heritage of mankind.” RF Radio frequency RFI Radio frequency interference Right to self-defense The right to self-defense refers to the right for persons to defend their lives or the lives of others by using reasonable or defensive force and constitutes one of the most fundamental rights encompassed in the U. N. Charter (Article51). RLVs Reusable launch vehicles: An RLV is a vehicle capable of repeating (more than once) the launching of a payload into space. ROCOSMOS The Russian Space Agency. RPAS Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems RPO Rendezvous and Proximity Operations 664 B Glossary of Terms

RR Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union RRB Radio Regulations Board of the International Telecommunication Union S&MA Engineering and Safety & Mission Assurance SARPs Standards and Recommended Practices represent a term used by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in coordinating international air safety and management procedures. S-Band S-band radar SBSP Space-based solar power SBSPS Space-based solar power satellites SDA Space Data Association. This is an organization headquartered in the Isle of Man that provides information among satellite operators as to orbital locations of satellites, particularly providing alerts as to possible conjunction of satellites. SDGs U. N. Sustainable Development Goals. These are 17 goals for 2030 that seek to improve and transform the world that were approved by the U. N. General Assembly. SGAC Space Generation Advisory Council SMPAG U. N. Space Mission Planning Advisory Group. The SMPAG was formally endorsed by the U. N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space at its fifty-sixth session in June 2013 and by the General Assembly’s sixty-eighth session in December 2013. The SMPAG has as its primary purpose the preparation for an international response to a near-Earth object (NEO) threat. SOAR Sub-orbital Aircraft Reusable. This is a project of Swiss Space Systems (S-3) that involves the ability for a small payload to be placed into orbit after release by the S-3 space plane, which is flown to high altitudes from a carrier airplane. SOEs State-owned enterprises Soft law Soft law can be contrasted with hard law. Contrarily to the latter, soft law does not have binding force. It can be described as a quasi-legal instrument. Solar flares/storms A solar flare or storm consists of a flash of brightness observed near the Sun’s surface that ejects clouds of electrons, ions, and atoms into space. Space flares are often accompanied by a coronal mass ejection. SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea convention Space/orbital debris Space debris refers to defunct manmade objects in space and objects caused by debris itself. Also known as space junk, waste, trash, or litter, it can consist of old satellites, spent rocket stages, fragments from disintegration, erosion, and/or collisions. Space object No specific definition exists in the body of space law for “space objects,” except for the clarification that “the term ‘space object’ includes component parts of a space object as well as its launch vehicle and parts thereof” in Article I of the Liability Convention. However, it is generally accepted in scholarship that a space object can be any object that is launched from Earth to outer space including all its components and parts. Spacefaring nations/(Non-)spacefaring nations Spacefaring nations are nations capable of being active in the field of space travel and/or transport through the operation of spacecraft and/or space planes. Non-spacefaring nations are not capable of undertaking such activities. B Glossary of Terms 665

SPDM Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator SPS-ALPHA Solar Power Satellite via Arbitrarily Large Phased Array SRCEU Space Resource Exploration and Utilization Act of 2015 SRTM-2 Shuttle Radar Topography Mission SSA Space Situational Awareness. The term refers to all the systems and programs that exist in order to enhance awareness of what are the exact functions of manmade and natural objects that exist in close proximity to Earth. For instance, the SAA program of the European Space Agency aims to support Europe’s independent utilization and access to space. It was authorized at the November 2008 Ministerial Council, was formally launched on January 1, 2009, and was extended until 2019. SSB Space Studies Board SSI Space Security Index SSTO Single-stage-to-orbit STM Space traffic management, which refers to a set of provisions that promote safe access to outer space together with operation in outer space and return from outer space to Earth free from radio-frequency and/or physical interference. STSC Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the UNCOPUOS Suborbital spaceflight A spaceflight whose trajectory intersects the atmosphere or surface of the gravitating body from which it was launched. Thus, while the spacecraft reaches space, it does not complete one orbital revolution. SWF Secure World Foundation TCBM Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol TFR Temporary Flight Restrictions TSTO Two-stage-to-orbit TT&C Telemetry, tracking, and control TVRO Television-receive only UAS Unmanned Autonomous Stations UAV s Unmanned aerial vehicles, aircraft that operate without a human pilot aboard. The degree of autonomy can vary as the flight of UAVs can operate under remote control by a human operator or by onboard computers (fully or inter- mittently autonomously). They are commonly known as drones or unmanned aircraft systems. UNCLOS U. N. Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982 UNCOPUOS U. N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. The UNCOPUOS was created by the U. N. General Assembly in 1959 and has as its purpose to review of international cooperation in peaceful uses of outer space, to encourage research, and to study legal problems arising from the exploration of outer space and space-related activities that could be undertaken by the United Nations. UNCOPUOS Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines A series of non-binding rules and suggestions issued by the UNCOPUOS in 2010 after years of discussions on the problem of space debris and on the risks that outer space poses. Although they urge States to limit debris caused by their space operations and minimize respective risks to the environment of outer space, they entail the form of guidelines/recommendations and thus cannot bid States to follow them. 666 B Glossary of Terms

UNCOSA U. N. Coordination of Outer Space Activities. Program with the responsibility to coordinate space activities at the U. N. level. UND University of North Dakota Aerospace UNECLAC U. N. Economic Commission for Latin America UNEP U. N. Environment Program UNESCAU U. N. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific UNESCO U. N. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCWA U. N. Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia UNIDIR U. N. Institute for Disarmament Research. The UNIDIR is a voluntarily funded autonomous institute within the United Nations that assists the international community in the finding and implementation of solutions to disarmament and security challenges. UNIDROIT U. N. Institute for the Unification of Private Law. UNIDROIT is an independent intergovernmental organization that studies the needs and methods for the modernization, harmonization and co-ordination of private and commercial law between states and group of states. It also formulates uniform law instruments, principles, and rules in this regard. It was originally created in 1926 (as an organ of the League of Nations) and re-established in 1940 (after the demise of the League of Nations). It currently counts 63 Member States. UNISPACE U. N. Conferences on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: The UNISPACE Conferences aim to provide a platform of global dialogue on issues related to space exploration and exploitation. They are organized by the United Nations to further the cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space between States and international organizations. The next event is UNISPACE+50, to be held in 2018. UNODA United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs: The UNODA, originally established in 1982 under a different name, became the UNODA in 2007. Its purpose consists of the promotion of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation, the strengthening of disarmament regimes regarding weapons of mass destruction, chemical and biological weapons as well as disarmament efforts with respect to conventional weapons such as landmines and small arms particularly used in contemporary conflicts. UNOOSA United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs: UNOOSA is a part of the Secretariat of the UN. It reinforces the decisions of General Assemblies as well as those of the UNCOPUOS. It was established in 1962 and is currently located in Vienna. UN-SPIDER United Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response: The UN-SPIDER is implemented by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) has for main purpose to provide universal access to all countries as well as relevant organizations to information (space-based) and services in with respect to disaster management. USAF United States Air Force USSTRACOM United States Strategic Command: The USSTRACOM is one of the nine Unified combatant Commands of the United States Department of Defence and it is charged with space operations, information operations, missile defence, B Glossary of Terms 667

global command and control, surveillance, intelligence, reconnaissance, global strike and strategic deterrence and combating weapons of mass destruction. Van Allen Belts The Van Allen Belts are the layers of energetic charged particles of the Earth. Such layers (or “belts”) are held in place around a magnetized planet by the latter’s magnetic field. VCLT Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969: The VCLT was adopted on 22 May 1969, opened for signature on 23 May 1969 and entered into force on 27 January 1980. It has been ratified by 114 States as of April 2014 and regulates the international law of treaties amongst States. WAAS North American Wide Area Augmentation Service WEF World Economic Forum: The mission of the World Economic Forum (a Swiss non-profit foundation for public-private cooperation) consists of the improvement of the state of the world by engaging diverse world actors such as business, political, academic, and other leaders of society in order to shape global, regional, and industry agenda. WHO World Health Organization WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization WMDs Weapons of Mass Destruction WMO World Meteorological Organization or World Maritime Organization World Bank The World Bank is an international financial institution that is a component of the World Bank Group, which also includes the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). The official goal of the World Bank is the reduction of poverty. WPTs Wireless power transmissions WRC World Radio-communication Conferences: World Radio-communication Conferences have for object the review and revision (if necessary) of Radio Regulations (the international treaty governing the use of the radio-frequency spectrum and geostationary-satellite and non-geostationary-satellite orbits). WTDC World Telecommunication Development Conference WTO World Trade Organization Appendix C

C The Texts of the Key Documents

1963: UNGA Resolution containing Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space. 1967: Outer Space Treaty (104 States Parties, 25 signatures) 1968: Rescue & Return Agreement (94 States Parties, 24 signatures, 2 acceptance of rights & obligations) 1972: Liability Convention (92 States Parties, 21 signatures, 3 acceptance of rights & obligations) 1975: Registration Convention (62 States Parties, 4 signature, 3 acceptance of rights & obligations) 1979: Moon Agreement (17 States Parties, 4 signatures) 1982: UNGA Resolution on principles related to satellite TV broadcasting 1986: UNGA Resolution on principles related to satellite remote sensing 1992: UNGA Resolution on principles related to nuclear power sources 1996: UNGA Resolution on principles related to space common benefits 2004: UNGA Resolution on the concept of the “launching State” 2007: UNGA Resolution on the guidelines related to space debris mitigation 2013: UNGA-Report of the GGE on TCBMs in Outer Space Activities 2016: UNGA Resolution on No First Placement of Weapons in Outer Space (130 favor, 4 against, 48 abstentions) UN Doc: A/RES/71/32 of 9 December 2016 2016: UNGA Resolution on prevention of an arms race in outer space (182 in favor, 4 abstentions) UN Doc: A/RES/71/31 of 9 December 2016

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1963: UNGA Resolution containing Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/principles/legal-principles.html

Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly 1962 (XVIII). Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space

The General Assembly, Inspired by the great prospects opening up before mankind as a result of man's entry into outer space, Recognizing the common interest of all mankind in the progress of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, Believing that the exploration and use of outer space should be carried on for the betterment of mankind and for the benefit of States irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, Desiring to contribute to broad international co-operation in the scientific as well as in the legal aspects of exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, Believing that such co-operation will contribute to the development of mutual understanding and to the strengthening of friendly relations between nations and peoples, Recalling its resolution 110 (II) of 3 November 1947, which condemned propaganda designed or likely to provoke or encourage any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression, and considering that the aforementioned resolution is applicable to outer space, Taking into consideration its resolutions 1721 (XVI) of 20 December 1961 and 1802 (XVII) of 14 December 1962, adopted unanimously by the States Members of the United Nations, Solemnly declares that in the exploration and use of outer space States should be guided by the following principles: 1. The exploration and use of outer space shall be carried on for the benefit and in the interests of all mankind. 2. Outer space and celestial bodies are free for exploration and use by all States on a basis of equality and in accordance with international law. 3. Outer space and celestial bodies are not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means. 4. The activities of States in the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried on in accordance with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations, in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international co-operation and understanding. C The Texts of the Key Documents 671

5. States bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, whether carried on by governmental agencies or by non-governmental entities, and for assuring that national activities are carried on in conformity with the principles set forth in the present Declaration. The activities of non-governmental entities in outer space shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the State concerned. When activities are carried on in outer space by an international organization, responsibility for compliance with the principles set forth in this Declaration shall be borne by the international organization and by the States participating in it. 6. In the exploration and use of outer space, States shall be guided by the principle of cooperation and mutual assistance and shall conduct all their activities in outer space with due regard for the corresponding interests of other States. If a State has reason to believe that an outer space activity or experiment planned by it or its nationals would cause potentially harmful interference with activities of other States in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, it shall undertake appropriate international consultations before proceeding with any such activity or experiment. A State which has reason to believe that an outer space activity or experiment planned by another State would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment. 7. The State on whose registry an object launched into outer space is carried shall retain jurisdiction and control over such object, and any personnel thereon, while in outer space. Ownership of objects launched into outer space, and of their component parts, is not affected by their passage through outer space or by their return to the earth. Such objects or component parts found beyond the limits of the State of registry shall be returned to that State, which shall furnish identifying data upon request prior to return. 8. Each State which launches or procures the launching of an object into outer space, and each State from whose territory or facility an object is launched, is internationally liable for damage to a foreign State or to its natural or juridical persons by such object or its component parts on the earth, in air space, or in outer space. 9. States shall regard astronauts as envoys of mankind in outer space, and shall render to them all possible assistance in the event of accident, distress, or emergency landing on the territory of a foreign State or on the high seas. Astronauts who make such a landing shall be safely and promptly returned to the State of registry of their space vehicle.

1280th plenary meeting, 13 December 1963 672 C The Texts of the Key Documents

1967: Outer Space Treaty (104 States Parties, 25 signatures) http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html

Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly 2222 (XXI). Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies

The General Assembly, Having considered the report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space covering its work during 1966, 1 and in particular the work accomplished by the Legal Subcommittee during its fifth session, held at Geneva from 12 July to 4 August and at New York from 12 September to 16 September, Noting further the progress achieved through subsequent consultations among States Members of the United Nations, Reaffirming the importance of international cooperation in the field of activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, and the importance of developing the rule of law in this new area of human endeavour, 1. Commends the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, the text of which is annexed to the present resolution; 2. Requests the Depositary Governments to open the Treaty for signature and ratification at the earliest possible date; 3. Expresses its hope for the widest possible adherence to this Treaty; 4. Requests the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: (a) To continue to work on the elaboration of an agreement on liability for damages caused by the launching of objects into outer space and an agreement on assistance to and return of astronauts and space vehicles, which are on the agenda of the Committee; (b) To begin at the same time the study of questions relative to the definition of outer space and the utilization of outer space and celestial bodies, including the various implications of space communications; (c) To report on the progress of its work to the General Assembly at its twenty- second session. 1499th plenary meeting, 19 December 1966. C The Texts of the Key Documents 673

ANNEX

TREATY ON PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE ACTIVITIES OF STATES IN THE EXPLORATION AND USE OF OUTER SPACE, INCLUDING THE MOON AND OTHER CELESTIAL BODIES

The States Parties to this Treaty, Inspired by the great prospects opening up before mankind as a result of man's entry into outer space, Recognizing the common interest of all mankind in the progress of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, Believing that the exploration and use of outer space should be carried on for the benefit of all peoples irrespective of the degree of their economic or scientific development, Desiring to contribute to broad international co-operation in the scientific as well as the legal aspects of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, Believing that such co-operation will contribute to the development of mutual understanding and to the strengthening of friendly relations between States and peoples, Recalling resolution 1962 (XVIII), entitled “Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space”, which was adopted unanimously by the United Nations General Assembly on 13 December 1963, Recalling resolution 1884 (XVIII), calling upon States to refrain from placing in orbit around the earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction or from installing such weapons on celestial bodies, which was adopted unanimously by the United Nations General Assembly on 17 October 1963, Taking account of United Nations General Assembly resolution 110 (II) of 3 November 1947, which condemned propaganda designed or likely to provoke or encourage any threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression, and considering that the aforementioned resolution is applicable to outer space, Convinced that a Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, will further the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, Have agreed on the following:

ARTICLE I

The exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind. 674 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall be free for exploration and use by all States without discrimination of any kind, on a basis of equality and in accordance with international law, and there shall be free access to all areas of celestial bodies. There shall be freedom of scientific investigation in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and States shall facilitate and encourage international co-operation in such investigation.

ARTICLE II

Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.

ARTICLE III

States Parties to the Treaty shall carry on activities in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, in accordance with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations, in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international co-operation and understanding.

ARTICLE IV

States Parties to the Treaty undertake not to place in orbit around the earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction, install such weapons on celestial bodies, or station such weapons in outer space in any other manner. The moon and other celestial bodies shall be used by all States Parties to the Treaty exclusively for peaceful purposes. The establishment of military bases, installations and fortifications, the testing of any type of weapons and the conduct of military manoeuvres on celestial bodies shall be forbidden. The use of military personnel for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes shall not be prohibited. The use of any equipment or facility necessary for peaceful exploration of the moon and other celestial bodies shall also not be prohibited.

ARTICLE V

States Parties to the Treaty shall regard astronauts as envoys of mankind in outer space and shall render to them all possible assistance in the event of accident, distress, or emergency landing on the territory of another State Party or on the high C The Texts of the Key Documents 675 seas. When astronauts make such a landing, they shall be safely and promptly returned to the State of registry of their space vehicle. In carrying on activities in outer space and on celestial bodies, the astronauts of one State Party shall render all possible assistance to the astronauts of other States Parties. States Parties to the Treaty shall immediately inform the other States Parties to the Treaty or the Secretary-General of the United Nations of any phenomena they discover in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, which could constitute a danger to the life or health of astronauts.

ARTICLE VI

States Parties to the Treaty shall bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or by non-governmental entities, and for assuring that national activities are carried out in conformity with the provisions set forth in the present Treaty. The activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty. When activities are carried on in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, by an international organization, responsibility for compliance with this Treaty shall be borne both by the international organization and by the States Parties to the Treaty participating in such organization.

ARTICLE VII

Each State Party to the Treaty that launches or procures the launching of an object into outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and each State Party from whose territory or facility an object is launched, is internationally liable for damage to another State Party to the Treaty or to its natural or juridical persons by such object or its component parts on the Earth, in air or in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies.

ARTICLE VIII

A State Party to the Treaty on whose registry an object launched into outer space is carried shall retain jurisdiction and control over such object, and over any personnel thereof, while in outer space or on a celestial body. Ownership of objects launched into outer space, including objects landed or constructed on a celestial body, and of their component parts, is not affected by their presence in outer space or on a celestial body or by their return to the Earth. Such objects or component parts found beyond the limits of the State Party to the Treaty on whose registry they are carried shall be returned to that State Party, which shall, upon request, furnish identifying data prior to their return. 676 C The Texts of the Key Documents

ARTICLE IX

In the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, States Parties to the Treaty shall be guided by the principle of co-operation and mutual assistance and shall conduct all their activities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, with due regard to the corresponding interests of all other States Parties to the Treaty. States Parties to the Treaty shall pursue studies of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of them so as to avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the environment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of extraterrestrial matter and, where necessary, shall adopt appropriate measures for this purpose. If a State Party to the Treaty has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by it or its nationals in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities of other States Parties in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, it shall undertake appropriate international consultations before proceeding with any such activity or experiment. A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment.

ARTICLE X

In order to promote international co-operation in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, in conformity with the purposes of this Treaty, the States Parties to the Treaty shall consider on a basis of equality any requests by other States Parties to the Treaty to be afforded an opportunity to observe the flight of space objects launched by those States. The nature of such an opportunity for observation and the conditions under which it could be afforded shall be determined by agreement between the States concerned.

ARTICLE XI

In order to promote international co-operation in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, States Parties to the Treaty conducting activities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, agree to inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations as well as the public and the international scientific community, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable, of the nature, conduct, locations and results of such activities. On receiving the said information, the Secretary-General of the United Nations should be prepared to disseminate it immediately and effectively. C The Texts of the Key Documents 677

ARTICLE XII

All stations, installations, equipment and space vehicles on the moon and other celestial bodies shall be open to representatives of other States Parties to the Treaty on a basis of reciprocity. Such representatives shall give reasonable advance notice of a projected visit, in order that appropriate consultations may be held and that maximum precautions may betaken to assure safety and to avoid interference with normal operations in the facility to be visited.

ARTICLE XIII

The provisions of this Treaty shall apply to the activities of States Parties to the Treaty in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, whether such activities are carried on by a single State Party to the Treaty or jointly with other States, including cases where they are carried on within the framework of international intergovernmental organizations. Any practical questions arising in connection with activities carried on by international intergovernmental organizations in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall be resolved by the States Parties to the Treaty either with the appropriate international organization or with one or more States members of that international organization, which are Parties to this Treaty.

ARTICLE XIV

1. This Treaty shall be open to all States for signature. Any State which does not sign this Treaty before its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this article may accede to it at anytime. 2. This Treaty shall be subject to ratification by signatory States. Instruments of ratification and instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Governments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America, which are hereby designated the Depositary Governments. 3. This Treaty shall enter into force upon the deposit of instruments of ratification by five Governments including the Governments designated as Depositary Governments under this Treaty. 4. For States whose instruments of ratification or accession are deposited subsequent to the entry into force of this Treaty, it shall enter into force on the date of the deposit of their instruments of ratification or accession. 5. The Depositary Governments shall promptly inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of ratification of and accession to this Treaty, the date of its entry into force and other notices. 6. This Treaty shall be registered by the Depositary Governments pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations. 678 C The Texts of the Key Documents

ARTICLE XV

Any State Party to the Treaty may propose amendments to this Treaty. Amendments shall enter into force for each State Party to the Treaty accepting the amendments upon their acceptance by a majority of the States Parties to the Treaty and thereafter for each remaining State Party to the Treaty on the date of acceptance by it.

ARTICLE XVI

Any State Party to the Treaty may give notice of its withdrawal from the Treaty one year after its entry into force by written notification to the Depositary Governments. Such withdrawal shall take effect one year from the date of receipt of this notification.

ARTICLE XVII

This Treaty, of which the English, Russian, French, Spanish and Chinese texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Depositary Governments. Duly certified copies of this Treaty shall be transmitted by the Depositary Governments to the Governments of the signatory and acceding States. IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, duly authorized, have signed this Treaty. DONE in triplicate, at the cities of London, Moscow and Washington, the twenty- seventh day of January, one thousand nine hundred and sixty-seven.

1968: Rescue & Return Agreement (94 States Parties, 24 signatures, 2 acceptance of rights & obligations) http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/rescueagreement.html

Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly 2345 (XXII). Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space

The General Assembly, Bearing in mind its resolution 2260 (XXII) of 3 November 1967, which calls upon the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space to continue with a sense of urgency its work on the elaboration of an agreement on liability for damage caused by the launching of objects into outer space and an agreement on assistance to and return of astronauts and space vehicles, C The Texts of the Key Documents 679

Referring to the addendum to the report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Desiring to give further concrete expression to the rights and obligations contained in the Treaty of Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 3 1. Commends the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, the text of which is annexed to the present resolution; 2. Requests the Depositary Governments to open the Agreement for signature and ratification at the earliest possible date; 3. Expresses its hope for the widest possible adherence to this Agreement; 4. Calls upon the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space to complete urgently the preparation of the draft agreement on liability for damage caused by the launching of objects into outer space and, in any event, not later than the beginning of the twenty-third session of the General Assembly, and to submit it to the Assembly at that session. 1640th plenary meeting, 19 December 1967.

ANNEX

AGREEMENT ON THE RESCUE OF ASTRONAUTS, THE RETURN OF ASTRONAUTS AND THE RETURN OF OBJECTS LAUNCHED INTO OUTER SPACE

The Contracting Parties, Noting the great importance of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, which calls for the rendering of all possible assistance to astronauts in the event of accident, distress or emergency landing, the prompt and safe return of astronauts, and the return of objects launched into outer space, Desiring to develop and give further concrete expression to these duties, Wishing to promote international co-operation in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, Prompted by sentiments of humanity, Have agreed on the following:

Article 1

Each Contracting Party which receives information or discovers that the personnel of a spacecraft have suffered accident or are experiencing conditions of distress or have made an emergency or unintended landing in territory under its jurisdiction or 680 C The Texts of the Key Documents on the high seas or in any other place not under the jurisdiction of any State shall immediately: (a) notify the launching authority or, if it cannot identify and immediately communicate with the launching authority, immediately make a public announce- ment by all appropriate means of communication at its disposal; (b) notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who should disseminate the information without delay by all appropriate means of communication at his disposal.

Article 2

If, owing to accident, distress, emergency or unintended landing, the personnel of a spacecraft land in territory under the jurisdiction of a Contracting Party, it shall immediately take all possible steps to rescue them and render them all necessary assistance. It shall inform the launching authority and also the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the steps it is taking and of their progress. If assistance by the launching authority would help to effect a prompt rescue or would contribute substantially to the effectiveness of search and rescue operations, the launching authority shall cooperate with the Contracting Party with a view to the effective conduct of search and rescue operations. Such operations shall be subject to the direction and control of the Contracting Party, which shall act in close and continuing consultation with the launching authority.

Article 3

If information is received or it is discovered that the personnel of a spacecraft have alighted on the high seas or in any other place not under the jurisdiction of any State, those Contracting Parties which are in a position to do so shall, if necessary, extend assistance in search and rescue operations for such personnel to assure their speedy rescue. They shall inform the launching authority and the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the steps they are taking and of their progress.

Article 4

If, owing to accident, distress, emergency or unintended landing, the personnel of a spacecraft land in territory under the jurisdiction of a Contracting Party or have been found on the high seas or in any other place not under the jurisdiction of any State, they shall be safely and promptly returned to representatives of the launching authority. C The Texts of the Key Documents 681

Article 5

1. Each Contracting Party which receives information or discovers that a space object or its component parts has returned to Earth in territory under its jurisdiction or on the high seas or in any other place not under the jurisdiction of any State, shall notify the launching authority and the Secretary- General of the United Nations. 2. Each Contracting Party having jurisdiction over the territory on which a space object or its component parts has been discovered shall, upon the request of the launching authority and with assistance from that authority if requested, take such steps as it finds practicable to recover the object or component parts. 3. Upon request of the launching authority, objects launched into outer space or their component parts found beyond the territorial limits of the launching authority shall be returned to or held at the disposal of representatives of the launching authority, which shall, upon request, furnish identifying data prior to their return. 4. Notwithstanding paragraphs 2 and 3 of this article, a Contracting Party which has reason to believe that a space object or its component parts discovered in territory under its jurisdiction, or recovered by it elsewhere, is of a hazardous or deleterious nature may so notify the launching authority, which shall immediately take effective steps, under the direction and control of the said Contracting Party, to eliminate possible danger of harm. 5. Expenses incurred in fulfilling obligations to recover and return a space object or its component parts under paragraphs 2 and 3 of this article shall be borne by the launching authority.

Article 6

For the purposes of this Agreement, the term “launching authority” shall refer to the State responsible for launching, or, where an international intergovernmental organization is responsible for launching, that organization, provided that organization declares its acceptance of the rights and obligations provided for in this Agreement and a majority of the States members of that organization are Contracting Parties to this Agreement and to the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

Article 7

1. This Agreement shall be open to all States for signature. Any State which does not sign this Agreement before its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this article may accede to it at any time. 682 C The Texts of the Key Documents

2. This Agreement shall be subject to ratification by signatory States. Instruments of ratification and instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Governments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America, which are hereby designated the Depositary Governments. 3. This Agreement shall enter into force upon the deposit of instruments of ratification by five Governments including the Governments designated as Depositary Governments under this Agreement. 4. For States whose instruments of ratification or accession are deposited subsequent to the entry into force of this Agreement, it shall enter into force on the date of the deposit of their instruments of ratification or accession. 5. The Depositary Governments shall promptly inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of ratification of and accession to this Agreement, the date of its entry into force and other notices. 6. This Agreement shall be registered by the Depositary Governments pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations.

Article 8

Any State Party to the Agreement may propose amendments to this Agreement. Amendments shall enter into force for each State Party to the Agreement accepting the amendments upon their acceptance by a majority of the States Parties to the Agreement and thereafter for each remaining State Party to the Agreement on the date of acceptance by it.

Article 9

Any State Party to the Agreement may give notice of its withdrawal from the Agreement one year after its entry into force by written notification to the Depositary Governments. Such withdrawal shall take effect one year from the date of receipt of this notification.

Article 10

This Agreement, of which the English, Russian, French, Spanish and Chinese texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Depositary Governments. Duly certified copies of this Agreement shall be transmitted by the Depositary Governments to the Governments of the signatory and acceding States. IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, duly authorized, have signed this Agreement. DONE in triplicate, at the cities of London, Moscow and Washington, the twenty- second day of April, one thousand nine hundred and sixty-eight. C The Texts of the Key Documents 683

1972: Liability Convention (92 States Parties, 21 signatures, 3 acceptance of rights & obligations)

http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/liability-convention.html

Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly 2777 (XXVI). Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects

The General Assembly, Reaffirming the importance of international cooperation in the field of the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, and of promoting the law in this new field of human endeavour, Desiring that the rights and obligations pertaining to liability for damage as laid down in the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies should be elaborated in a separate international instrument, Recalling its resolutions 1963 (XVIII) of 13 December 1963, 2130 (XX) of 21 December 1965, 2222 (XXI) of 19 December 1966, 2345 (XXII) of 19 December 1967, 2453 B (XXIII) of 20 December 1968, 2601 B (XXIV) of 16 December 1969 and 2733 B (XXV) of 16 December 1970 concerning the elaboration of an agreement on the liability for damage caused by the launching of objects into outer space, Recalling also that in resolution 2733 B (XXV) it urged the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space to reach early agreement on a draft convention on liability, to be submitted to the General Assembly at its twenty-sixth session, embodying the principles of a full measure of compensation to victims and effective procedures which would lead to prompt and equitable settlement of claims, Having considered the report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 1 Taking note with appreciation of the work accomplished by the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, and in particular that of its Legal Subcommittee, 1. Commends the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, the text of which is annexed to the present resolution; 2. Requests the depositary governments to open the Convention for signature and ratification at the earliest possible date; 3. Notes that any State may, on becoming a party to the Convention, declare that it will recognize as binding, in relation to any other States accepting the same obligation, the decision of the Claims Commission concerning any dispute to which it may become a party; 4. Expresses its hope for the widest possible adherence to this Convention. 1998th plenary meeting, 29 November 1971. 684 C The Texts of the Key Documents

ANNEX

CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL LIABILITY FOR DAMAGE CAUSED BY SPACE OBJECTS

The States Parties to this Convention, Recognizing the common interest of all mankind in furthering the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, Recalling the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, Taking into consideration that, notwithstanding the precautionary measures to be taken by States and international intergovernmental organizations involved in the launching of space objects, damage may on occasion be caused by such objects, Recognizing the need to elaborate effective international rules and procedures concerning liability for damage caused by space objects and to ensure, in particular, the prompt payment under the terms of this Convention of a full and equitable measure of compensation to victims of such damage, Believing that the establishment of such rules and procedures will contribute to the strengthening of international co-operation in the field of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, Have agreed on the following:

Article I

For the purposes of this Convention: (a) The term “damage” means loss of life, personal injury or other impairment of health; or loss of or damage to property of States or of persons, natural or juridical, or property of international intergovernmental organizations; (b) The term “launching” includes attempted launching; (c) The term “launching State” means: (i) A State which launches or procures the launching of a space object; (ii) A State from whose territory or facility a space object is launched; (d) The term “space object” includes component parts of a space object as well as its launch vehicle and parts thereof.

Article II

A launching State shall be absolutely liable to pay compensation for damage caused by its space object on the surface of the earth or to aircraft flight. C The Texts of the Key Documents 685

Article III

In the event of damage being caused elsewhere than on the surface of the earth to a space object of one launching State or to persons or property on board such a space object by a space object of another launching State, the latter shall be liable only if the damage is due to its fault or the fault of persons for whom it is responsible.

Article IV

1. In the event of damage being caused elsewhere than on the surface of the earth to a space object of one launching State or to persons or property on board such a space object by a space object of another launching State, and of damage thereby being caused to a third State or to its natural or juridical persons, the first two States shall be jointly and severally liable to the third State, to the extent indicated by the following: (a) If the damage has been caused to the third State on the surface of the earth or to aircraft in flight, their liability to the third State shall be absolute; (b) If the damage has been caused to a space object of the third State or to persons or property on board that space object elsewhere than on the surface of the earth, their liability to the third State shall be based on the fault of either of the first two States or on the fault of persons for whom either is responsible. 2. In all cases of joint and several liability referred to in paragraph 1 of this article, the burden of compensation for the damage shall be apportioned between the first two States in accordance with the extent to which they were at fault; if the extent of the fault of each of these States cannot be established, the burden of compensation shall be apportioned equally between them. Such apportionment shall be without prejudice to the right of the third State to seek the entire compensation due under this Convention from any or all of the launching States which are jointly and severally liable.

Article V

1. Whenever two or more States jointly launch a space object, they shall be jointly and severally liable for any damage caused. 2. A launching State which has paid compensation for damage shall have the right to present a claim for indemnification to other participants in the joint launching. The participants in a joint launching may conclude agreements regarding the apportion- ing among themselves of the financial obligation in respect of which they are jointly and severally liable. Such agreements shall be without prejudice to the right of a State sustaining damage to seek the entire compensation due under this Convention from any or all of the launching States which are jointly and severally liable. 3. A State from whose territory or facility a space object is launched shall be regarded as a participant in a joint launching. 686 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Article VI

1. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 2 of this Article, exoneration from absolute liability shall be granted to the extent that a launching State establishes that the damage has resulted either wholly or partially from gross negligence or from an act or omission done with intent to cause damage on the part of a claimant State or of natural or juridical persons it represents. 2. No exoneration whatever shall be granted in cases where the damage has resulted from activities conducted by a launching State which are not in conformity with international law including, in particular, the Charter of the United Nations and the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

Article VII

The provisions of this Convention shall not apply to damage caused by a space object of a launching State to: (a) nationals of that launching State; (b) foreign nationals during such time as they are participating in the operation of that space object from the time of its launching or at any stage thereafter until its descent, or during such time as they are in the immediate vicinity of a planned launching or recovery area as the result of an invitation by that launching State.

Article VIII

1. A State which suffers damage, or whose natural or juridical persons suffer damage, may present to a launching State a claim for compensation for such damage. 2. If the State of nationality has not presented a claim, another State may, in respect of damage sustained in its territory by any natural or juridical person, present a claim to a launching State. 3. If neither the State of nationality nor the State in whose territory the damage was sustained has presented a claim or notified its intention of presenting a claim, another State may, in respect of damage sustained by its permanent residents, present a claim to a launching State.

Article IX

A claim for compensation for damage shall be presented to a launching State through diplomatic channels. If a State does not maintain diplomatic relations with the launching State concerned, it may request another State to present its claim to that launching State or otherwise represent its interests under this Convention. It may also present its claim through the Secretary-General of the United Nations, provided the claimant State and the launching State are both Members of the United Nations. C The Texts of the Key Documents 687

Article X

1. A claim for compensation for damage may be presented to a launching State not later than one year following the date of the occurrence of the damage or the identification of the launching State which is liable. 2. If, however, a State does not know of the occurrence of the damage or has not been able to identify the launching State which is liable, it may present a claim within one year following the date on which it learned of the aforementioned facts; however, this period shall in no event exceed one year following the date on which the State could reasonably be expected to have learned of the facts through the exercise of due diligence. 3. The time-limits specified in paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article shall apply even if the full extent of the damage may not be known. In this event, however, the claimant State shall be entitled to revise the claim and submit additional documentation after the expiration of such time-limits until one year after the full extent of the damage is known.

Article XI

1. Presentation of a claim to a launching State for compensation for damage under this Convention shall not require the prior exhaustion of any local remedies which may be available to a claimant State or to natural or juridical persons it represents. 2. Nothing in this Convention shall prevent a State, or natural or juridical persons it might represent, from pursuing a claim in the courts or administrative tribunals or agencies of a launching State. A State shall not, however, be entitled to present a claim under this Convention in respect of the same damage for which a claim is being pursued in the courts or administrative tribunals or agencies of a launching State or under another international agreement which is binding on the States concerned.

Article XII

The compensation which the launching State shall be liable to pay for damage under this Convention shall be determined in accordance with international law and the principles of justice and equity, in order to provide such reparation in respect of the damage as will restore the person, natural or juridical, State or international organization on whose behalf the claim is presented to the condition which would have existed if the damage had not occurred.

Article XIII

Unless the claimant State and the State from which compensation is due under this Convention agree on another form of compensation, the compensation shall be paid in the currency of the claimant State or, if that State so requests, in the currency of the State from which compensation is due. 688 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Article XIV

If no settlement of a claim is arrived at through diplomatic negotiations as provided for in Article IX, within one year from the date on which the claimant State notifies the launching State that it has submitted the documentation of its claim, the parties concerned shall establish a Claims Commission at the request of either party.

Article XV

1. The Claims Commission shall be composed of three members: one appointed by the claimant State, one appointed by the launching State and the third member, the Chairman, to be chosen by both parties jointly. Each party shall make its appointment within two months of the request for the establishment of the Claims Commission. 2. If no agreement is reached on the choice of the Chairman within four months of the request for the establishment of the Commission, either party may request the Secretary-General of the United Nations to appoint the Chairman within a further period of two months.

Article XVI

1. If one of the parties does not make its appointment within the stipulated period, the Chairman shall, at the request of the other party, constitute a single-member Claims Commission. 2. Any vacancy which may arise in the Commission for whatever reason shall be filled by the same procedure adopted for the original appointment. 3. The Commission shall determine its own procedure. 4. The Commission shall determine the place or places where it shall sit and all other administrative mattters. 5. Except in the case of decisions and awards by a single-member Commission, all decisions and awards of the Commission shall be by majority vote.

Article XVII

No increase in the membership of the Claims Commission shall take place by reason of two or more claimant States or launching States being joined in any one proceeding before the Commission. The claimant States so joined shall collectively appoint one member of the Commission in the same manner and subject to the same conditions as would be the case for a single claimant State. When two or more launching States are so joined, they shall collectively appoint one member of the Commission in the same way. If the claimant States or the launching States do not make the appointment within the stipulated period, the Chairman shall constitute a single-member Commission. C The Texts of the Key Documents 689

Article XVIII

The Claims Commission shall decide the merits of the claim for compensation and determine the amount of compensation payable, if any.

Article XIX

1. The Claims Commission shall act in accordance with the provisions of Article XII. 2. The decision of the Commission shall be final and binding if the parties have so agreed; otherwise the Commission shall render a final and recommendatory award, which the parties shall consider in good faith. The Commission shall state the reasons for its decision or award. 3. The Commission shall give its decision or award as promptly as possible and no later than one year from the date of its establishment, unless an extension of this period is found necessary by the Commission. 4. The Commission shall make its decision or award public. It shall deliver a certified copy of its decision or award to each of the parties and to the Secretary- General of the United Nations.

Article XX

The expenses in regard to the Claims Commission shall be borne equally by the parties, unless otherwise decided by the Commission.

Article XXI

If the damage caused by a space object presents a large-scale danger to human life or seriously interferes with the living conditions of the population or the functioning of vital centres, the States Parties, and in particular the launching State, shall exam- ine the possibility of rendering appropriate and rapid assistance to the State which has suffered the damage, when it so requests. However, nothing in this article shall affect the rights or obligations of the States Parties under this Convention.

Article XXII

1. In this Convention, with the exception of Articles XXIV to Articles XXVII, references to States shall be deemed to apply to any international intergovernmental organization which conducts space activities if the organization declares its acceptance of the rights and obligations provided for in this Convention and if a majority of the States members of the organization are States Parties to this 690 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Convention and to the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. 2. States members of any such organization which are States Parties to this Convention shall take all appropriate steps to ensure that the organization makes a declaration in accordance with the preceding paragraph. 3. If an international intergovernmental organization is liable for damage by virtue of the provisions of this Convention, that organization and those of its members which are States Parties to this Convention shall be jointly and severally liable; provided, however, that: (a) any claim for compensation in respect of such damage shall be first presented to the organization; (b) only where the organization has not paid, within a period of six months, any sum agreed or determined to be due as compensation for such damage, may the claimant State invoke the liability of the members which are States Parties to this Convention for the payment of that sum. 4. Any claim, pursuant to the provisions of this Convention, for compensation in respect of damage caused to an organization which has made a declaration in accordance with paragraph 1 of this Article shall be presented by a State member of the organization which is a State Party to this Convention.

Article XXIII

1. The provisions of this Convention shall not affect other international agreements in force in so far as relations between the States Parties to such agreements are concerned. 2. No provision of this Convention shall prevent States from concluding international agreements reaffirming, supplementing or extending its provisions.

Article XXIV

1. This Convention shall be open to all States for signature. Any State which does not sign this Convention before its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this article may accede to it at any time. 2. This Convention shall be subject to ratification by signatory States. Instruments of ratification and instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Governments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America, which are hereby designated the Depositary Governments. 3. This Convention shall enter into force on the deposit of the fifth instrument of ratification. 4. For States whose instruments of ratification or accession are deposited subsequent to the entry into force of this Convention, it shall enter into force on the date of the deposit of their instruments of ratification or accession. C The Texts of the Key Documents 691

5. The Depositary Governments shall promptly inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of ratification of and accession to this Convention, the date of its entry into force and other notices. 6. This Convention shall be registered by the Depositary Governments pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations.

Article XXV

Any State Party to this Convention may propose amendments to this Convention. Amendments shall enter into force for each State Party to the Convention accepting the amendments upon their acceptance by a majority of the States Parties to the Convention and thereafter for each remaining State Party to the Convention on the date of acceptance by it.

Article XXVI

Ten years after the entry into force of this Convention, the question of the review of this Convention shall be included in the provisional agenda of the United Nations General Assembly in order to consider, in the light of past application of the Convention, whether it requires revision. However, at any time after the Convention has been in force for five years, and at the request of one third of the States Parties to the Convention, and with the concurrence of the majority of the States Parties, a conference of the States Parties shall be convened to review this Convention.

Article XXVII

Any State Party to this Convention may give notice of its withdrawal from the Convention one year after its entry into force by written notification to the Depositary Governments. Such withdrawal shall take effect one year from the date of receipt of this notification.

Article XXVIII

This Convention, of which the English, Russian, French, Spanish and Chinese texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Depositary Governments. Duly certified copies of this Convention shall be transmitted by the Depositary Governments to the Governments of the signatory and acceding States. IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, duly authorized thereto, have signed this Convention. DONE in triplicate, at the cities of London, Moscow and Washington, this twenty-ninth day of March, one thousand nine hundred and seventy-two. 692 C The Texts of the Key Documents

1975: Registration Convention (62 States Parties, 4 signature, 3 acceptance of rights & obligations)

http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/registration-convention. html

Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly 3235 (XXIX). Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space

The General Assembly, Reaffirming the importance of international cooperation in the field of the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, and of promoting the rule of law in this new field of human endeavour, Desiring, in the light of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1 the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space 2 and the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 3 to make provision for registration by launching States of space objects launched into outer space with a view, inter alia, to providing States with additional means and procedures to assist in the identification of space objects, Bearing in mind its resolution 3182 (XXVIII) or 18 December 1973, in which it requested the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space to consider as a matter of priority the completion of the text of the draft Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, Having considered the report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 4 Noting with satisfaction that the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its Legal Subcommittee have completed the text of the draft Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1. Commends the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, the text of which is annexed to the present resolution; 2. Requests the Secretary-General to open the Convention for signature and ratification at the earliest possible date; 3. Expresses its hope for the widest possible adherence to this Convention. 2280th plenary meeting, 12 November 1974. C The Texts of the Key Documents 693

ANNEX

CONVENTION ON REGISTRATION OF OBJECTS LAUNCHED INTO OUTER SPACE

The States Parties to this Convention, Recognizing the common interest of all mankind in furthering the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, Recalling that the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 27 January 1967 affirms that States shall bear international responsibility for their national activities in outer space and refers to the State on whose registry an object launched into outer space is carried, Recalling also that the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space of 22 April 1968 provides that a launching authority shall, upon request, furnish identifying data prior to the return of an object it has launched into outer space found beyond the territorial limits of the launching authority, Recalling further that the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects of 29 March 1972 establishes international rules and procedures concerning the liability of launching States for damage caused by their space objects, Desiring, in the light of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, to make provision for the national registration by launching States of space objects launched into outer space, Desiring further that a central register of objects launched into outer space be established and maintained, on a mandatory basis, by the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Desiring also to provide for States Parties additional means and procedures to assist in the identification of space objects, Believing that a mandatory system of registering objects launched into outer space would, in particular, assist in their identification and would contribute to the application and development of international law governing the exploration and use of outer space, Have agreed on the following:

ARTICLE I

For the purposes of this Convention: (a) The term “launching State” means: (i) A State which launches or procures the launching of a space object; (ii) A State from whose territory or facility a space object is launched; 694 C The Texts of the Key Documents

(b) The term “space object” includes component parts of a space object as well as its launch vehicle and parts thereof; (c) The term “State of registry” means a launching State on whose registry a space object is carried in accordance with article II.

ARTICLE II

1. When a space object is launched into earth orbit or beyond, the launching State shall register the space object by means of an entry in an appropriate registry which it shall maintain. Each launching State shall inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the establishment of such a registry. 2. Where there are two or more launching States in respect of any such space object, they shall jointly determine which one of them shall register the object in accordance with paragraph 1 of this article, bearing in mind the provisions of article VIII of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, and without prejudice to appropriate agreements concluded or to be concluded among the launching States on jurisdiction and control over the space object and over any personnel thereof. 3. The contents of each registry and the conditions under which it is maintained shall be determined by the State of registry concerned.

ARTICLE III

1. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall maintain a Register in which the information furnished in accordance with article IV shall be recorded. 2. There shall be full and open access to the information in this Register.

ARTICLE IV

1. Each State of registry shall furnish to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, as soon as practicable, the following information concerning each space object carried on its registry: (a) name of launching State or States; (b) an appropriate designator of the space object or its registration number; (c) date and territory or location of launch; (d) basic orbital parameters, including: (i) nodal period; (ii) inclination; (iii) apogee; (iv) perigee; (e) general function of the space object. C The Texts of the Key Documents 695

2. Each State of registry may, from time to time, provide the Secretary-General of the United Nations with additional information concerning a space object carried on its registry. 3. Each State of registry shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, to the greatest extent feasible and as soon as practicable, of space objects concerning which it has previously transmitted information, and which have been but no longer are in earth orbit.

ARTICLE V

Whenever a space object launched into earth orbit or beyond is marked with the designator or registration number referred to in article IV, paragraph 1 (b), or both, the State of registry shall notify the Secretary-General of this fact when submitting the information regarding the space object in accordance with article IV. In such case, the Secretary-General of the United Nations shall record this notification in the Register.

ARTICLE VI

Where the application of the provisions of this Convention has not enabled a State Party to identify a space object which has caused damage to it or to any of its natural or juridical persons, or which may be of a hazardous or deleterious nature, other States Parties, including in particular States possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, shall respond to the greatest extent feasible to a request by that State Party, or transmitted through the Secretary-General on its behalf, for assistance under equitable and reasonable conditions in the identification of the object. A State Party making such a request shall, to the greatest extent feasible, submit information as to the time, nature and circumstances of the events giving rise to the request. Arrangements under which such assistance shall be rendered shall be the subject of agreement between the parties concerned.

ARTICLE VII

1. In this Convention, with the exception of articles VIII to XII inclusive, references to States shall be deemed to apply to any international intergovernmental organization which conducts space activities if the organization declares its acceptance of the rights and obligations provided for in this Convention and if a majority of the States members of the organization are States Parties to this Convention and to the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Useof Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. 2. States members of any such organization which are States Parties to this Convention shall take all appropriate steps to ensure that the organization makes a declaration in accordance with paragraph 1 of this article. 696 C The Texts of the Key Documents

ARTICLE VIII

1. This Convention shall be open for signature by all States at United Nations Headquarters in New York. Any State which does not sign this Convention before its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this article may accede to it at any time. 2. This Convention shall be subject to ratification by signatory States. Instruments of ratification and instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Secretary- General of the United Nations. 3. This Convention shall enter into force among the States which have deposited instruments of ratification on the deposit of the fifth such instrument with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. 4. For States whose instruments of ratification or accession are deposited subsequent to the entry into force of this Convention, it shall enter into force on the date of the deposit of their instruments of ratification or accession. 5. The Secretary-General shall promptly inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of ratification of and accession to this Convention, the date of its entry into force and other notices.

ARTICLE IX

Any State Party to this Convention may propose amendments to the Convention. Amendments shall enter into force for each State Party to the Convention accepting the amendments upon their acceptance by a majority of the States Parties to the Convention and thereafter for each remaining State Party to the Convention on the date of acceptance by it.

ARTICLE X

Ten years after the entry into force of this Convention, the question of the review of the Convention shall be included in the provisional agenda of the United Nations General Assembly in order to consider, in the light of past application of the Convention, whether it requires revision. However, at any time after the Convention has been in force for five years, at the request of one third of the States Parties to the Convention and with the concurrence of the majority of the States Parties, a conference of the States Parties shall be convened to review this Convention. Such review shall take into account in particular any relevant technological developments, including those relating to the identification of space objects. C The Texts of the Key Documents 697

ARTICLE XI

Any State Party to this Convention may give notice of its withdrawal from the Convention one year after its entry into force by written notification to the Secretary- General of the United Nations. Such withdrawal shall take effect one year from the date of receipt of this notification.

ARTICLE XII

The original of this Convention, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall send certified copies thereof to all signatory and acceding States. IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed this Convention, opened for signature at New York on the fourteenth day of January, one thousand nine hundred and seventy-five.

1979: Moon Agreement (16 States Parties, 4 signatures) http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html

Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly 34/68. Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies

The General Assembly, Reaffirming the importance of international cooperation in the field of the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and of promoting the rule of law in this field of human endeavour, Recalling its resolution 2779 (XXVI) of 29 November 1971, in which it requested the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its Legal Subcommittee to consider the question of the elaboration of a draft international treaty concerning the moon, as well as itsresolution 2915 (XXVII) of 9 November 1972, 3182 (XXVIII) of 18 December 1973, 3234 (XXIX) of 12 November 1974, 3388 (XXX) of 18 November 1975, 31/8 of 8 November 1976, 32/196 A of 20 December 1977 and 33/16 of 10 November 1978, in which it, inter alia, encouraged the elaboration of the draft treaty relating to the moon. 698 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Recalling, in particular, that in resolution 33/16 it endorsed the recommendation of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space that the Legal Subcommittee at its eighteenth session should continue as a matter of priority its efforts to complete the draft treaty relating to the moon, Having considered the relevant part of the report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, in particular paragraphs 62, 63 and 65. Noting with satisfaction that the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, on the basis of the deliberations and recommendations of the Legal Subcommittee, has completed the text of the draft Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, Having considered the text of the draft Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1 1. Commends the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, the text of which is annexed to the present resolution; 2. Requests the Secretary-General to open the Agreement for signature and ratification at the earliest possible date; 3. Expresses its hope for the widest possible adherence to this Agreement. 89th plenary meeting, 5 December 1979.

ANNEX

AGREEMENT GOVERNING THE ACTIVITIES OF STATES ON THE MOON AND OTHER CELESTIAL BODIES

The States Parties to this Agreement, Noting the achievements of States in the exploration and use of the moon and other celestial bodies, Recognizing that the moon, as a natural satellite of the earth, has an important role to play in the exploration of outer space, Determined to promote on the basis of equality the further development of cooperation among States in the exploration and use of the moon and other celestial bodies, Desiring to prevent the moon from becoming an area of international conflict, Bearing in mind the benefits which may be derived from the exploitation of the natural resources of the moon and other celestial bodies, Recalling the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, and the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, C The Texts of the Key Documents 699

Taking into account the need to define and develop the provisions of these international instruments in relation to the moon and other celestial bodies, having regard to further progress in the exploration and use of outer space, Have agreed on the following:

ARTICLE 1

1. The provisions of this Agreement relating to the moon shall also apply to other celestial bodies within the solar system, other than the earth, except in so far as specific legal norms enter into force with respect to any of these celestial bodies. 2. For the purposes of this Agreement reference to the moon shall include orbits around or other trajectories to or around it. 3. This Agreement does not apply to extraterrestrial materials which reach the surface of the earth by natural means.

ARTICLE 2

All activities on the moon, including its exploration and use, shall be carried out in accordance with international law, in particular the Charter of the United Nations, and taking into account the Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, adopted by the General Assembly on 24 October 1970, in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international co-operation and mutual understanding, and with due regard to the corresponding interests of all other States Parties.

ARTICLE 3

1. The moon shall be used by all States Parties exclusively for peaceful purposes. 2. Any threat or use of force or any other hostile act or threat of hostile act on the moon is prohibited. It is likewise prohibited to use the moon in order to commit any such act or to engage in any such threat in relation to the earth, the moon, spacecraft, the personnel of spacecraft or manmade space objects. 3. States Parties shall not place in orbit around or other trajectory to or around the moon objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction or place or use such weapons on or in the moon. 4. The establishment of military bases, installations and fortifications, the testing of any type of weapons and the conduct of military man uvres on the moon shall be forbidden. The use of military personnel for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes shall not be prohibited. The use of any equipment or facility necessary for peaceful exploration and use of the moon shall also not be prohibited. 700 C The Texts of the Key Documents

ARTICLE 4

1. The exploration and use of the moon shall be the province of all mankind and shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development. Due regard shall be paid to the interests of present and future generations as well as to the need to promote higher standards of living and conditions of economic and social progress and development in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. 2. States Parties shall be guided by the principle of co-operation and mutual assistance in all their activities concerning the exploration and use of the moon. International co-operation in pursuance of this Agreement should be as wide as possible and may take place on a multilateral basis, on a bilateral basis or through international intergovernmental organizations.

ARTICLE 5

1. States Parties shall inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations as well as the public and the international scientific community, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable, of their activities concerned with the exploration and use of the moon. Information on the time, purposes, locations, orbital parameters and duration shall be given in respect of each mission to the moon as soon as possible after launching, while information on the results of each mission, including scientific results, shall be furnished upon completion of the mission. In the case of a mission lasting more than sixty days, information on conduct of the mission, including any scientific results, shall be given periodically, at thirty-day intervals. For missions lasting more than six months, only significant additions to such information need be reported thereafter. 2. If a State Party becomes aware that another State Party plans to operate simultaneously in the same area of or in the same orbit around or trajectory to or around the moon, it shall promptly inform the other State of the timing of and plans for its own operations. 3. In carrying out activities under this Agreement, States Parties shall promptly inform the Secretary-General, as well as the public and the international scientific community, of any phenomena they discover in outer space, including the moon, which could endanger human life or health, as well as of any indication of organic life.

ARTICLE 6

1. There shall be freedom of scientific investigation on the moon by all States Parties without discrimination of any kind, on the basis of equality and in accordance with international law. C The Texts of the Key Documents 701

2. In carrying out scientific investigations and in furtherance of the provisions of this Agreement, the States Parties shall have the right to collect on and remove from the moon samples of its mineral and other substances. Such samples shall remain at the disposal of those States Parties which caused them to be collected and may be used by them for scientific purposes. States Parties shall have regard to the desirability of making a portion of such samples available to other interested States Parties and the international scientific community for scientific investigation. States Parties may in the course of scientific investigations also use mineral and other substances of the moon in quantities appropriate for the support of their missions. 3. States Parties agree on the desirability of exchanging scientific and other personnel on expeditions to or installations on the moon to the greatest extent feasible and practicable.

ARTICLE 7

1. In exploring and using the moon, States Parties shall take measures to prevent the disruption of the existing balance of its environment, whether by introducing adverse changes in that environment, by its harmful contamination through the introduction of extra-environmental matter or otherwise. States Parties shall also take measures to avoid harmfully affecting the environment of the earth through the introduction of extraterrestrial matter or otherwise. 2. States Parties shall inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the measures being adopted by them in accordance with paragraph 1 of this article and shall also, to the maximum extent feasible, notify him in advance of all placements by them of radio-active materials on the moon and of the purposes of such placements. 3. States Parties shall report to other States Parties and to the Secretary-General concerning areas of the moon having special scientific interest in order that, without prejudice to the rights of other States Parties, consideration may be given to the designation of such areas as international scientific preserves for which special protective arrangements are to be agreed upon in consultation with the competent bodies of the United Nations.

ARTICLE 8

1. States Parties may pursue their activities in the exploration and use of the moon anywhere on or below its surface, subject to the provisions of this Agreement. 2. For these purposes States Parties may, in particular: (a) Land their space objects on the moon and launch them from the moon; (b) Place their personnel, space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations anywhere on or below the surface of the moon. 702 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Personnel, space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations may move or be moved freely over or below the surface of the moon. 3. Activities of States Parties in accordance with paragraphs 1 and 2 of this article shall not interfere with the activities of other States Parties on the moon. Where such interference may occur, the States Parties concerned shall undertake consultations in accordance witharticle 15, paragraphs 2 and 3, of this Agreement.

ARTICLE 9

1. States Parties may establish manned and unmanned stations on the moon. A State Party establishing a station shall use only that area which is required for the needs of the station and shall immediately inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the location and purposes of that station. Subsequently, at annual intervals that State shall likewise inform the Secretary-General whether the station continues in use and whether its purposes have changed. 2. Stations shall be installed in such a manner that they do not impede the free access to all areas of the moon of personnel, vehicles and equipment of other States Parties conducting activities on the moon in accordance with the provisions of this Agreement or of article I of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

ARTICLE 10

1. States Parties shall adopt all practicable measures to safeguard the life and health of persons on the moon. For this purpose they shall regard any person on the moon as an astronaut within the meaning of article V of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies and as part of the personnel of a spacecraft within the meaning of the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space. 2. States Parties shall offer shelter in their stations, installations, vehicles and other facilities to persons in distress on the moon.

ARTICLE 11

1. The moon and its natural resources are the common heritage of mankind, which finds its expression in the provisions of this Agreement, in particular in paragraph 5 of this article. 2. The moon is not subject to national appropriation by any claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means. C The Texts of the Key Documents 703

3. Neither the surface nor the subsurface of the moon, nor any part thereof or natural resources in place, shall become property of any State, international intergovernmental or non- governmental organization, national organization or non-governmental entity or of any natural person. The placement of personnel, space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations on or below the surface of the moon, including structures connected with its surface or subsurface, shall not create a right of ownership over the surface or the subsurface of the moon or any areas thereof. The foregoing provisions are without prejudice to the international regime referred to in paragraph 5 of this article. 4. States Parties have the right to exploration and use of the moon without discrimination of any kind, on the basis of equality and in accordance with international law and the terms of this Agreement. 5. States Parties to this Agreement hereby undertake to establish an international regime, including appropriate procedures, to govern the exploitation of the natural resources of the moon as such exploitation is about to become feasible. This provision shall be implemented in accordance with article 18 of this Agreement. 6. In order to facilitate the establishment of the international regime referred to in paragraph 5 of this article, States Parties shall inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations as well as the public and the international scientific community, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable, of any natural resources they may discover on the moon. 7. The main purposes of the international regime to be established shall include: (a) The orderly and safe development of the natural resources of the moon; (b) The rational management of those resources; (c) The expansion of opportunities in the use of those resources; (d) An equitable sharing by all States Parties in the benefits derived from those resources, whereby the interests and needs of the developing countries, as well as the efforts of those countries which have contributed either directly or indi- rectly to the exploration of the moon, shall be given special consideration. 8. All the activities with respect to the natural resources of the moon shall be carried out in a manner compatible with the purposes specified in paragraph 7 of this article and the provisions of article 6, paragraph 2, of this Agreement.

ARTICLE 12

1. States Parties shall retain jurisdiction and control over their personnel, vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations on the moon. The ownership of space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations shall not be affected by their presence on the moon. 2. Vehicles, installations and equipment or their component parts found in places other than their intended location shall be dealt with in accordance with article 5 of the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space. 704 C The Texts of the Key Documents

3. In the event of an emergency involving a threat to human life, States Parties may use the equipment, vehicles, installations, facilities or supplies of other States Parties on the moon. Prompt notification of such use shall be made to the Secretary-General of the United Nations or the State Party concerned.

ARTICLE 13

A State Party which learns of the crash landing, forced landing or other unintended landing on the moon of a space object, or its component parts, that were not launched by it, shall promptly inform the launching State Party and the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

ARTICLE 14

1. States Parties to this Agreement shall bear international responsibility for national activities on the moon, whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or by non- governmental entities, and for assuring that national activities are carried out in conformity with the provisions set forth in this Agreement. States Parties shall ensure that non-governmental entities under their jurisdiction shall engage in activities on the moon only under the authority and continuing supervision of the appropriate State Party. 2. States Parties recognize that detailed arrangements concerning liability for damage caused on the moon, in addition to the provisions of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies and the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, may become necessary as a result of more extensive activities on the moon. Any such arrangements shall be elaborated in accordance with the procedure provided for in article 18 of this Agreement.

ARTICLE 15

1. Each State Party may assure itself that the activities of other States Parties in the exploration and use of the moon are compatible with the provisions of this Agreement. To this end, all space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations on the moon shall be open to other States Parties. Such States Parties shall give reasonable advance notice of a projected visit, in order that appropriate consultations may be held and that maximum precautions may be taken to assure safety and to avoid interference with normal operations in the facility to be visited. In pursuance of this article, any State Party may act on its own behalf or with the full or partial assistance of any other State Party or through appropriate international procedures within the framework of the United Nations and in accordance with the Charter. C The Texts of the Key Documents 705

2. A State Party which has reason to believe that another State Party is not fulfilling the obligations incumbent upon it pursuant to this Agreement or that another State Party is interfering with the rights which the former State has under this Agreement may request consultations with that State Party. A State Party receiving such a request shall enter into such consultations without delay. Any other State Party which requests to do so shall be entitled to take part in the consultations. Each State Party participating in such consultations shall seek a mutually acceptable resolution of any controversy and shall bear in mind the rights and interests of all States Parties. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be informed of the results of the consultations and shall transmit the information received to all States Parties concerned. 3. If the consultations do not lead to a mutually acceptable settlement which has due regard for the rights and interests of all States Parties, the parties concerned shall take all measures to settle the dispute by other peaceful means of their choice appropriate to the circumstances and the nature of the dispute. If difficul- ties arise in connection with the opening of consultations or if consultations do not lead to a mutually acceptable settlement, any State Party may seek the assistance of the Secretary-General, without seeking the consent of any other State Party concerned, in order to resolve the controversy. A State Party which does not maintain diplomatic relations with another State Party concerned shall participate in such consultations, at its choice, either itself or through another State Party or the Secretary-General as intermediary.

ARTICLE 16

With the exception of articles 17 to 21, references in this Agreement to States shall be deemed to apply to any international intergovernmental organization which conducts space activities if the organization declares its acceptance of the rights and obligations provided for in this Agreement and if a majority of the States members of the organization are States Parties to this Agreement and to the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. States members of any such organization which are States Parties to this Agreement shall take all appropriate steps to ensure that the organization makes a declaration in accordance with the foregoing.

ARTICLE 17

Any State Party to this Agreement may propose amendments to the Agreement. Amendments shall enter into force for each State Party to the Agreement accepting the amendments upon their acceptance by a majority of the States Parties to the Agreement and thereafter for each remaining State Party to the Agreement on the date of acceptance by it. 706 C The Texts of the Key Documents

ARTICLE 18

Ten years after the entry into force of this Agreement, the question of the review of the Agreement shall be included in the provisional agenda of the General Assembly of the United Nations in order to consider, in the light of past application of the Agreement, whether it requires revision. However, at any time after the Agreement has been in force for five years, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, as depository, shall, at the request of one third of the States Parties to the Agreement and with the concurrence of the majority of the States Parties, convene a conference of the States Parties to review this Agreement. A review conference shall also consider the question of the implementation of the provisions of article 11, paragraph 5, on the basis of the principle referred to in paragraph 1 of that article and taking into account in particular any relevant technological developments.

ARTICLE 19

1. This Agreement shall be open for signature by all States at United Nations Headquarters in New York. 2. This Agreement shall be subject to ratification by signatory States. Any State which does not sign this Agreement before its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this article may accede to it at any time. Instruments of ratification or accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. 3. This Agreement shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of the fifth instrument of ratification. 4. For each State depositing its instrument of ratification or accession after the entry into force of this Agreement, it shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of any such instrument. 5. The Secretary-General shall promptly inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of ratification or accession to this Agreement, the date of its entry into force and other notices.

ARTICLE 20

Any State Party to this Agreement may give notice of its withdrawal from the Agreement one year after its entry into force by written notification to the Secretary- General of the United Nations. Such withdrawal shall take effect one year from the date of receipt of this notification.

ARTICLE 21

The original of this Agreement, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall send certified copies thereof to all signatory and acceding States. C The Texts of the Key Documents 707

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed this Agreement, opened for signature at New York on 18 December 1979.

1982: UNGA Resolution on principles related to satellite TV broadcasting http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/principles/dbs-principles.html

Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly 37/92. Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting

The General Assembly, Recalling its resolution 2916 (XXVII) of 9 November 1972, in which it stressed the necessity of elaborating principles governing the use by States of artificial Earth satellites for international direct television broadcasting, and mindful of the importance of concluding an international agreement or agreements, Recalling further its resolutions 3182 (XXVIII) of 18 December 1973, 3234 (XXIX) of 12 November 1974, 3388 (XXX) of 18 November 1975, 31/8 of 8 November 1976, 32/196 of 20 December 1977, 33/16 of 10 November 1978, 34/66 of 5 December 1979 and 35/14 of 3 November 1980, and its resolution 36/35 of 18 November 1981 in which it decided to consider at its thirty-seventh session the adoption of a draft set of principles governing the use by States of artificial Earth satellites for international direct television broadcasting, Noting with appreciation the efforts made in the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its Legal Subcommittee to comply with the directives issued in the above-mentioned resolutions, Considering that several experiments of direct broadcasting by satellite have been carried out and that a number of direct broadcasting satellite systems are operational in some countries and may be commercialized in the very near future, Taking into consideration that the operation of international direct broadcasting satellites will have significant international political, economic, social and cultural implications, Believing that the establishment of principles for international direct television broadcasting will contribute to the strengthening of international cooperation in this field and further the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, Adopts the Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting set forth in the annex to the present resolution. 708 C The Texts of the Key Documents

ANNEX

PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE USE BY STATES OF ARTIFICIAL EARTH SATELLITES FOR INTERNATIONAL DIRECT TELEVISION BROADCASTING

A. PURPOSES AND OBJECTIVES

1. Activities in the field of international direct television broadcasting by satellite should be carried out in a manner compatible with the sovereign rights of States, including the principle of non-intervention, as well as with the right of everyone to seek, receive and impart information and ideas as enshrined in the relevant United Nations instruments. 2. Such activities should promote the free dissemination and mutual exchange of information and knowledge in cultural and scientific fields, assist in educational, social and economic development, particularly in the developing countries, enhance the qualities of life of all peoples and provide recreation with due respect to the political and cultural integrity of States. 3. These activities should accordingly be carried out in a manner compatible with the development of mutual understanding and the strengthening of friendly relations and cooperation among all States and peoples in the interest of maintaining international peace and security.

B. APPLICABILITY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

4. Activities in the field of international direct television broadcasting by satellite should be conducted in accordance with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations, the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, of 27 January 1967, the relevant provisions of the International 1 Telecommunication Convention and its Radio Regulations and of international instruments relating to friendly relations and cooperation among States and to human rights.

C. RIGHTS AND BENEFITS

5. Every State has an equal right to conduct activities in the field of international direct television broadcasting by satellite and to authorize such activities by persons and entities under its jurisdiction. All States and peoples are entitled to and should enjoy the benefits from such activities. Access to the technology in this field should be available to all States without discrimination on terms mutually agreed by all concerned. C The Texts of the Key Documents 709

D. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

6. Activities in the field of international direct television broadcasting by satellite should be based upon and encourage international cooperation. Such cooperation should be the subject of appropriate arrangements. Special consideration should be given to the needs of the developing countries in the use of international direct television broadcasting by satellite for the purpose of accelerating their national development.

E. PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES

7. Any international dispute that may arise from activities covered by these principles should be settled through established procedures for the peaceful settlement of disputes agreed upon by the parties to the dispute in accordance with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations.

F. STATE RESPONSIBILITY

8. States should bear international responsibility for activities in the field of international direct television broadcasting by satellite carried out by them or under their jurisdiction and for the conformity of any such activities with the principles set forth in this document. 9. When international direct television broadcasting by satellite is carried out by an international intergovernmental organization, the responsibility referred to in paragraph 8 above should be borne both by that organization and by the States participating in it.

G. DUTY AND RIGHT TO CONSULT

10. Any broadcasting or receiving State within an international direct television broadcasting satellite service established between them requested to do so by any other broadcasting or receiving State within the same service should promptly enter into consultations with the requesting State regarding its activities in the field of international direct television broadcasting by satellite, without prejudice to other consultations which these States may undertake with any other State on that subject.

H. COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS

11. Without prejudice to the relevant provisions of international law, States should cooperate on a bilateral and multilateral basis for protection of copyright and neighbouring rights by means of appropriate agreements between the interested States or the competent legal entities acting under their jurisdiction. In such 710 C The Texts of the Key Documents

cooperation they should give special consideration to the interests of developing countries in the use of direct television broadcasting for the purpose of accelerating their national development.

I. NOTIFICATION TO THE UNITED NATIONS

12. In order to promote international cooperation in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, States conducting or authorizing activities in the field of international direct television broadcasting by satellite should inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations, to the greatest extent possible, of the nature of such activities. On receiving this information, the Secretary-General should disseminate it immediately and effectively to the relevant specialized agencies, as well as to the public and the international scientific community.

J. CONSULTATIONS AND AGREEMENTS BETWEEN STATES

13. A State which intends to establish or authorize the establishment of an international direct television broadcasting satellite service shall without delay notify the proposed receiving State or States of such intention and shall promptly enter into consultation with any of those States which so requests. 14. An international direct television broadcasting satellite service shall only be established after the conditions set forth in paragraph 13 above have been met and on the basis of agreements and/or arrangements in conformity with the relevant instruments of the International Telecommunication Union and in accordance with these principles. 15. With respect to the unavoidable overspill of the radiation of the satellite signal, the relevant instruments of the International Telecommunication Union shall be exclusively applicable.

1986: UNGA Resolution on principles related to satellite remote sensing http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/principles/remote-sensing- principles.html

Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly 41/65. Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space

The General Assembly, C The Texts of the Key Documents 711

Recalling its resolution 3234 (XXIX) of 12 November 1974, in which it recommended that the Legal Subcommittee of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space should consider the question of the legal implications of remote sensing of the Earth from space, as well as its resolutions 3388 (XXX) of 18 November 1975, 31/8 of 8 November 1976, 32/196 A of 20 December 1977, 33/16 of 10 November 1978, 34/66 of 5 December 1979, 35/14 of 3 November 1980, 36/35 of 18 November 1981, 37/89 of 10 December 1982, 38/80 of 15 December 1983, 39/96 of 14 December 1984 and 40/162 of 16 December 1985, in which it called for a detailed consideration of the legal implications of remote sensing of the Earth from space, with the aim of formulating draft principles relating to remote sensing, Having considered the report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space on the work of its twenty-ninth session (A/41/20) and the text of the draft principles relating to remote sensing of the Earth from space, annexed thereto, Noting with satisfaction that the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, on the basis of the deliberations of its Legal Subcommittee, has endorsed the text of the draft principles relating to remote sensing of the Earth from space, Believing that the adoption of the principles relating to remote sensing of the Earth from space will contribute to the strengthening of international cooperation in this field, Adopts the principles relating to remote sensing of the Earth from space set forth in the annex to the present resolution.

ANNEX

PRINCIPLES RELATING TO REMOTE SENSING OF THE EARTH FROM OUTER SPACE

PRINCIPLE I

For the purposes of these principles with respect to remote sensing activities: (a) The term “remote sensing” means the sensing of the Earth's surface from space by making use of the properties of electromagnetic waves emitted, reflected or diffracted by the sensed objects, for the purpose of improving natural resources management, land use and the protection of the environment; (b) The term “primary data” means those raw data that are acquired by remote sen- sors borne by a space object and that are transmitted or delivered to the ground from space by telemetry in the form of electromagnetic signals, by photographic film, magnetic tape or any other means; (c) The term “processed data” means the products resulting from the processing of the primary data, needed to make such data usable; (d) The term “analysed information” means the information resulting from the interpretation of processed data, inputs of data and knowledge from other sources; 712 C The Texts of the Key Documents

(e) The term “remote sensing activities” means the operation of remote sensing space systems, primary data collection and storage stations, and activities in processing, interpreting and disseminating the processed data.

PRINCIPLE II

Remote sensing activities shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic, social or scientific and technological development, and taking into particular consideration the needs of the developing countries.

PRINCIPLE III

Remote sensing activities shall be conducted in accordance with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations, the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, and the relevant instruments of the International Telecommunication Union.

PRINCIPLE IV

Remote sensing activities shall be conducted in accordance with the principles contained in article I of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, which, in particular, provides that the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and stipulates the principle of freedom of exploration and use of outer space on the basis of equality. These activities shall be conducted on the basis of respect for the principle of full and permanent sovereignty of all States and peoples over their own wealth and natural resources, with due regard to the rights and interests, in accordance with international law, of other States and entities under their jurisdiction. Such activities shall not be conducted in a manner detrimental to the legitimate rights and interests of the sensed State.

PRINCIPLE V

States carrying out remote sensing activities shall promote international cooperation in these activities. To this end, they shall make available to other States opportunities for participation therein. Such participation shall be based in each case on equitable and mutually acceptable terms. C The Texts of the Key Documents 713

PRINCIPLE VI

In order to maximize the availability of benefits from remote sensing activities, States are encouraged, through agreements or other arrangements, to provide for the establishment and operation of data collecting and storage stations and processing and interpretation facilities, in particular within the framework of regional agreements or arrangements wherever feasible.

PRINCIPLE VII

States participating in remote sensing activities shall make available technical assistance to other interested States on mutually agreed terms.

PRINCIPLE VIII

The United Nations and the relevant agencies within the United Nations system shall promote international cooperation, including technical assistance and coordination in the area of remote sensing.

PRINCIPLE IX

In accordance with article IV of the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space and article XI of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, a State carrying out a programme of remote sensing shall inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations. It shall, moreover, make available any other relevant information to the greatest extent feasible and practicable to any other State, particularly any developing country that is affected by the programme, at its request.

PRINCIPLE X

Remote sensing shall promote the protection of the Earth's natural environment. To this end, States participating in remote sensing activities that have identified information in their possession that is capable of averting any phenomenon harmful to the Earth's natural environment shall disclose such information to States concerned.

PRINCIPLE XI

Remote sensing shall promote the protection of mankind from natural disasters. 714 C The Texts of the Key Documents

To this end, States participating in remote sensing activities that have identified processed data and analysed information in their possession that may be useful to States affected by natural disasters, or likely to be affected by impending natural disasters, shall transmit such data and information to States concerned as promptly as possible.

PRINCIPLE XII

As soon as the primary data and the processed data concerning the territory under its jurisdiction are produced, the sensed State shall have access to them on a non- discriminatory basis and on reasonable cost terms. The sensed State shall also have access to the available analysed information concerning the territory under its jurisdiction in the possession of any State participating in remote sensing activities on the same basis and terms, taking particularly into account the needs and interests of the developing countries.

PRINCIPLE XIII

To promote and intensify international cooperation, especially with regard to the needs of developing countries, a State carrying out remote sensing of the Earth from space shall, upon request, enter into consultations with a State whose territory is sensed in order to make available opportunities for participation and enhance the mutual benefits to be derived therefrom.

PRINCIPLE XIV

In compliance with article VI of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, States operating remote sensing satellites shall bear international responsibility for their activities and assure that such activities are conducted in accordance with these principles and the norms of international law, irrespective of whether such activities are carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities or through international organizations to which such States are parties. This principle is without prejudice to the applicability of the norms of international law on State responsibility for remote sensing activities.

PRINCIPLE XV

Any dispute resulting from the application of these principles shall be resolved through the established procedures for the peaceful settlement of disputes. C The Texts of the Key Documents 715

1992: UNGA Resolution on principles related to nuclear power sources http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/principles/nps-principles.html

Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly 47/68. Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources In Outer Space

The General Assembly, Having considered the report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space on the work of its thirty-fifth session and the text of the Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space as approved by the Committee and annexed to its report, Recognizing that for some missions in outer space nuclear power sources are particularly suited or even essential owing to their compactness, long life and other attributes, Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on those applications which take advantage of the particular properties of nuclear power sources, Recognizing further that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should be based on a thorough safety assessment, including probabilistic risk analysis, with particular emphasis on reducing the risk of accidental exposure of the public to harmful radiation or radioactive material, Recognizing the need, in this respect, for a set of principles containing goals and guidelines to ensure the safe use of nuclear power sources in outer space, Affirming that this set of Principles applies to nuclear power sources in outer space devoted to the generation of electric power on board space objects for non- propulsive purposes, which have characteristics generally comparable to those of systems used and missions performed at the time of the adoption of the Principles, Recognizing that this set of Principles will require future revision in view of emerging nuclear power applications and of evolving international recommendations on radiological protection, Adopts the Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space as set forth below.

Principle 1. Applicability of international law

Activities involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space shall be carried out in accordance with international law, including in particular the Charter of the United Nations and the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. 716 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Principle 2. Use of terms

1. For the purpose of these Principles, the terms “launching State” and “State launching” mean the State which exercises jurisdiction and control over a space object with nuclear power sources on board at a given point in time relevant to the principle concerned. 2. For the purpose of principle 9, the definition of the term “launching State” as contained in that principle is applicable. 3. For the purposes of principle 3, the terms “foreseeable” and “all possible” describe a class of events or circumstances whose overall probability of occurrence is such that it is considered to encompass only credible possibilities for purposes of safety analysis. The term “general concept of defence-in-depth” when applied to nuclear power sources in outer space refers to the use of design features and mission operations in place of or in addition to active systems, to prevent or mitigate the consequences of system malfunctions. Redundant safety systems are not necessarily required for each individual component to achieve this purpose. Given the special requirements of space use and of varied missions, no particular set of systems or features can be specified as essential to achieve this objective. For the purposes of paragraph 2 (d) of principle 3, the term “made critical” does not include actions such as zero-power testing which are fundamental to ensuring system safety.

Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use

In order to minimize the quantity of radioactive material in space and the risks involved, the use of nuclear power sources in outer space shall be restricted to those space missions which cannot be operated by non-nuclear energy sources in a reasonable way. 1. General goals for radiation protection and nuclear safety (a) States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavour to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere against radiological hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure, with a high degree of confidence, that the hazards, in foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, are kept below acceptable levels as defined in paragraphs 1 (b) and (c). Such design and use shall also ensure with high reliability that radioactive material does not cause a significant contamination of outer space. (b) During the normal operation of space objects with nuclear power sources on board, including re-entry from the sufficiently high orbit as defined in paragraph 2 (b), the appropriate radiation protection objective for the public recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection shall be observed. During such normal operation there shall be no significant radiation exposure. (c) To limit exposure in accidents, the design and construction of the nuclear power source systems shall take into account relevant and generally accepted international radiological protection guidelines. Except in cases of low-probability accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences, the design for the nuclear power source systems C The Texts of the Key Documents 717

shall, with a high degree of confidence, restrict radiation exposure to a limited geographical region and to individuals to the principal limit of 1 mSv in a year. It is permissible to use a subsidiary dose limit of 5 mSv in a year for some years, provided that the average annual effective dose equivalent over a lifetime does not exceed the principal limit of 1 mSv in a year. The probability of accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences referred to above shall be kept extremely small by virtue of the design of the system. Future modifications of the guidelines referred to in this paragraph shall be applied as soon as practicable. (d) Systems important for safety shall be designed, constructed and operated in accordance with the general concept of defence-in-depth. Pursuant to this concept, foreseeable safety-related failures or malfunctions must be capable of being corrected or counteracted by an action or a procedure, possibly automatic. The reliability of systems important for safety shall be ensured, inter alia, by redundancy, physical separation, functional isolation and adequate independence of their components. Other measures shall also be taken to raise the level of safety. 2. Nuclear reactors (a) Nuclear reactors may be operate (i) On interplanetary missions; (ii) In sufficiently high orbits as defined in paragraph 2 (b); (iii) In low-Earth orbits if they are stored in sufficiently high orbits after the operational part of their mission. (b) The sufficiently high orbit is one in which the orbital lifetime is long enough to allow for a sufficient decay of the fission products to approximately the activity of the actinides. The sufficiently high orbit must be such that the risks to existing and future outer space missions and of collision with other space objects are kept to a minimum. The necessity for the parts of a destroyed reactor also to attain the required decay time before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere shall be considered in determining the sufficiently high orbit altitude. (c) Nuclear reactors shall use only highly enriched uranium 235 as fuel. The design shall take into account the radioactive decay of the fission and activa- tion products. (d) Nuclear reactors shall not be made critical before they have reached their operating orbit or interplanetary trajectory. (e) The design and construction of the nuclear reactor shall ensure that it cannot become critical before reaching the operating orbit during all possible events, including rocket explosion, re-entry, impact on ground or water, sub- mersion in water or water intruding into the core. (f) In order to reduce significantly the possibility of failures in satellites with nuclear reactors on board during operations in an orbit with a lifetime less than in the sufficiently high orbit (including operations for transfer into the sufficiently high orbit), there shall be a highly reliable operational system to ensure an effective and controlled disposal of the reactor. 718 C The Texts of the Key Documents

3. Radioisotope generators (a) Radioisotope generators may be used for interplanetary missions and other missions leaving the gravity field of the Earth. They may also be used in Earth orbit if, after conclusion of the operational part of their mission, they are stored in a high orbit. In any case ultimate disposal is necessary. (b) Radioisotope generators shall be protected by a containment system that is designed and constructed to withstand the heat and aerodynamic forces of re-entry in the upper atmosphere under foreseeable orbital conditions, including highly elliptical or hyperbolic orbits where relevant. Upon impact, the containment system and the physical form of the isotope shall ensure that no radioactive material is scattered into the environment so that the impact area can be completely cleared of radioactivity by a recovery operation.

Principle 4. Safety assessment

1. A launching State as defined in principle 2, paragraph 1, at the time of launch shall, prior to the launch, through cooperative arrangements, where relevant, with those which have designed, constructed or manufactured the nuclear power sources, or will operate the space object, or from whose territory or facility such an object will be launched, ensure that a thorough and comprehensive safety assessment is conducted. This assessment shall cover as well all relevant phases of the mission and shall deal with all systems involved, including the means of launching, the space platform, the nuclear power source and its equipment and the means of control and communication between ground and space. 2. This assessment shall respect the guidelines and criteria for safe use contained in principle 3. 3. Pursuant to article XI of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, the results of this safety assessment, together with, to the extent feasible, an indication of the approximate intended time-frame of the launch, shall be made publicly available prior to each launch, and the Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be informed on how States may obtain such results of the safety assessment as soon as possible prior to each launch.

Principle 5. Notification of re-entry

1. Any State launching a space object with nuclear power sources on board shall in a timely fashion inform States concerned in the event this space object is malfunctioning with a risk of re-entry of radioactive materials to the Earth. The information shall be in accordance with the following format: (a) System parameters: (i) Name of launching State or States, including the address of the authority which may be contacted for additional information or assistance in case of accident; C The Texts of the Key Documents 719

(ii) International designation; (iii) Date and territory or location of launch; (iv) Information required for best prediction of orbit lifetime, trajectory and impact region; (v) General function of spacecraft; (b) Information on the radiological risk of nuclear power source(s): (i) Type of nuclear power source: radioisotopic/reactor; (ii) The probable physical form, amount and general radiological characteristics of the fuel and contaminated and/or activated components likely to reach the ground. The term “fuel” refers to the nuclear material used as the source of heat or power. 2. The information, in accordance with the format above, shall be provided by the launching State as soon as the malfunction has become known. It shall be updated as frequently as practicable and the frequency of dissemination of the updated information shall increase as the anticipated time of re-entry into the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere approaches so that the international community will be informed of the situation and will have sufficient time to plan for any national response activities deemed necessary. 3. The updated information shall also be transmitted to the Secretary-General of the United Nations with the same frequency.

Principle 6. Consultations

States providing information in accordance with principle 5 shall, as far as reasonably practicable, respond promptly to requests for further information or consultations sought by other States.

Principle 7. Assistance to States

1. Upon the notification of an expected re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere of a space object containing a nuclear power source on board and its components, all States possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, in the spirit of international cooperation, shall communicate the relevant information that they may have available on the malfunctioning space object with a nuclear power source on board to the Secretary-General of the United Nations and the State concerned as promptly as possible to allow States that might be affected to assess the situation and take any precautionary measures deemed necessary. 2. After re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere of a space object containing a nuclear power source on board and its components: (a) The launching State shall promptly offer and, if requested by the affected State, provide promptly the necessary assistance to eliminate actual and possible harmful effects, including assistance to identify the location of the area of impact of the nuclear power source on the Earth's surface, to detect the re-entered material and to carry out retrieval or clean-up operations; 720 C The Texts of the Key Documents

(b) All States, other than the launching State, with relevant technical capabilities and international organizations with such technical capabilities shall, to the extent possible, provide necessary assistance upon request by an affected State. In providing the assistance in accordance with subparagraphs (a) and (b) above, the special needs of developing countries shall be taken into account.

Principle 8. Responsibility

In accordance with article VI of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, States shall bear international responsibility for national activities involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space, whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or by non-governmental entities, and for assuring that such national activities are carried out in conformity with that Treaty and the recommendations contained in these Principles. When activities in outer space involving the use of nuclear power sources are carried on by an international organization, responsibility for compliance with the aforesaid Treaty and the recommendations contained in these Principles shall be borne both by the international organization and by the States participating in it.

Principle 9. Liability and compensation

1. In accordance with article VII of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, and the provisions of the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, each State which launches or procures the launching of a space object and each State from whose territory or facility a space object is launched shall be internationally liable for damage caused by such space objects or their component parts. This fully applies to the case of such a space object carrying a nuclear power source on board. Whenever two or more States jointly launch such a space object, they shall be jointly and severally liable for any damage caused, in accordance with article V of the above-mentioned Convention. 2. The compensation that such States shall be liable to pay under the aforesaid Convention for damage shall be determined in accordance with international law and the principles of justice and equity, in order to provide such reparation in respect of the damage as will restore the person, natural or juridical, State or international organization on whose behalf a claim is presented to the condition which would have existed if the damage had not occurred. 3. For the purposes of this principle, compensation shall include reimbursement of the duly substantiated expenses for search, recovery and clean-up operations, including expenses for assistance received from third parties. C The Texts of the Key Documents 721

Principle 10. Settlement of disputes

Any dispute resulting from the application of these Principles shall be resolved through negotiations or other established procedures for the peaceful settlement of disputes, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.

Principle 11. Review and revision

These Principles shall be reopened for revision by the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space no later than two years after their adoption.

1996: UNGA Resolution on principles related to space common benefits

http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/principles/space-benefits- declaration.html

Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly 51/122. Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries

The General Assembly, Having considered the report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space on the work of its thirty-ninth session 1 and the text of the Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries, as approved by the Committee and annexed to its report, 2 Bearing in mind the relevant provisions of the Charter of the United Nations, Recalling notably the provisions of the Treaty on the Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 3 Recalling also its relevant resolutions relating to activities in outer space, Bearing in mind the recommendations of the Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 4and of other international conferences relevant in this field, Recognizing the growing scope and significance of international cooperation among States and between States and international organizations in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, 722 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Considering experiences gained in international cooperative ventures, Convinced of the necessity and the significance of further strengthening international cooperation in order to reach a broad and efficient collaboration in this field for the mutual benefit and in the interest of all parties involved, Desirous of facilitating the application of the principle that the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interest of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind, Adopts the Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries, set forth in the annex to the present resolution.

ANNEX

DECLARATION ON INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN THE EXPLORATION AND USE OF OUTER SPACE FOR THE BENEFIT AND IN THE INTEREST OF ALL STATES, TAKING INTO PARTICULAR ACCOUNT THE NEEDS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

1. International cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes (hereafter “international cooperation”) shall be conducted in accordance with the provisions of international law, including the Charter of the United Nations and the Treaty on the Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. It shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interest of all States, irrespective of their degree of economic, social or scientific and technological development, and shall be the province of all mankind. Particular account should be taken of the needs of developing countries. 2. States are free to determine all aspects of their participation in international cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space on an equitable and mutually acceptable basis. Contractual terms in such cooperative ventures should be fair and reasonable and they should be in full compliance with the legitimate rights and interests of the parties concerned as, for example, with intellectual property rights. 3. All States, particularly those with relevant space capabilities and with programmes for the exploration and use of outer space, should contribute to promoting and fostering international cooperation on an equitable and mutually acceptable basis. In this context, particular attention should be given to the benefit for and the interests of developing countries and countries with incipient space programmes stemming from such international cooperation conducted with countries with more advanced space capabilities. C The Texts of the Key Documents 723

4. International cooperation should be conducted in the modes that are considered most effective and appropriate by the countries concerned, including, inter alia, governmental and non-governmental; commercial and non-commercial; global, multilateral, regional or bilateral; and international cooperation among countries in all levels of development. 5. International cooperation, while taking into particular account the needs of developing countries, should aim, inter alia, at the following goals, considering their need for technical assistance and rational and efficient allocation of financial and technical resources: (a) Promoting the development of space science and technology and of its applications; (b) Fostering the development of relevant and appropriate space capabilities in interested States; (c) Facilitating the exchange of expertise and technology among States on a mutually acceptable basis. 6. National and international agencies, research institutions, organizations for development aid, and developed and developing countries alike should consider the appropriate use of space applications and the potential of international cooperation for reaching their development goals. 7. The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space should be strengthened in its role, among others, as a forum for the exchange of information on national and international activities in the field of international cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space. 8. All States should be encouraged to contribute to the United Nations Programme on Space Applications and to other initiatives in the field of international cooperation in accordance with their space capabilities and their participation in the exploration and use of outer space.

2004: UNGA Resolution on the concept of the “launching State” http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_59_115E.pdf

Resolution adopted by the General Assembly 59/115. Application of the concept of the “launching State”

The General Assembly, Recalling the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects and the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, Bearing in mind that the term “launching State” as used in the Liability Convention and the Registration Convention is important in space law, that a launching State shall register a space object in accordance with the Registration Convention and that the 724 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Liability Convention identifies those States which may be liable for damage caused by a space object and which would have to pay compensation in such a case, Taking note of the report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space on its forty-second session and the report of the Legal Subcommittee on its forty- first session, in particular the conclusions of the Working Group on the agenda item entitled “Review of the concept of the ‘launching State’” annexed to the report of the Legal Subcommittee, Noting that nothing in the conclusions of the Working Group or in the present resolution constitutes an authoritative interpretation of or a proposed amendment to the Registration Convention or the Liability Convention, Noting also that changes in space activities since the Liability Convention and the Registration Convention entered into force include the continuous development of new technologies, an increase in the number of States carrying out space activities, an increase in international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space and an increase in space activities carried out by non-governmental entities, including activities carried out jointly by government agencies and non- governmental entities, as well as partnerships formed by non-governmental entities from one or more countries, Desirous of facilitating adherence to and the application of the provisions of the United Nations treaties on outer space, in particular the Liability Convention and the Registration Convention, 1. Recommends that States conducting space activities, in fulfilling their international obligations under the United Nations treaties on outer space, in particular the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 5 the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects1 and the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space,2 as well as other relevant international agreements, consider enacting and implementing national laws authorizing and providing for continuing supervision of the activities in outer space of non-governmental entities under their jurisdiction; 2. Also recommends that States consider the conclusion of agreements in accordance with the Liability Convention with respect to joint launches or cooperation programmes; 3. Further recommends that the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space invite Member States to submit information on a voluntary basis on their current practices regarding on-orbit transfer of ownership of space objects; 4. Recommends that States consider, on the basis of that information, the possibility of harmonizing such practices as appropriate with a view to increasing the consistency of national space legislation with international law; 5. Requests the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, in making full use of the functions and resources of the Secretariat, to continue to provide States, at their request, with relevant information and assistance in developing national space laws based on the relevant treaties. 71st plenary meeting 10 December 2004 C The Texts of the Key Documents 725

2007: UNGA Resolution on the guidelines related to space debris mitigation http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/sd/COPUOS-GuidelinesE.pdf

Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space

1. Background

Since the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space published its Technical Report on Space Debris in 1999, it has been a common understanding that the current space debris environment poses a risk to spacecraft in Earth orbit. For the purpose of this document, space debris is defined as all man-made objects, including fragments and elements thereof, in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere, that are non-functional. As the population of debris continues to grow, the probability of collisions that could lead to potential damage will consequently increase. In addition, there is also the risk of damage on the ground, if debris survives Earth’s atmospheric re-entry. The prompt implementation of appropriate debris mitigation measures is therefore considered a prudent and necessary step towards preserving the outer space environment for future generations. Historically, the primary sources of space debris in Earth orbits have been (a) accidental and intentional break-ups which produce long-lived debris and (b) debris released intentionally during the operation of launch vehicle orbital stages and spacecraft. In the future, fragments generated by collisions are expected to be a significant source of space debris. Space debris mitigation measures can be divided into two broad categories: those that curtail the generation of potentially harmful space debris in the near term and those that limit their generation over the longer term. The former involves the curtailment of the production of mission-related space debris and the avoidance of break-ups. The latter concerns end-of-life procedures that remove decom- missioned spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages from regions populated by operational spacecraft.

2. Rationale

The implementation of space debris mitigation measures is recommended since some space debris has the potential to damage spacecraft, leading to loss of mission, or loss of life in the case of manned spacecraft. For manned flight orbits, space debris mitigation measures are highly relevant due to crew safety implications. A set of mitigation guidelines has been developed by the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), reflecting the fundamental mitigation elements 726 C The Texts of the Key Documents of a series of existing practices, standards, codes and handbooks developed by a number of national and international organizations. The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space acknowledges the benefit of a set of high-level qualitative guidelines, having wider acceptance among the global space community. The Working Group on Space Debris was therefore established (by the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the Committee) to develop a set of recommended guidelines based on the technical content and the basic definitions of the IADC space debris mitigation guidelines, and taking into consideration the United Nations treaties and principles on outer space.

3. Application

Member States and international organizations should voluntarily take measures, through national mechanisms or through their own applicable mechanisms, to ensure that these guidelines are implemented, to the greatest extent feasible, through space debris mitigation practices and procedures. These guidelines are applicable to mission planning and the operation of newly designed spacecraft and orbital stages and, if possible, to existing ones. They are not legally binding under international law. It is also recognized that exceptions to the implementation of individual guidelines or elements thereof may be justified, for example, by the provisions of the United Nations treaties and principles on outer space.

4. Space debris mitigation guidelines

The following guidelines should be considered for the mission planning, design, manufacture and operational (launch, mission and disposal) phases of spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages:

Guideline 1: Limit debris released during normal operations

Space systems should be designed not to release debris during normal operations. If this is not feasible, the effect of any release of debris on the outer space environment should be minimized. During the early decades of the space age, launch vehicle and spacecraft design- ers permitted the intentional release of numerous mission-related objects into Earth orbit, including, among other things, sensor covers, separation mechanisms and deployment articles. Dedicated design efforts, prompted by the recognition of the threat posed by such objects, have proved effective in reducing this source of space debris. C The Texts of the Key Documents 727

Guideline 2: Minimize the potential for break-ups during operational phases

Spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages should be designed to avoid failure modes which may lead to accidental break-ups. In cases where a condition leading to such a failure is detected, disposal and passivation measures should be planned and executed to avoid break-ups. Historically, some break-ups have been caused by space system malfunctions, such as catastrophic failures of propulsion and power systems. By incorporating potential break-up scenarios in failure mode analysis, the probability of these catastrophic events can be reduced.

Guideline 3: Limit the probability of accidental collision in orbit

In developing the design and mission profile of spacecraft and launch vehicle stages, the probability of accidental collision with known objects during the system’s launch phase and orbital lifetime should be estimated and limited. If available orbital data indicate a potential collision, adjustment of the launch time or an on-orbit avoidance manoeuvre should be considered. Some accidental collisions have already been identified. Numerous studies indicate that, as the number and mass of space debris increase, the primary source of new space debris is likely to be from collisions. Collision avoidance procedures have already been adopted by some Member States and international organizations.

Guideline 4: Avoid intentional destruction and other harmful activities

Recognizing that an increased risk of collision could pose a threat to space operations, the intentional destruction of any on-orbit spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages or other harmful activities that generate long-lived debris should be avoided. When intentional break-ups are necessary, they should be conducted at sufficiently low altitudes to limit the orbital lifetime of resulting fragments.

Guideline 5: Minimize potential for post-mission break-ups resulting from stored energy

In order to limit the risk to other spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages from accidental break-ups, all on-board sources of stored energy should be depleted or made safe when they are no longer required for mission operations or post-mission disposal. By far the largest percentage of the catalogued space debris population originated from the fragmentation of spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages. The majority of those break-ups were unintentional, many arising from the abandonment of spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages with significant amounts of stored energy. The most effective mitigation measures have been the passivation of space- 728 C The Texts of the Key Documents craft and launch vehicle orbital stages at the end of their mission. Passivation requires the removal of all forms of stored energy, including residual propellants and compressed fluids and the discharge of electrical storage devices.

Guideline 6: Limit the long-term presence of spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages in the low-Earth orbit (LEO) region after the end of their mission

Spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages that have terminated their operational phases in orbits that pass through the LEO region should be removed from orbit in a controlled fashion. If this is not possible, they should be disposed of in orbits that avoid their long-term presence in the LEO region. When making determinations regarding potential solutions for removing objects from LEO, due consideration should be given to ensuring that debris that survives to reach the surface of the Earth does not pose an undue risk to people or property, including through environmental pollution caused by hazardous substances.

Guideline 7: Limit the long-term interference of spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages with the geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) region after the end of their mission

Spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages that have terminated their operational phases in orbits that pass through the GEO region should be left in orbits that avoid their long-term interference with the GEO region. For space objects in or near the GEO region, the potential for future collisions can be reduced by leaving objects at the end of their mission in an orbit above the GEO region such that they will not interfere with, or return to, the GEO region.

5. Updates

Research by Member States and international organizations in the area of space debris should continue in a spirit of international cooperation to maximize the benefits of space debris mitigation initiatives. This document will be reviewed and may be revised, as warranted, in the light of new findings.

6. Reference

The reference version of the IADC space debris mitigation guidelines at the time of the publication of this document is contained in the annex to document A/AC.105/ C.1/L.260. For more in-depth descriptions and recommendations pertaining to space debris mitigation measures, Member States and international organizations may refer to the latest version of the IADC space debris mitigation guidelines and other supporting documents, which can be found on the IADC website (www.iadc- online.org). C The Texts of the Key Documents 729

2013: UNGA-Report of the GGE on TCBMs in Outer Space Activities http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/68/189

Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities

Note by the Secretary-General

The Secretary-General has the honour to transmit herewith the report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities. The Group was established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 65/68.

Report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities

Summary The present report contains the study on outer space transparency and confidence-building measures conducted by the Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence- Building Measures in Outer Space Activities, which was established by the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The study was adopted by consensus. The Group concluded that the world’s growing dependence on space-based systems and technologies and the information they provide requires collaborative efforts to address threats to the sustainability and security of outer space activities. Transparency and confidence-building measures can reduce, or even eliminate, misunderstandings, mistrust and miscalculations with regard to the activities and intentions of States in outer space. The Group acknowledged that the existing treaties on outer space contain several transparency and confidence-building measures of a mandatory nature. Non-legally binding measures for outer space activities should complement the existing international legal framework pertaining to space activities and should not undermine existing legal obligations or hamper the lawful use of outer space, particularly by emerging space actors. The Group further agreed that such measures for outer space activities could contribute to, but not act as a substitute for, measures to monitor the implementation of arms limitation and disarmament agreements. After extensive and in-depth discussions, the Group drafted a series of measures for outer space activities, including exchange of information relating to national space policy such as major military expenditure on outer space, notifications on outer space activities aimed at risk reduction, and visits to space launch sites and facilities. The Group discussed criteria for developing transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities and for testing their implementation and validation. In addition, the Group encouraged further development of international cooperation between spacefaring and non-spacefaring nations in the peaceful uses of outer space for the benefit of all States. 730 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Summary The proposed measures drafted by the Group also include coordination and consultative mechanisms aimed at improving interaction between participants in outer space activities and clarifying information and ambiguous situations. In order to promote effective implementation of the transparency and confidence-building measures, the Group recommended that coordination be established between the Office for Disarmament Affairs, the Office for Outer Space Affairs and other appropriate United Nations entities. The Group recommended that States and international organizations consider and implement the transparency and confidence-building measures contained in the present report on a voluntary basis and without prejudice to the implementation of obligations deriving from existing legal commitments. The Group further recommended that the General Assembly decide how to best advance transparency and confidence-building measures and facilitate their universal consideration and support, including by the relevant offices of the Secretariat and the United Nations entities whose work relates to disarmament. The Group also requested the Secretary-General to circulate its report to all relevant entities of the United Nations system.

Contents

Page Foreword by the Secretary-General 4 Letter of transmittal 5 Introduction 9 Background overview 9 General characteristics and basic principles of outer space transparency 12 and confidence-building measures Nature and purpose of outer space transparency and confidence-building measures 12 Transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities 13 Criteria for transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space 14 Enhancing the transparency of outer space activities 15 Information exchange on space policies 16 Information exchange and notifications related to outer space activities 16 Risk reduction notifications 17 Contact and visits to space launch sites and facilities 18 International cooperation 18 Consultative mechanisms 19 Outreach 20 Coordination 20 Conclusions and recommendations 21

Foreword by the Secretary-General

The societies of our globalized world are increasingly dependent on the more than 1,000 operational satellites that orbit Earth. Space-based platforms can collect and almost instantly broadcast large amounts of information worldwide. The benefits derived from outer space resources are now fundamental components of our daily lives. From agriculture and weather forecasting to mapping and communications, space plays an ever-growing role in human activities and development. C The Texts of the Key Documents 731

However, outer space is a fragile environment where the steps taken by one actor may have an impact on others, including users of space services on Earth. The broader application of space operations and the increased strategic value of space have resulted in a growing focus on safety in outer space activities. Satellites provide strategic advantages but they are also vulnerable. Protecting space assets has thus become a serious international security concern. The applicability of transparency and confidence-building measures for outer space activities was explored for the first time at the global level in 1993, when few countries were able to operate satellites and spacecraft. Today, more than 60 States, government consortiums and other entities own or operate space assets, and the number of spacefaring nations continues to grow. This fundamental change in the political climate surrounding outer space led me to establish, in 2012, the Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities. The present report contains the Group’s conclusions and recommendations. It builds on the recommendations of a previous group of experts and on proposals for outer space transparency and confidence-building measures submitted to the United Nations by Member States. The study reaffirms that international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space can help States to develop and strengthen their capacities to benefit from space activities. The Group agreed on a number of substantive transparency and confidence-building measures, which I commend to the General Assembly for consideration. I also support the Group’s recommendation to establish coordination between various entities of the United Nations Secretariat and other institutions involved in outer space activities. This would facilitate the implementation of the transparency and confidence-building measures and promote their further development. Outer space is an inherently multilateral domain. If we are to continue to take advantage of the invaluable resources that outer space provides, it is critically important for all nations to work collectively to keep it free from destabilizing conflict and to make it safe, secure and sustainable in the long term for the benefit of all humankind.

Letter of transmittal

19 July 2013 I have the honour to submit herewith the report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities, established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 65/68. The members of the Group are as follows: Brazil Mr. João Marcelo Galvão de Queiroz Head, Disarmament and Sensitive Technologies Division Ministry of Foreign Relations Brasilia 732 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Chile Mr. Helmut Lagos Deputy Permanent Representative of Chile to the United Nations Vienna China Mr. Dai Huaicheng Director Department of Arms Control and Disarmament Ministry of Foreign Affairs Beijing France Mr. Gérard Brachet President, Academy of Air and Space Paris Italy Mr. Sergio Marchisio Director Institute of International Legal Studies National Research Council Rome Kazakhstan Mr. Ruslan Amirgereyev Head, Military Programmes Ministry of Defence Astana Nigeria Mr. Augustine U. Nwosa Minister Permanent Mission of Nigeria to the United Nations New York Republic of Korea Mr. Chulmin Park Deputy Director General International Organizations Bureau Ministry of Foreign Affairs Seoul Romania Mr. Dimitru-Dorin Prunariu President Scientific Council of the Romanian Space Agency Bucharest C The Texts of the Key Documents 733

Russian Federation Mr. Victor L. Vasiliev Deputy Permanent Representative Mission of the Russian Federation to the United Nations and other international organizations (Geneva) Geneva South Africa Mr. Peter Martinez Chairman Council for Space Affairs Cape Town Sri Lanka Mr. Musthafa M. Jaffeer Ambassador of Sri Lanka to Norway Oslo Ukraine Mr. Andrii Kasianov Counsellor Division of Disarmament and Non-proliferation Ministry of Foreign Affairs Kyiv (First session) Mr. Borys Atamanenko Head International Relations Department State Space Agency Kyiv (Second and third sessions) United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Mr. Richard Crowther Chief Engineer United Kingdom Space Agency Swindon, Wiltshire United States of America Mr. Frank A. Rose Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Space and Defence Policy Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance Department of State Washington, D.C. 734 C The Texts of the Key Documents

The report was prepared between July 2012 and July 2013, during which period the Group of Governmental Experts held three sessions: the first and third sessions were held in New York, from 23 to 27 July 2012 and from 8 to 12 July 2013 respectively, and the second session was held in Geneva, from 1 to 5 April 2013. In carrying out its work, the Group took into account the report of the Secretary- General entitled “Study on the application of confidence-building measures in outer space” (A/48/305 and Corr.1). It also considered a number of proposals from experts and from States that were not represented by experts in the Group. With the purpose of preparing a comprehensive study, the Group authorized the Chair to conduct consultations during the intersessional periods with intergovernmental organizations involved in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space. The Chair briefed the Conference on Disarmament and the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space about discussions within the Group. In addition, he conducted consultations with the International Telecommunication Union and the World Meteorological Organization. Following extensive and in-depth discussions, the experts agreed upon a set of transparency and confidence-building measures for outer space activities and recommended that States consider and implement them on a voluntary basis. The measures include the exchange of different types of information relating to space policy and activities, risk reduction notifications and expert visits to national space facilities. The Group recommended that the General Assembly decide how to further advance transparency and confidence-building measures and provide for their universal consideration and support. In addition, it requested the Secretary-General to circulate the present report to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and other relevant entities of the United Nations system. Efforts should also be made to reach universal participation in, implementation of and full adherence to the existing legal agreements relating to outer space activities. The Group stressed that the implementation of those international agreements in combination with the transparency and confidence-building measures recommended in the report would constitute an essential element for building a climate of trust and confidence among States. The members of the Group wish to express their appreciation for the assistance they received from members of the United Nations Secretariat, in particular those who served as Secretaries of the Group. The Group also wishes to express its appreciation for the contribution of the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, which served as consultant to the Group. I have been requested by the Group of Governmental Experts, as its Chair, to submit to you, on its behalf, the present report, which was approved by consensus.

(Signed) Victor L. Vasiliev Chair Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities C The Texts of the Key Documents 735

I. Introduction

1. Pursuant to General Assembly resolution 65/68, the Secretary-General established the Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence- Building Measures in Outer Space Activities, on the basis of equitable geographical representation, with the purpose of conducting a study on outer space transparency and confidence-building measures, making use of the relevant reports of the Secretary-General. The General Assembly has noted the need to conduct the study, without prejudice to the substantive discussions on the prevention of an arms race in outer space within the framework of the Conference on Disarmament. 2. The present report reflects the recommendations of the Group of Governmental Experts on possible transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities that could be adopted voluntarily by States on a unilateral, bilateral, regional or multilateral basis. Section II provides a background overview. In section III, the general characteristics and basic principles of outer space transparency and confidence-building measures are discussed. Sections IV-VIII reflect the specific measures recommended by the Group on transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities. Finally, section IX provides general conclusions and recommendations for the implementation of the measures presented in sections IV-VIII. 3. For the preparation of the report, the Group carried out a wide range of consultations and received input from Member States, international organizations and civil society.

II. Background overview

4. The outer space environment, and the immense resources it provides, is a critical component of human endeavour in the twenty-first century. From communications to financial operations, farming to weather forecasting and environmental monitoring to navigation, surveillance and treaty monitoring, outer space resources play a key role in the activities of all nations. Outer space activities play a significant role in social, economic, scientific and technological development, as well as in the field of international peace and security. 5. Today, there are more than 1,000 operational satellites in orbit around the Earth. More than 60 States, government consortiums and other entities own or operate those space assets and more and more States are becoming spacefaring nations and/or increasing their space-based capabilities and resources. 6. The result of the increase in space actors and space users is that the space environment, especially key Earth orbits, has become increasingly utilized over the past few decades. As a consequence, the outer space environment is becoming increasingly congested, contested and competitive. In the context of international peace and security, there is growing concern that threats to vital space 736 C The Texts of the Key Documents

capabilities may increase during the next decade as a result of both natural and man-made hazards and the possible development of disruptive and destructive counterspace capabilities. 7. In addition to the growth of space actors and space resource users, since the last study by governmental experts on the application of confidence-building measures in outer space (A/48/305 and Corr.1), the political climate regarding outer space sustainability and security has fundamentally changed, as reflected in, inter alia, the resolutions adopted by the General Assembly on transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities, and the substantive discussions of the Conference on Disarmament on the prevention of an arms race in outer space and of the Working Group on the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, as well as the activities of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Various proposals have also been put forward, including a draft treaty introduced at the Conference on Disarmament on the prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space and of the threat or use of force against outer space objects (see CD/1839) and the proposal for an international code of conduct for outer space activities.1 8. The Group recognized the invaluable role played by the existing international treaties on outer space, adopted by the General Assembly, especially the 1967 Treaty on the Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, in consolidating a legal regime aimed at fostering use of outer space and strengthening international cooperation in outer space activities. In that context, the Group recognized that States are ultimately responsible for the authorization and continuing supervision of all space activities under their jurisdiction. Under the legal framework of those treaties and of other instruments that may also be relevant and applicable to the space environment in that context, use of outer space by States, international organizations and private entities has flourished.2 As a result, space technology and services contribute immeasurably to economic growth and improvements in the quality of life around the world. 9. With regard to maintaining international peace and security, it is clear that it is in the shared interest of all nations to act responsibly and in accordance with international law when carrying out outer space activities, in order to help to prevent mishaps, misperceptions and miscalculations. As more governmental and non-governmental entities become involved in outer space activities, greater international cooperation is needed to uphold the long-standing principle that the exploration and use of outer space should be carried out for the

1 http://eeas.europa.eu/non-proliferation-and-disarmament/outer-space-activities/index_en.htm. 2 Reference is made mainly to the mentioned 1967 Outer Space Treaty, the 1968 Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, the 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects and the 1975 Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, and the ITU Constitution and Convention and its Radio Regulations, as amended. C The Texts of the Key Documents 737

benefit and in the interests of all countries. Such cooperation is essential if the international community is to succeed in safeguarding the use of outer space for peaceful purposes and for future generations. 10. The Group noted that efforts by States, and the international community as a whole, are being undertaken to advance concerted, well-thought out, effective and timely bilateral, regional and multilateral initiatives to strengthen stability and security in outer space in a constructive manner. 11. The work that takes place within the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, its Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and its Legal Subcommittee, makes a significant contribution to the promotion of the long-term sustainability of outer space activities. The Committee and its Subcommittees play a central role in the development of treaties, principles and guidelines related to outer space activities. 12. In 2010, the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee established the Working Group on the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities. The Working Group is mandated to prepare a report on the long-term sustainability of outer space activities and to recommend a set of guidelines focused on practical and prudent measures that could be implemented in a timely manner to enhance the safety and long-term sustainability of outer space activities. 13. The Group of Governmental Experts recognized the active participation of member States of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in the development of those guidelines and noted the importance of their subsequent implementation by all States and intergovernmental organizations. These guidelines will have characteristics similar to those of transparency and confidence-building measures; some of them could be considered as potential transparency and confidence-building measures, while others could provide the technical basis for the implementation of certain transparency and confidence- building measures proposed by this Group of Governmental Experts. The report of the Working Group on the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities will be presented to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Once the finalized guidelines are approved, they will be presented to the Fourth Committee of the General Assembly, and then to the General Assembly itself for endorsement and adoption. 14. The Group noted the extensive work of the First Committee of the General Assembly on confidence-building measures in various sectors. Specifically, the Group noted that the First Committee recommends for adoption by the Assembly a draft resolution on transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities on an annual basis. Additionally, the Group noted the concrete proposals from Member States on outer space transparency and confidence-building measures, as contained in the report of the Secretary- General entitled “Transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities” (A/65/123 and Add.1). 15. The Group noted that the agenda of the Conference on Disarmament includes the item “Prevention of an arms race in outer space”. In that context, several initiatives related to transparency and confidence-building measures have been 738 C The Texts of the Key Documents

proposed. They include, for example, working papers on transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space (CD/1815) and on the merits of certain draft transparency and confidence-building measures and treaty proposals for space security (CD/1865). Also of note is the draft treaty on prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space and of the threat or use of force against outer space objects (see CD/1839). 16. Following General Assembly resolutions on transparency and confidence- building measures in outer space, the European Union presented a draft of a non-legally binding international code of conduct for outer space activities to the international community in Vienna on 5 June 2012. The Group noted the open-ended consultations on the proposal that were held in Kyiv on 16 and 17 May 2013. 17. The Group noted the role of ITU in the management of the radio frequency spectrum and geostationary orbital slots. In the context of transparency and confidence-building measures, the ITU Radiocommunication Bureau plays a key role in addressing harmful radio-frequency interference, as provided for in article 45 of the ITU Constitution and article 15 of the ITU Radio Regulations. The Group also noted the importance of commitments to establish and implement policies and procedures to minimize any form of harmful radio-frequency interference. 18. The Group noted that regional intergovernmental organizations provide useful platforms for the development and implementation of transparency and confidence-building measures related to coordination and international cooperation. 19. The Group noted that, since 2004, several States have introduced a policy of not being the first State to place weapons in outer space.

III. General characteristics and basic principles of outer space transparency and confidence-building measures

A. Nature and purpose of outer space transparency and confidence-building measures

20. In general terms, transparency and confidence-building measures are a means by which Governments can share information with the aim of creating mutual understanding and trust, reducing misperceptions and miscalculations and thereby helping both to prevent military confrontation and to foster regional and global stability. They also assist in building confidence as to the peaceful intentions of States and can help States to increase understanding, enhance clar- ity of intentions and create conditions for establishing a predictable strategic situation in both the economic and security arenas. 21. Although there is no universal or comprehensive prescription for identifying transparency and confidence-building measures, there are certain characteristics that may be used to determine their effectiveness. In general, there are two C The Texts of the Key Documents 739

types of transparency and confidence-building measures: those dealing with capabilities and those dealing with behaviours. The Group took note of the “Guidelines for appropriate types of confidence-building measures and for the implementation of such measures on a global or regional level”, as contained in the “Study on the application of confidence-building measures in outer space” (A/48/305 and Corr.1, annex, appendix II). 22. Transparency and confidence-building measures have been employed in a number of terrestrial contexts for decades. They had an especially important role during the cold war, where they were intended to contribute to reducing the risk of armed conflict through mitigating misunderstandings related to military activities, particularly in situations where States lacked clear and timely information. 23. The Group was of the view that transparency and confidence-building measures developed in a multilateral framework are more likely to be adopted by the wider international community.

B. Transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities

24. The Group recognized that transparency and confidence-building measures, for the purpose of its study, were to be considered as non-legally binding voluntary measures. At the same time, it noted that elements of transparency and confidence-building measures may be found in existing international agreements. The Group also discussed other measures, including those of a legally binding nature. 25. The Group recognized that the need for transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities has increased significantly over the past two decades. It is generally acknowledged that such measures can augment the safety, sustainability and security of day-to-day space operations and can contribute both to the development of mutual understanding and to the strengthening of friendly relations between States and peoples. That recognition has been reflected in numerous resolutions of the General Assembly. 26. Transparency and confidence-building measures for outer space activities are part of a broader context of such measures. The General Assembly endorsed, in its resolution 43/78 H, the guidelines for appropriate types of confidence- building measures, as adopted by the Disarmament Commission at its 1988 substantive session. In that resolution, the Assembly noted that “confidence- building measures, while neither a substitute nor a precondition for arms limitation and disarmament measures, can be conducive to achieving progress in disarmament”. 27. The Group identified the following categories of transparency and confidence- building measures for outer space activities as being of relevance: (a) General transparency and confidence-building measures aimed at enhancing the availability of information on the space policy of States involved in outer space activities; 740 C The Texts of the Key Documents

(b) Information exchange about development programmes for new space systems, as well as information about operational space-based systems providing widely used services such as meteorological observations or global positioning, navigation and timing; (c) The articulation of a State’s principles and goals relating to their exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes; (d) Specific information-exchange measures aimed at expanding the availability of information on objects in outer space and their general function, particularly those objects in Earth orbits; (e) Measures related to establishing norms of behaviour for promoting spaceflight safety such as launch notifications and consultations that aim at avoiding potentially harmful interference, limiting orbital debris and minimizing the risk of collisions with other space objects; (f) International cooperation measures in outer space activities, including measures aimed at promoting capacity-building and disseminating data for sustainable economic and social development, that are consistent with existing international commitments and obligations. 28. The Group agreed that transparency and confidence-building measures for outer space activities can also contribute to, but not substitute for, measures to verify arms limitation and disarmament agreements. 29. The Group noted that some transparency and confidence-building measures for outer space activities have already been enacted at the multilateral and/or the national level. Such measures include pre-launch notifications, space situational awareness data-sharing, notifications of hazards to spaceflight safety and other significant events, and the publication of national space policies. Several countries have also proposed new voluntary unilateral or collective transparency and confidence-building measures in space.

C. Criteria for transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space

30. Transparency and confidence-building measures can be developed and implemented by States and intergovernmental organizations unilaterally, bilaterally, regionally and multilaterally. States should implement such measures to the greatest extent practicable, consistent with their national interests and obligations. Transparency and confidence-building measures promote mutual confidence among States through constructive dialogue and increased awareness and insight. 31. In general terms, transparency and confidence-building measures for outer space activities should be aimed at increasing the security, safety and sustainability of outer space. Particular attention should be given to the development and implementation of voluntary and pragmatic measures to ensure the security and stability of all aspects of outer space activities. In developing transparency and confidence-building measures for outer space activities, it is particularly C The Texts of the Key Documents 741

important to be able to demonstrate the practicability of a particular measure or set of actions to the various actors involved, within the scope of that proposed measure or set of actions. 32. The Group observed that the existing treaties on outer space contain several transparency and confidence-building measures of a mandatory nature. Non- legally binding transparency and confidence-building measures for outer space activities should complement the existing international legal framework pertaining to outer space activities, and not undermine existing legal obligations or hamper the legal use of outer space, particularly by emerging space actors. Once adopted, certain transparency and confidence-building measures might have specific effects in a domestic context, especially with regard to their implementation through relevant national mechanisms. 33. Transparency and confidence-building measures for outer space activities should complement, but not substitute for, the verification measures in arms control agreements and regimes. Voluntary transparency and confidence- building measures could contribute to the consideration of concepts and proposals for legally binding arms control measures as well as verification protocols included in legally binding international instruments. 34. A proposed transparency and confidence-building measure should: (a) Be clear, practical and proven, meaning that both the application and the effi- cacy of the proposed measure have been demonstrated by one or more actors; (b) Be able to be effectively confirmed by other parties in its application, either independently or collectively; (c) Reduce or even eliminate the causes of mistrust, misunderstanding and miscalculation with regard to the activities and intentions of States. 35. The following table attempts to capture the essence of testing a transparency and confidence-building measure for its implementation and validation/ demonstration.

Testing a transparency and confidence-building measure

Implementation Demonstration Who Who should implement the measure? Who will be able to confirm that the measure has been implemented? What What is the measure that should be What should be demonstrated to confirm implemented? Is it clearly identified implementation? and understood? Why What is the value or benefit of Does a clear understanding of why it is performing the measure? important to be able to confirm or demonstrate implementation exist? When When should the measure be At what point is demonstration or implemented? confirmation performed? How How should the measure be How is implementation of the measure implemented? validated, demonstrated or confirmed? 742 C The Texts of the Key Documents

IV. Enhancing the transparency of outer space activities

36. Exchanges of information through bilateral, regional and multilateral mechanisms are intended to serve as regular and routine opportunities for States to describe their current and planned space activities. States may exchange general information on their outer space policies and space activities and provide risk reduction notifications for foreseeable hazardous situations. Risks may include dangers to the lives or health of astronauts or to human spaceflight activity, as well as natural phenomena that may cause harmful interference to spacecraft. States should be encouraged to share information with other governmental and non-governmental spacecraft operators and relevant international organizations in a timely manner. States may consider on a voluntary basis familiarization visits to space-related facilities.

A. Information exchange on space policies

Exchanges of information on the principles and goals of a State’s outer space policy 37. States should publish information on their national space policies and strategies, including those relating to security. States should also publish information on their major outer space research and space applications programmes in order to build a climate of trust and confidence between States worldwide on military and non-military matters. This should be carried out in line with existing multilateral commitments. States may provide any additional information reflecting their relevant defence policy, military strategies and doctrines.

Exchanges of information on major military outer space expenditure and other national security space activities 38. Consistent with existing political commitments for national reporting on major military expenditure and guidelines and recommendations for objective information on military matters to all Member States, Governments should use existing mechanisms to report on their military space expenditure as well as other national security space activities (General Assembly resolution 66/20, para. 1, and A/66/89 and Corr.1-3, annex II). They may supplement such reports with explanatory remarks regarding submitted data to explain or clar- ify the figures provided in the reports, such as total national security space expenditure as a share of gross domestic product and major changes from previous reports. C The Texts of the Key Documents 743

B. Information exchange and notifications related to outer space activities

Exchanges of information on orbital parameters of outer space objects and potential orbital conjunctions 39. Exchanges of information on the basic orbital parameters of outer space objects may assist in increasing the accuracy of the tracking of space objects. Specific measures could include: (a) Exchange of information on the orbital elements of space objects and the provision, to the extent practicable, of notifications of potential orbital conjunctions involving spacecraft to affected government and private sector spacecraft operators; (b) Provision of registration information to the United Nations as soon as practicable, in accordance with the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1975) and General Assembly resolution 62/101, entitled “Recommendations on enhancing the practice of States and international intergovernmental organizations in registering space objects”; (c) Provision of public access to national registries of space objects. Such notifications, through bilateral, regional and multilateral mechanisms, can provide transparency regarding specific space activities. Shared awareness of spaceflight activity may foster global spaceflight safety and contribute to avoidance of mishaps, misperceptions and mistrust.

Exchanges of information on forecast natural hazards in outer space 40. In accordance with the Outer Space Treaty, States should immediately inform other States or the Secretary-General of the United Nations of any phenomena they discover in outer space, including on the Moon and other celestial bodies, which could constitute a danger to the life or health of astronauts or to human spaceflight activity. States should also consider providing, on a voluntary basis, timely information to other governmental and non-governmental spacecraft operators of natural phenomena that may cause potentially harmful interference to spacecraft engaged in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space.

Notification of planned spacecraft launches 41. States should provide pre-launch notifications of space vehicle launches and the mission of launch vehicles. The Group noted that the Hague Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation provides an example of such a notification. 744 C The Texts of the Key Documents

C. Risk reduction notifications

Notifications on scheduled manoeuvres that may result in risk to the flight safety of other space objects 42. States should notify, in a timely manner and to the greatest extent practicable, potentially affected States of scheduled manoeuvres that may result in risk to the flight safety of the space objects of other States.

Notifications and monitoring of uncontrolled high-risk re-entry events 43. States should support the development and implementation of measures to exchange information with and notify, in a timely manner and to the greatest extent practicable, all States that may be affected, the Secretary-General of the United Nations and relevant international organizations of predicted high-risk re-entry events in which the re-entering space object or residual material from the re-entering space object potentially could cause significant damage or radioactive contamination.

Notifications in the case of emergency situations 44. States should, in a timely manner and to the greatest extent practicable, notify all other potentially affected States of events linked to natural and man-made threats to the flight safety of space objects. These may include risks caused by the malfunctioning of space objects or loss of control that could result in a significantly increased probability of a high-risk re-entry event or a collision between space objects.

Notification of intentional orbital break-ups 45. Intentional destruction of any on-orbit spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages or other harmful activities that generate long-lived debris should be avoided. When intentional break-ups are determined to be necessary, States should inform other potentially affected States of their plans, including measures that will be taken to ensure that intentional destruction is conducted at sufficiently low altitudes to limit the orbital lifetime of resulting fragments. All actions should be carried out in conformity with the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the United Nations as endorsed by the General Assembly in its resolution 62/217, entitled “International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space”.

D. Contact and visits to space launch sites and facilities

Voluntary familiarization visits 46. Voluntary familiarization visits can provide opportunities to improve international understanding of a State’s processes and procedures for space activities, including dual-use and military activities, and can provide context for the development and implementation of notifications and consultations. C The Texts of the Key Documents 745

Expert visits, including visits to space launch sites, invitation of international observers to launch sites, flight command and control centres and other operations facilities of outer space infrastructure 47. Taking note of article X of the Outer Space Treaty, as well as other multilateral commitments, States are encouraged to consider, on a voluntary basis, expert visits to space facilities. Such visits could include space situational awareness centres.

Demonstrations of rocket and space technologies 48. Demonstrations of rockets and other space-related technologies could be carried out on a voluntary basis and in line with existing multilateral commitments and national export control regulations.

V. International cooperation

49. International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space provides a basis for all States to develop and strengthen their capacity to undertake and/or derive benefits from space activities. International cooperation on scientific and technical projects between both spacefaring and non-spacefaring nations can contribute to confidence-building. 50. While there are a number of States that have acquired significant space-related capabilities, many non-spacefaring States have a strong desire to participate directly in outer space activities and to share in space technology. 51. As noted in the study on the application of confidence-building measures in outer space (A/48/305 and Corr.1), the disparity in the space capabilities of States, the inability of most States to participate in space activities without the assistance of others, uncertainty concerning sufficient transfer of space technologies between States and the inability of many States to acquire significant space-based information are factors contributing to a lack of confidence among States. International cooperation is an important vehicle for promoting the right of each nation to achieve its legitimate objectives of benefiting from space technology for its own development and welfare. 52. The Group further noted that each State is free to determine the nature of its participation in international space cooperation on an equitable and mutually acceptable basis with regard to the legitimate rights and interests of parties’ concerns, for example, appropriate technology safeguard arrangements, multilateral commitments and relevant standards and practices. 53. The Group agreed that the Outer Space Treaty should be regarded as a basis for the furthering of international cooperation in outer space activities and, in accordance with article I of the Treaty, that the exploration and use of outer space “shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind”. 746 C The Texts of the Key Documents

54. The Group took note of the Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries (General Assembly resolution 51/122, annex) and specifically noted that the Declaration should form a basis for the development of international cooperation in outer space activities. Paragraphs 3 and 5 of the Declaration are of particular relevance. 55. Bilateral, regional and multilateral capacity-building programmes on space science and technologies can contribute to developing the space skills and knowledge of educators and scientists in developing countries throughout the world. Such programmes should build capacity through a focus on theory, research, applications, field exercises and pilot projects in order to advance social and economic development in their target States and regions. The Group noted that there are many regional and multilateral capacity-building programmes already in place. In particular, the United Nations Programme on Space Applications is a well-established capacity-building programme that would benefit from wider support from spacefaring countries. Other international organizations such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, WMO and ITU contribute specific capacity-building programmes in their respective areas of competence. Capacity-building programmes are also available, in various formats, at the bilateral level. Such programmes are often associated with a specific cooperation agreement. 56. Adoption of an open satellite data-collection and dissemination policy for sustainable economic and social development would be consistent with General Assembly resolution 41/65, entitled “Principles relating to remote sensing of the Earth from outer space”. In promoting data dissemination policies, States could also consider establishing programmes aimed at training and educating users in developing countries to receive and interpret relevant satellite-based data and to make such data available, useful and accessible to domestic and international end users. The Group noted that some States already disseminate free remote sensing data for the promotion of economic and social development. The Group also noted that the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2012, recognized the important role that space science and technology play in promoting sustainable development (see General Assembly resolution 66/288, annex).

VI. Consultative mechanisms

57. Timely and routine consultations through bilateral and multilateral diplomatic exchanges and other government-to-government mechanisms, including bilateral, military-to-military, scientific and other channels, can contribute to preventing mishaps, misperceptions and mistrust. They may also be useful in: (a) Clarifying information regarding the exploration and use of space, including for national security purposes; C The Texts of the Key Documents 747

(b) Clarifying information provided on space research and space applications programmes; (c) Clarifying ambiguous situations; (d) Discussing the implementation of agreed transparency and confidence- building measures in outer space activities; (e) Discussing the modalities and appropriate international mechanisms for addressing practical aspects of outer space uses; (f) Preventing or minimizing potential risks of physical damage or harmful interference. 58. States are encouraged to consider using existing consultative mechanisms, for example, those provided for in article IX of the Outer Space Treaty and in the relevant provisions of the ITU Constitution and Radio Regulations. 59. The Group was of the opinion that its establishment, work and consultative function serve as transparency and confidence-building measures in their own right.

VII. Outreach

60. Outreach measures can improve understanding between States as well as regional, multilateral, non-governmental and private sector cooperation. This can help to promote the security of all States by fostering mutual trust through the implementation of political and diplomatic outreach measures relating to outer space activities. Specific measures may include States’ participation in thematic workshops and conferences on space security issues. 61. Spacefaring States should inform the Secretary-General, the general public and the international scientific community of the character, conduct, locations and results of outer space activities, in accordance with the Outer Space Treaty. 62. The Group noted the important intellectual contribution of international organizations and non-governmental organizations to facilitating outreach activities. Such activities provide an opportunity for all States and other relevant stakeholders to develop constructive dialogue. Within the United Nations system, the work of the Office for Outer Space Affairs, the Office for Disarmament Affairs and the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research are of particular note. States should actively encourage all stakeholders, including academia and non-governmental organizations, to actively participate in raising public awareness about outer space policies and activities.

VIII. Coordination

63. States are encouraged, including through their space agencies or other authorized entities, existing mechanisms and international organizations, to promote the coordination of their space policies and space programmes in order to enhance the safety and predictability of the uses of space. In support of that goal, they may also conclude bilateral, regional or multilateral arrangements, consistent with multilateral commitments. 748 C The Texts of the Key Documents

64. The Group considered that coordination among multilateral organizations engaged in developing transparency and confidence-building measures for outer space activities is essential. Such coordination should be carried out in accordance with the respective mandates of those organizations. 65. The Group agreed that, for the purpose of strengthening coordination in outer space activities, States, international organizations and private sector actors conducting space programmes should establish focal points for coordination. 66. The Group recommended that coordination be established between the Office for Outer Space Affairs, the Office for Disarmament Affairs and other appropriate United Nations entities on matters related to transparency and confidence- building measures for outer space activities. The Group also considered that a United Nations inter-agency mechanism could provide a useful platform for the promotion and effective implementation of transparency and confidence- building measures for outer space activities. 67. States should seek to participate, to the maximum extent possible, in the outer space-related activities of intergovernmental entities of the United Nations system, such as the Conference on Disarmament, ITU, WMO, the Commission on Sustainable Development and any of their successor bodies. States conducting space activities should actively participate, as members or observers, in activities of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.

IX. Conclusions and recommendations

68. The Group of Governmental Experts recommends that States and international organizations, on a voluntary basis and without prejudice to the implementation of obligations deriving from existing legal commitments, consider and implement the transparency and confidence-building measures described in the present report. 69. The Group endorses efforts to pursue political commitments, for example, in the form of unilateral declarations, bilateral commitments or a multilateral code of conduct, to encourage responsible actions in, and the peaceful use of, outer space. The Group concludes that voluntary political measures can form the basis for consideration of concepts and proposals for legally binding obligations. 70. The Group encourages States to review and implement the proposed transparency and confidence-building measures through relevant national mechanisms on a voluntary basis. Transparency and confidence-building measures should be implemented to the greatest extent practicable and in a manner that is consistent with States’ national interests. As specific unilateral, bilateral, regional and multilateral transparency and confidence-building measures are agreed to, States should regularly review the implementation of the measures and discuss potential additional ones that may be necessary, including those necessitated owing to advances in the development of space technologies and in their application. 71. In order to build confidence and trust among States, the Group recommends universal participation in, implementation of and full adherence to the existing legal framework relating to outer space activities, to which they are parties, or sub- scribe, which includes: the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial C The Texts of the Key Documents 749

Bodies; the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space; the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects; the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space; the Constitution and the Convention of the International Telecommunication Union and its Radio Regulations, as amended; the Convention of the World Meteorological Organization, as amended; the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and under Water; and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty. States that have not yet become parties to the international treaties governing the use of outer space should consider ratifying or acceding to those treaties. 72. The Group of Governmental Experts recommends that the General Assembly decide how to further advance transparency and confidence-building measures and provide for their universal consideration and support, including by referring the above recommendations to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, the Disarmament Commission and the Conference on Disarmament for consideration, as appropriate. The First and Fourth Committees of the General Assembly may also decide to hold a joint ad hoc meeting to address possible challenges to space security and sustainability. 73. The Group further recommends that Member States take measures to implement, to the greatest extent practicable, principles and guidelines endorsed on the basis of consensus by the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the General Assembly. Member States should also consider, where appropriate, taking measures to implement other internationally recognized space-related principles. 74. The Group encourages relevant international intergovernmental and non- governmental organizations to consider and implement the proposed transparency and confidence-building measures as appropriate and to the greatest extent practicable. 75. The Group of Governmental Experts recommends that the Secretary-General of the United Nations circulate the present report of the Group to all relevant entities and organizations of the United Nations system in order that they may assist in effectively implementing the conclusions and recommendations contained within it.

2016: UNGA Resolution on No First Placement of Weapons in Outer Space (130 favor, 4 against, 48 abstentions) UN Doc: A/RES/71/32 of 9 December 2016

Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 5 December 2016

[on the report of the First Committee (A/71/448)]

71/32. No first placement of weapons in outer space

The General Assembly, 750 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Recognizing the common interest of all mankind in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, Seriously concerned about the possibility of an arms race in outer space and of outer space turning into an arena for military confrontation, and bearing in mind the importance of articles III and IV of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,3 Conscious that the prevention of an arms race in outer space would avert a grave danger to international peace and security, Reaffirming that practical measures should be examined and taken in the search for agreements to prevent an arms race in outer space, Emphasizing the paramount importance of strict compliance with the existing legal regime providing for the peaceful use of outer space, Reaffirming its recognition that the legal regime applicable to outer space by itself does not guarantee prevention of an arms race in outer space and that there is a need to consolidate and reinforce that regime, Welcoming, in this regard, the draft treaty on the prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space and of the threat or use of force against outer space objects, introduced by China and the Russian Federation at the Conference on Disarmament in 2008,4 and the submission of its updated version in 2014,5 Considering that transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities are an integral part of the draft treaty referred to above, Recalling its resolutions 69/32 of 2 December 2014 and 70/27 of 7 December 2015, and its resolutions 45/55 B of 4 December 1990 and 48/74 B of 16 December 1993, which, inter alia, confirm the importance of transparency and confidence- building measures as a means conducive to ensuring the attainment of the objective of the prevention of an arms race in outer space, Noting the importance of the political statements made by a number of States6 that they would not be the first to place weapons in outer space, 1. Reaffirms the importance and urgency of the objective to prevent an arms race in outer space and the willingness of States to contribute to reaching this common goal; 2. Reiterates that the Conference on Disarmament, as the single multilateral disarmament negotiating forum,7 has the primary role in the negotiation of a multilateral agreement, or agreements, as appropriate, on the prevention of an arms race in outer space in all its aspects;

3 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 610, No. 8843. 4 See CD/1839. 5 See CD/1985. 6 Argentina, Armenia, Belarus, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, Cuba, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Nicaragua, Russian Federation, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of). 7 See resolution S-10/2. C The Texts of the Key Documents 751

3. Urges an early commencement of substantive work based on the updated draft treaty on the prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space and of the threat or use of force against outer space objects introduced by China and the Russian Federation at the Conference on Disarmament in 2008,8 under the agenda item entitled “Prevention of an arms race in outer space”; 4. Stresses that, while such an agreement is not yet concluded, other measures may contribute to ensuring that weapons are not placed in outer space; 5. Encourages all States, especially space-faring nations, to consider the possibility of upholding as appropriate a political commitment not to be the first to place weapons in outer space; 6. Decides to include in the provisional agenda of its seventy-second session the item entitled “No first placement of weapons in outer space”. 51st plenary meeting 5 December 2016

2016: UNGA Resolution on prevention of an arms race in outer space (182 in favor, 4 abstentions) UN Doc: A/RES/71/31 of 9 December 2016

Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 5 December 2016

[on the report of the First Committee (A/71/448)]

71/31. Prevention of an arms race in outer space

The General Assembly, Recognizing the common interest of all mankind in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, Reaffirming the will of all States that the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall be for peaceful purposes and shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interest of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, Reaffirming also the provisions of articles III and IV of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,8 Recalling the obligation of all States to observe the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations regarding the use or threat of use of force in their international relations, including in their space activities,

8 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 610, No. 8843. 752 C The Texts of the Key Documents

Reaffirming paragraph 80 of the Final Document of the Tenth Special Session of the General Assembly, in which it is stated that, in order to prevent an arms race in outer space, further measures should be taken and appropriate international negotiations held in accordance with the spirit of the Treaty,9 Recalling its previous resolutions on this issue, the most recent of which is resolution 70/26 of 7 December 2015, and taking note of the proposals submitted to the General Assembly at its tenth special session and at its regular sessions and of the recommendations made to the competent organs of the United Nations and to the Conference on Disarmament, Recognizing that the prevention of an arms race in outer space would avert a grave danger for international peace and security, Emphasizing the paramount importance of strict compliance with existing arms limitation and disarmament agreements relevant to outer space, including bilateral agreements, and with the existing legal regime concerning the use of outer space, Considering that wide participation in the legal regime applicable to outer space could contribute to enhancing its effectiveness, Noting that the Ad Hoc Committee on the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space, taking into account its previous efforts since its establishment in 1985 and seeking to enhance its functioning in qualitative terms, continued the examination and identification of various issues, existing agreements and existing proposals, as well as future initiatives relevant to the prevention of an arms race in outer space, and that this contributed to a better understanding of a number of problems and to a clearer perception of the various positions, Noting also that there were no objections in principle in the Conference on Disarmament to the re-establishment of the Ad Hoc Committee, subject to re- examination of the mandate contained in the decision of the Conference on Disarmament of 13 February 1992,10 Emphasizing the mutually complementary nature of bilateral and multilateral efforts for the prevention of an arms race in outer space, and hoping that concrete results will emerge from those efforts as soon as possible, Convinced that further measures should be examined in the search for effective and verifiable bilateral and multilateral agreements in order to prevent an arms race in outer space, including the weaponization of outer space, Stressing that the growing use of outer space increases the need for greater transparency and better information on the part of the international community,

9 Resolution S-10/2. 10 See Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 27 (A/47/27), para. 76. C The Texts of the Key Documents 753

Recalling, in this context, its previous resolutions, in particular resolutions 45/55 B of 4 December 1990, 47/51 of 9 December 1992 and 48/74 A of 16 December 1993, in which, inter alia, it reaffirmed the importance of confidence -building measures as a means conducive to ensuring the attainment of the objective of the prevention of an arms race in outer space, Conscious of the benefits of confidence- and security-building measures in the military field, Recognizing that negotiations for the conclusion of an international agreement or agreements to prevent an arms race in outer space remain a priority task of the Conference on Disarmament and that the concrete proposals on confidence-building measures could form an integral part of such agreements, Noting with satisfaction the constructive, structured and focused debate on the prevention of an arms race in outer space at the Conference on Disarmament in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016, Noting the introduction by China and the Russian Federation at the Conference on Disarmament of the draft treaty on the prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space and of the threat or use of force against outer space objects in 2008 and the submission of its updated version in 2014,11 Taking note of the decision of the Conference on Disarmament to establish for its 2009 session a working group to discuss, substantially, without limitation, all issues related to the prevention of an arms race in outer space, 1. Reaffirms the importance and urgency of preventing an arms race in outer space and the readiness of all States to contribute to that common objective, in conformity with the provisions of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies; 2. Reaffirms its recognition, as stated in the report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space, that the legal regime applicable to outer space by itself does not guarantee the prevention of an arms race in outer space, that the regime plays a significant role in the prevention of an arms race in that environment, that there is a need to consolidate and reinforce that regime and enhance its effectiveness and that it is important to comply strictly with existing agreements, both bilateral and multilateral; 3. Emphasizes the necessity of further measures with appropriate and effective provisions for verification to prevent an arms race in outer space; 4. Calls upon all States, in particular those with major space capabilities, to contribute actively to the objective of the peaceful use of outer space and of the prevention of an arms race in outer space and to refrain from actions contrary to that objective and to the relevant existing treaties in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international cooperation;

11 See CD/1839 and CD/1985. 754 C The Texts of the Key Documents

5. Reiterates that the Conference on Disarmament, as the sole multilateral disarmament negotiating forum, has the primary role in the negotiation of a multilateral agreement or agreements, as appropriate, on the prevention of an arms race in outer space in all its aspects; 6. Invites the Conference on Disarmament to establish a working group under its agenda item entitled “Prevention of an arms race in outer space” as early as possible during its 2017 session; 7. Recognizes, in this respect, the growing convergence of views on the elaboration of measures designed to strengthen transparency, confidence and security in the peaceful uses of outer space; 8. Urges States conducting activities in outer space, as well as States interested in conducting such activities, to keep the Conference on Disarmament informed of the progress of bilateral and multilateral negotiations on the matter, if any, so as to facilitate its work; 9. Decides to include in the provisional agenda of its seventy-second session the item entitled “Prevention of an arms race in outer space”. 51st plenary meeting 5 December 2016 Index

A Antarctic Treaty System, 381, 466, 468 Absolute liability, 119, 121 Antares/Cygnus capsule, 236 Access without discrimination, 22 Anthropocentric understanding of the law, 506 Active debris removal, 10, 156, 160, 161, 177, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty of 1972 (ABM), 220, 289, 290, 305, 319, 371, 467 37, 286 Actori incumbit onus probandi, 128 Anti-satellite weapons (ASATs), 274–281, Administrative regulations, 65 285, 294, 348, 463, 468 ADS. See Automatic Dependent Surveillance Apollo landing site, 384 systems (ADS systems) Apollo space operation, 384 Advanced life forms, 480 Arab League Media Charter, 82 Aerodynamic lift, 233 Arab Satellite Communications Organization African Leadership Conference on Space (Arabsat), 17, 80 Science and Technology for Sustainable ARMS. See African Resource and Development (ALC), 81 Environment Monitoring Satellite African Resource and Environment Constellation (ARMS) Monitoring Satellite Constellation Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (ARMS), 82 (APRSAF), 66, 73–77, 551 Air navigation service provider (ANSP), Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization 311–313, 316 (APSCO), 38, 66, 73–75 Airspace, 5, 25, 97, 121, 188, 196, 215, 216, Asteroids, 5, 10, 28, 29, 50, 110, 123, 149, 241, 242, 249, 258, 298, 306–324, 458, 269, 275, 284, 381–388, 399, 405–407, 578, 592, 598, 600 417–422, 424, 425, 427, 435, 446, 447, Air traffic control (ATC), 200, 306, 309–311, 456, 485, 492, 498, 505, 553, 599 315, 317–319, 420 Asteroid strike, 417, 418, 423, 424, 428, Air traffic management (ATM), 200, 308–311, 429, 485 315, 322 ATC. See Air traffic control (ATC) Alpha stage, 504 ATM. See Air traffic management (ATM) American National Standards Institute Atmospheric pressure, 448 (ANSI), 148 Audiatur et altera pars, 128 Analytical Graphics, Inc., 155 Autogyro mechanism, 233 Analyzed information, 173 Automatic Dependent Surveillance systems Andean Telecommunication Enterprises (ADS systems), 317 Association (ASETA), 81 Autonomous Space Transport Robotic Annals of Air and Space Law, 573 Operations (ASTRO), 336 Antarctic Treaty of 1959, 37, 394, 466 Avanti network, 155

B Charter of the United Nations, 16, 284, Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD), 275, 276 437, 511 Bands, 315, 362 Charter on Cooperation to Achieve The Beagle 2 landing site, 449 Coordinated Use Of Space Facilities In BeiDou system, 49, 190, 192, 527, 528 The Event Of Natural Or Technological “Best value for money” principle, 79 Disasters (Disaster Charter), 39 Biosphere II experiment, 496 Chicago Convention of 1944, 6, 195, 320 Biota, 486, 491, 506 China Academy of Space Technology Blue Origin New Shepherd, 232 (CAST), 224 Boeing Company, 113, 115, 192 China National Space Administration Bogota Declaration of 1976, 469, 558 (CNSA), 419 Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa CIGS. See Copper Indium Gallium grouping (BRICS grouping), 80 Selenide (CIGS) Brazil’s Instituto Nacional de Pequisas Civil Global Positioning System Service Espaciais, 91 Interface Committee (CGSIC), 197 Broadcasting Act of 1991, 91 Civil International Space Station Agreement Broadcasting satellites, 31, 125, 145, 177, 206, Implementation Act of 1999, 91 361, 520 Clarke orbit positions, 183 Brundtland Commission Report of 1987, 529 Climate change, 4, 5, 9, 71, 116, 167, 177, 205, 207, 209, 224, 290, 427, 485, 490, 524, 531, 532, 534, 546, 551, 592 C Clyde Space, 365 Canadarm robotic manipulation Code of Conduct for Antarctic Expeditions system, 251, 338 and Station Activities (included in ATS Canadian Commerce Association (CCA), 577 system), 466 Canadian Radio-television and Cold War, 3, 19, 24, 27, 44, 51, 130, 185, 268, Telecommunications Commission Act 270, 271, 274, 277, 283, 284, 288, 320, of 1985, 91 485, 544 Canadian Space Agency (CSA), 91, 252, 552 Cologne Commentary on Space Law Canadian Space Agency Act of 1990, 91 (CoCoSL), 574 Capetown Convention of 2001, 195 Colonization, 10, 22, 437, 450, 470, 515, 516, Carbon-based biochemistry, 479 559 Cassini discovery, 447 Comets, 10, 269, 381, 382, 386, 388, Cassini/Huygens mission, 445 417, 418, 420–422, 424, 427–429, 435, CAST. See China Academy of Space 446, 456 Technology (CAST) Commercial Crew Program (CCP), 115, 254 Catholic University of Leuven (Belgium), 575 Commercial Orbital Transportation Services C-band, 153, 548, 550 (COTS), 254 CCSDS. See Consultative Committee for Commercial space activities and Enterprises, Space Data Systems (CCSDS) 129, 130, 133, 254, 349, 394, 405, 408, CCP. See Commercial Crew Program (CCP) 436, 594, 598, 599 CD. See Conference on Disarmament (CD) Commercial Spaceflight Federation, 49, 50 Celestial bodies, 10, 16, 22, 23, 29, 102, 105, Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act 119, 121–124, 161, 217, 219, 249, 252, of 2004 (CSLAA), 255 284, 285, 344, 381–384, 389–394, 396, Commission of Science, Technology, and 397, 399, 400, 403, 404, 406–408, 421, Industry for National Defense 437, 445, 446, 450–457, 459, 460, 462, (COSTIND), 93 464, 465, 467, 468, 470, 489, 498, 499, Committee on Planetary Biology and 504, 506, 547, 549, 553, 578, 599 Chemical Evolution, 453 Center for the Advancement of Science in Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), 43, Space (CASIS), 115 429, 436, 542 Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES), 39, “Common heritage of mankind”, 29, 391, 79, 94, 173 399, 462 Index 757

Communication Satellites Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (ComSats), 161, 208, 369, 520 (DARPA), 334 Conference on Disarmament (CD), 36, 38, Defense system, 5, 292, 423, 424, 600 120, 287, 288 Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft und Raumfarht Constellations, 10, 40, 41, 82, 116, 146, 149, (DLR)–German Aerospace Center, 153, 157, 159–161, 168, 170, 183, 186, 95, 336 188–190, 193, 214, 235, 260, 281, 305, Digital elevation modeling (DEM), 531 307, 315, 319, 334, 357–375, 435, Directed energy weapons (DEWs), 275 442–444, 450, 522, 527, 542, 555, 591 Disarmament agreements, 5 Constitution of the International Disaster and risk management, 5 Telecommunication Union (ITU Draft Convention on the Protection of Solar Constitution), 125, 147, 158, System Cultural Heritage (proposed by 217, 557 OPS Library of international outer Consultative Committee for Space Data space law), 578 Systems (CCSDS), 40 Draft Protocol Regarding the Delimitation of Convention of the International Outer Space and Territorial Airspace Telecommunication Union (ITU (proposed by OPS Library of Convention), 119 international outer space law), 578 Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Draft Protocol to the Treaty Governing the Mineral Resource Activities (included Activities of States on the Celestial in ATS system), 466 Bodies of the Solar System on Dispute Co-orbital anti-satellites (Co-orbital ASAT), Settlement (proposed by OPS Library 275, 276, 278–280 of international outer space law), 578 Copenhagen criteria, 69 Draft Protocol to the Treaty Governing the Copper Indium Gallium Selenide Activities of States on the Celestial (CIGS), 214 Bodies of the Solar System on Coronal mass ejection (CME), 177, 194, Jurisdiction and Property Rights 209, 282, 417, 419–421, (proposed by OPS Library of 425–427, 435, 486 international outer space law), 578 Corona surveillance satellite program, 168 Draft Treaty Governing the Activities of States Corpus juris spatialis, 392, 394 on the Celestial Bodies of the Solar Cosmic and solar rays, 498 System (proposed by OPS Library of Cosmic hazards, 5, 268, 269, 291, 388, international outer space law), 578 417–431, 485, 486, 591, Draft Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement 592, 594, 599 of Weapons in Outer Space, the Threat Cosmology, 487 or Use of Force against Outer Space Cosmos, 3, 25, 575 Objects of 2008 (PPWT), 120 Cosmos 954, 122, 401 Dreamchaser reusable vehicle, 120, 232 CSA. See Canadian Space Agency (CSA) Dual-use payloads, 4 CSLAA. See Commercial Space Launch Dual-use satellites, 290 Amendments Act of 2004 (CSLAA) Due diligence, 126, 159, 347, 552 CubeSats, 28, 115–117, 235, 236, 281, 307, Due regard, 22, 251, 341, 454, 455, 512, 591 319, 358, 369, 370, 373 Dynamic magnetosphere, 419 Customary law, 9, 23, 31, 108, 126, 127, 129, 241, 285, 346, 389, 402 Cyberattacks, 274, 277, 286 E Earth and meteorological observation, 168, 169 D Earth-indigent nations and populations, 492 Darwinian evolution, 491 Earthly governance systems, 498 Dauria Aerospace firm, 115, 365 Earth Observation Satellite Company Dazzling, 133, 134, 274, 276, 277, 286 (EOSAT), 174 Deep Space Industries, 87, 115, 379 Earth observation satellites, 39, 167, 551 758 Index

EC. See European Commission (EC) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 22, EchoStar Corp., 155 107, 125, 219, 308, 391, 437, 503 École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Federal Communications Commission (FCC), (EPFL), 339 125, 152, 187 Electromagnetic interference (EMI), 155, 161, Femto satellites, 235, 315, 359 215, 293 Flight Information Region (FIR), 311 Electromagnetic pulse (EMP), 194, 275, 276, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 545 419, 429 Force majeure, 158 Enforcement mechanisms, 20–23, 128, 199, Formal governance, 487 288, 401, 598 Free access to outer space, 545 Ente Nazionale per l’Aviazione Civile Frequency allocations, 34, 125, 148–150, 154, (ENAC), 126 156, 159–161, 172, 189, 207, 208, 215, EOSAT. See Earth Observation Satellite 443, 546 Company (EOSAT) Freudian, 491 Equal non-discriminatory sharing, 558 Equitable sharing, 29, 398–400, 403, 542, 543, 545, 547, 550, 552–554, 559 G Equitable uses, 5, 546, 556–558 G-77. See Group of 77 (G-77) Erga omnes obligations, 21 GAGAN. See GPS Aided Geo Augmented EU Draft Code of Conduct of 2008 (EU Draft Navigation system (GAGAN) Code), 80 Galileo mission, 384, 445 European Commission (EC), 69, 71, 78, Galileo satellite, 188 188, 520 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade European Geostationary Navigation Overlay (GATT), 16 Service (EGNOS), 185, 189, 192 General Assembly resolutions (GA European Organisation for the Exploitation of resolutions), 19, 21, 26, 28, 30–32, 46, Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), 118, 119, 128, 238, 287, 288, 306, 345, 17, 25, 26, 40, 42, 67, 155, 172 346, 392, 438, 455, 535, 544, 547, European Space Agency (ESA), 25, 66, 69–71, 551, 570 104, 115, 173, 188, 208, 211, 212, 251, GeoEye satellite, 362, 363 419, 444, 548, 577 Geomagnetic shifts, 490 European space debris mitigation George R. Brown School of Engineering, 572 guidelines, 79 Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO), 146, 149, European space program, 67, 68, 78 152, 153, 155, 157–161, 169, 190, 191, European Technical Standards Institute 194, 208, 209, 212, 215, 216, 219–221, (ETSI), 67, 148 239, 282, 319, 333, 334, 336–339, European Telecommunications Satellite 360–363, 370, 371, 381, 441–444, Organization (EUTELSAT), 25, 26, 40, 468–470, 529, 553, 555, 557, 558 42, 66, 67, 155, 545 Geostationary slots, 399 European Union (EU), 46, 66, 68–70, 185, Geosynchronous Earth orbit (GSO), 208, 278, 188–190, 211, 212, 252, 287, 467, 490, 441, 529 520 Global commons, 6, 273, 282, 283, 395, 400, Extending the benefits and uses of space to all 403, 544, 558, 592, 595, 598 humankind, 10, 541–565 Global commons of outer space, 395, 544, 594 Extraterrestrial life, 449, 450, 452, 465 Global governance, 6, 7, 9–12, 15–20, 30, 37, Extraterrestrial life forms (ETLFs), 493, 495, 40, 42, 47, 48, 67, 79, 80, 87, 108, 506, 507 113–139, 161, 167, 205, 250, 253, 267, Extraterritorial jurisdiction, 110 453, 470, 557, 561, 579, 590–593, 595, 596, 601–603 Global Maritime Distress and Safety System F (GMDSS), 41–42 “Fair return” principle, 79 Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), 9, Falcon-9 capsule/vehicle, 116, 232, 236, 255, 418 39, 49, 68, 71, 183, 207, 242, 273, Fault-based liability, 121, 289 527, 546 Index 759

Global pollution, 5 Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System Global Positioning Satellite (GPS), 71, 185, (IRNSS), 190, 527 197, 271, 527 Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Global space environmental issues, 10, 95, 190, 224, 368 232, 269 Industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) Global space safety, 9, 11, 43, 47, 259, 260, applications, 221 262, 360, 533, 555 Information and Communications Technology Global space security, 268, 269, 271 (ICT), 35, 153, 521, 522 Global'naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya In-situ resource utilization (ISRU), 380 Sistema (GLONASS), 187, 527 Insitut du Droit de l’Espace et des Google Loon project, 152 Télécommunications at the université GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation Paris Sud (France), 575 system (GAGAN), 192 Institution of Electrical and Electronics GPS3 system, 192, 194 Engineers (IEEE), 148 Gravitational pull, 498, 554 Interagency Operations Advisory Group Group of 77 (G-77), 20, 83, 546 (IOAG), 39 Group of Governmental Experts Report (GGE Inter-Agency Space Debris Committee Report), 32, 35, 47, 286 (IADC), 32, 38, 79, 281, 324, 371, 436 GSO. See Geosynchronous Earth orbit (GSO) Interface Control Documents (ICDs), 197 Intergalactic laws, 489 International Academy of Astronautics (IAA), H 11, 214, 239, 306, 404, 429, 542, Harmful contamination, 102, 341, 401, 436, 578, 590 438, 455–457, 459, 465, 466, 513 International Academy of Astronautics Cosmic Harmful interference, 5, 221, 257, 341, 360, Study (IAA Cosmic Study), 464 372, 396, 397, 406, 443, 444, 450, 454, International Air Transport Association 455, 468, 556, 557 (IATA), 135 Hayabusa mission, 384 International Association for the Advancement High-altitude nuclear detonation (HAND), 276 of Space Safety (IAASS), 11, 43, 262, High-Altitude Platform Systems (HAPS), 10, 294, 335, 542 146, 307, 324, 543 International Asteroid Warning Network High-throughput satellites, 154, 358, (IAWN), 291, 418, 503 360–362, 556 International Astronautical Congress Hosted payloads, 4, 115, 116, 133, 134 (IAC), 44, 349 Human cognition, 480 International Astronautical Federation (IAF), Humankind, 3, 5–7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 19, 29, 39, 43, 44, 451, 542, 578, 590 51, 105, 173, 224, 250, 342, 345, 350, International Astronomical Union 387, 391, 403, 408, 435, 436, 453, 455, (IAU), 44, 429 458, 462, 480–484, 486, 488, 491, 493, International Bank for Reconstruction and 505, 506, 509, 510, 534, 535, 541–565, Development (IBRD), 542, 590 568, 589, 591–594, 596 International Chamber of Commerce Human space flight, 48, 118 (ICC), 17 Hypersonic space transportation, 10, 116, 241, International Charter on Space and Major 268, 307, 429, 543 Disasters, 172, 177, 549, 561 Hypersonic trajectories, 315 International Civil Aviation Organization Hypersonic transcontinental travel, 5 (ICAO), 6, 120, 159, 177, 183, 306, 600 International Code of Conduct for Outer I Space Activities (ICOC), 46, 287, ILC Draft Articles on Prevention of 423, 467 Transboundary Harm from Hazardous International Committee of the Red Cross Activities 2001, 460 (ICRC), 17, 295 Indian Institute of Space Science and International Committee on Global Navigation Technology (IIST), 224 Satellite Systems (IGC), 39, 207 760 Index

International Committee on the GNSS, 197, International Telecommunications Union 198, 207, 528 Radio Regulations (ITU RR), 119, 148, International cooperation, 16–18, 20, 31, 34, 152, 217, 221, 294, 43, 44, 47, 48, 76, 78, 104, 118, 135, 357, 372, 444 193, 198, 213, 224, 252, 285, 291, 320, International Traffic in Arms Regulations 341, 345, 423, 437, 461, 462, 512, (ITARs), 50, 129, 133, 534–536, 551, 557, 559–563, 580 282, 317, 348 International Council of Scientific Unions International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ICSU), 436 (ITLOS), 402 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 21, 126, Internet Engineering Task Force 127, 285, 295, 345, 438, 468, 597 (IETF), 148 International Criminal Court (ICC), 37 Internet Society, 150 International Electro-technical Commission INTERSPUTNIK organization, 17, 40, 42 (IEC), 148 Interstellar laws, 489 International GNSS Service (IGS), 49 IOAG. See Interagency Operations Advisory International humanitarian Law Group (IOAG) (IHL), 295, 596 Iridium-Cosmos collision, 2009, 25 International Institute of Space Law IRNSS. See Indian Regional Navigation (IISL), 45, 393, 542, 578 Satellite System (IRNSS) International Law Commission (ILC), 18, 283, ISM. See Industrial, scientific, and medical 445, 460 (ISM) applications International Law Commission Articles on ISRO. See Indian Space Research Responsibility of States for Organization (ISRO) Internationally Wrongful Acts (ILC Italian Space Agency, 97, 577 Articles 2001), 460 ITU Radiocommunication Bureau International Maritime Organization (BR), 152, 157 (IMO), 36, 196 International Maritime Satellite Organisation (INMARSAT), 17, 40, 41, 155, 199, J 363, 404, 544, 545 Jamming, 5, 133, 134, 145, 151, 158, 193, International Meteorological Organization 194, 197, 201, 274, 276, 277, 280, 297, (IMO), 36, 190, 196, 199 591, 600 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 16, 542 Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency International Space Safety Foundation (JAXA), 224 (ISSF), 43 JEM Small Satellite Orbital Deployer International Space Station (ISS), 19, 37, 91, (J-SSOD), 236 115, 130, 235, 250, 337, 442, 496, 548, John D. Odegard School of Aerospace 576 Sciences, 572 International Space Station Memoranda of Jurisdiction, 23, 26, 27, 50, 88, 91, 94, 96, Understanding (ISS MOUs), 48, 504 99–103, 106–110, 122, 123, 129, 133, International Space University (ISU), 11, 495, 136, 173, 195, 196, 219, 223, 252, 305, 542, 575 320, 346, 397, 401, 402, 438, 459, 491, International Standards Organization (ISO), 514 43, 49, 80, 148 Jurisdiction and control, 90, 122, 123, 130, International Telecommunication Union 251, 344, 346, 347, 396, 437, 438, (ITU), 7, 16, 34, 35, 119, 146, 176, 470, 514 187, 239, 306, 357, 443, 501, 542, 590, 600 International Telecommunications Satellite K Organization (INTELSAT), 17, 27, Ka-band, 153, 362 40–42, 81, 113, 114, 213, 338, 404, Keio University (Japan), 574 544–546, 556 Kessler syndrome, 333, 443 International Telecommunications Satellite Kinetic energy weapons (KEW), 274, 275, Organization (ITSO), 40 277, 280 Index 761

Korea Aerospace University, 574 McGill Centre for Research in Air and Space K-T mass extinction, 417, 485 Law (CRASL), 573 Ku-band, 153 McGill Manual on International Law Kuiper Belt, 446 Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space (MILAMOS), 295, 573 McGill University’s Institute of Air and Space L Law (IASL), 573 Large-scale satellite constellation, 305 Median atmospheric pressure, 448 Laser light, 366 Medium earth orbit (MEO), 149, 186, 189, Launching authority, 124, 459, 469 360, 555 Launching nation, 96 Mega-LEO constellations, 371, 442, 555 Launching state, 24–27, 117, 119, 121, 122, Mega-LEO systems, 161, 360, 370, 442, 443 124, 127, 195, 219, 240, 342, 344–347, Memoranda of cooperation (MOCs), 126 371, 391, 458, 459 MERs landing site, 449 Launch vehicles, 25, 48, 99, 104, 121, 122, Microsatellites Technology Experiment 149, 155, 185, 192, 233–235, 237, 243, Satellites (MiTEX), 278 309, 342, 343, 361, 368, 369, 371, 418, Middle East and North Africa region (MENA 436, 439–444, 450 region), 82 L-band, 153, 548, 550 Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser Leiden University International Institute of Air (MIRACL), 278, 280 and Space Law (IIASL), 574 Military uses of outer space, 23 Lex posterior derogat legi priori, 128 Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), Liability, 24–26, 41, 48, 90, 94, 98–100, 48, 73, 129 102–105, 107, 117, 119, 121–123, 127, Mississippi School of Law’s National Center 131, 132, 135, 136, 160, 175, 187, 195, for Remote Sensing, Air and Space 196, 198, 199, 217, 219, 220, 222, 224, Law, 573 239, 251, 256, 289, 344, 346, 347, 349, Model national laws, 240, 395, 396 350, 358, 360, 363, 367, 371, 373, 396, Montreal Declaration, 4–6, 8, 12 429, 458, 470, 509, 514 Moon Agreement in 1979, 9, 28, 29, 398 Liability Convention of 1972, 24–26, 217, Moon Express, 87, 117, 131, 379, 391, 489, 503 240, 458, 514 Moscow Aviation Institute’s International Liquid air cycle engine, 234 Center for Advanced Studies Lisbon Treaty of 2009, 67, 80 (COSMOS), 575 L-1 LaGrangian Orbit, 154 Moscow University of Geodesy and Lockheed Martin Company, 114, 192 Cartography, 575 Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Multi-planetary society, 487 Activities (LTSOSA), 32, 288, 289, 306, 324, 335, 372, 381, 419, 445, 460, 461, 533 N Low-cost science, 365 Nano-satellite, 359, 365, 369, 372, 373, 450 Low earth orbit (LEO), 149, 209, 212, 235, NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts 274, 315, 360, 381 Program (NIAC), 211 Lunakhod landing site, 449 National Missile Defense Systems (NMD Lunar landing site, 449, 450 systems), 271 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 115, 155 M National registries of space objects, 26, 119 Magnetic field system, 498 National space policies and laws, 111 Manned settlements, 261 National Technical Means of verification Manned spacecraft, 314, 315 (NTM), 271 Mansat corporate administrator, 155 National Telecommunications and Information MarsOne Company, 117, 119 Administration (NTIA), 187 Master Registry of International Frequency Natural cosmic hazards, 5, 291 Registration, 34 Natural Disasters Data Book 2013 ADRC, 551 762 Index

Natural disasters monitoring, 551 O Natural hazards, 435 OATS. See Organization for Andean Navigation, 4, 6, 16, 39, 48, 49, 120, 176, 177, Telecommunication by Satellite 183–202, 206, 207, 212, 215, 242, 273, (OATS) 274, 290, 311, 312, 316, 317, 321, 365, OECD. See Organization for Economic 395, 420, 426, 446, 520, 527, 528, 532, Cooperation and Development (OECD) 536, 547, 550 Off-earth settlements, 484, 486, 500, 505 Navigation satellite, 49, 68, 71, 155, 183, 223, Office of Outer Space Affairs (OOSA), 39 242, 271, 545, 546 OmniEarth, 365 NAVSTAR GPS network, 185, 186 OneWeb constellation, 116, 159, 235, 362, Near and deep space, 482 442, 522 Near Earth Asteroids (NEAs), 382 On-orbit robotics, 10, 220 Near Earth Objects (NEOs), 382, 383, 386, On-orbit servicing, 114, 116, 231, 268, 289, 387, 389, 419–424, 485 290, 305, 395, 591 Near-Field Infrared Experiment (NFIRE), 293 On-orbit servicing and robotics, 333 Near-space, 117, 121, 305, 306, 321, 559, 596 Oort Cloud, 422 Near-space vehicles, 116 Operational satellites, 4, 221, 332, 345, 348, Negotiation history, 287 442, 469 NEOCAM mission, 418, 419 Opinio juris, 126, 345, 389 Neptune orbit, 446 OPS-Alaska, 578 NewSpace, 3, 10, 11, 114–117, 136, 150, 184, Optus, 155 200, 254, 256, 320, 362, 365, 368, 398, Orbital congestion, 168, 172, 363, 591 535, 589, 594, 595, 598, 602 Orbital location, 151, 153, 155, 157, 208, 215, “New Space” Activities and 338, 360, 469, 542, 544 Commercialization, 365, 368 Orbital slots, 5, 22, 26, 27, 30, 32, 34, 35, 82, NEXTSat spacecraft, 336 123, 125, 215, 282, 294, 334, 360, 363, NIAC. See NASA Innovative Advanced 468, 469 Concepts Program (NIAC) Orbital space debris, 149, 155, 341, 363, 370, NigeriaSat project, 552 419, 534, 542, 591 NMD. See National Missile Defense Systems Organization for Andean Telecommunication (NMD systems) by Satellite (OATS), 81 NOAA. See National Oceanic and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Development (OECD), NOAA Final Rule, 2006, 174 152, 520, 536 “No first placement”, 31, 288 Outer space, 5–10, 12, 15, 16, 18–26, 29–35, Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), 546 37–39, 46–48, 51, 65, 74, 80, 88–90, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 3, 92–106, 108–110, 113–130, 132, 134, 8, 32, 66, 87, 147, 213, 269, 296 136, 195, 197, 216–219, 224, 231, Non-kinetic weapons, 274 238, 239, 241, 242, 250–253, 256–258, Non-spacefaring nations, 12, 22, 24, 310, 366, 260, 267–271, 273–275, 280, 281, 395, 403, 489 283–290, 292, 294, 296–298, 305, Non-State actors, 12, 17, 76, 273 306, 308–310, 313, 314, 316, 318–321, North American Wide Area Augmentation 324, 332, 334, 335, 340–347, 350, Service (WAAS), 185, 192 371, 372, 379–382, 384, 387, 389–408, Northern Lights, 426 419, 422, 423, 435–438, 444–449, NovaNano firm, 365 453–463, 465–470, 479, 482, 484, Novawurks firm, 365 486–490, 492, 495, 498–500, 502, NTIA. See National Telecommunications and 507, 510, 514, 529, 533–535, 541, Information Administration (NTIA) 567–569, 573, 577–579, 583, 589–591, NTM. See National Technical Means of 593, 594, 596–603 verification (NTM) Outer Space Education Alliance, 578 Nuclear Thermodynamic Propulsion/Nuclear Outer Space Treaty of 1967, 19, 21–23, 118, Thermal Propulsion 217, 240, 270, 271, 274, 294, 392, (NTP), 236, 237 510, 514 Index 763

P “Province of mankind”, 553 Pan-Arab Space Agency, 81, 82 PTBT. See Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963 Paper satellites, 130, 151, 152, 157 (PTBT) Paradigm, 20, 114, 115, 184, 254, 490, 559, Public Private Partnership Consortium 571, 580 (P3), 213 Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963 (PTBT), 37, 286, 422, 456 PARUS principle, 186 Q Peaceful uses, 5, 6, 9, 20, 21, 31–34, 48, 74, Quantum physics, 491 79, 91, 96, 97, 99, 104, 118, 120, 197, QZSS system, 49, 191, 192 207, 224, 320, 390, 394, 423, 488, 492, 519, 535, 542, 550, 553, 578, 579 PHAs. See Potentially hazardous asteroids R (PHAs) Radarsat, Canadian remote sensing Earth Phobos-Grunt mission, 465 observation satellite program, 552 Physical/physiological normalcy, 486 Radiocommunication Act 1985, 91 Pico-cellular mobile communications Radio frequencies, 5, 34, 35, 125, 146, 151, systems, 153 152, 154, 160, 168, 215, 220, 221, 282, Piezoelectric polymers, 214 291, 370, 399, 400, 403, 553, 557, 558 Planet labs, 116, 155, 254, 359, 362, 363, 365, Radio-frequency interference (RFI), 153, 158, 369, 442 177, 187, 306 Planetary defense, 5, 268, 275, 291, 388, 417, Radio frequency (RF) spectrum, 148, 149, 446, 486, 592, 594, 599 154, 171, 399, 461, 533, 548 Planetary Protection Policy (PPP), 43, 451–453 Radio Regulations Board (RRB), 148, 157 Planetary Resources Inc., 87, 115, 379 Radiometric resolution, 170 Planetary science, 490, 576 RASCOM project, 80, 552 PlanetiQ, 365 Recommendations relating to the Antarctic Plenipotentiary Conference, 147, 159, 161 Protected Area system concerning Positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT), Specially Protected Areas, Sites of 184, 186, 187, 212, 290, 520, 527, 528, Special Scientific Interest and Historic 547, 550 Sites and monuments (included in ATS Post-human descendants, 483, 493 system), 466 Potentially hazardous asteroids (PHAs), 10, Rectenna systems, 212, 224 382, 418, 419, 421, 422, 424, 599 Regional cooperation, 9, 42, 44, 65, Precooled jet engine, 234 75, 84, 535 Primary data, 173 Registration, 26–28, 30, 34, 35, 89, 90, 93, 94, Private space stations, 5 96–100, 102–107, 119, 122, 130, 136, Processed data, 173 159, 175, 195, 215, 217, 220, 239, 288, Programme of European Cooperating States 305, 334, 344, 357, 358, 360, 363, (PECS), 76, 548 370–373, 391, 459, 519, 554, 557 Project Condor satellite communication Registration Convention of 1974, 26–28 system, 81 Registration Procedures for satellite launches, Project Ploughshares Canada, 573 93, 100 Project SHARE, 556 Remote sensing and Earth observation, Protocol on Environmental Protection to the 9, 167, 271 Antarctic Treaty (included in ATS Remote sensing satellites, 4, 73, 116, 155, system), 466 167–180, 184, 185, 192, 200, 206, 207, Protospace, 116 212, 254, 271, 274, 290, 298, 358, 361, Protozone, 5, 116, 117, 132, 152, 153, 177, 362, 388, 395, 420, 442, 542, 546, 549 241–243, 249, 260, 263, 268, 273, Remote Sensing Space Systems Act 2005, 91 292, 298, 305–322, 324, 429, 439, Remote Sensing Space Systems Regulations 529, 543, 544, 551, 555, 559, 590, 2007, 91 594, 596, 598, 600 Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems “Protozone” and Near Space, 243, 249 (RPAS), 309 764 Index

Rendezvous and Proximity Operations SGAC. See Space Generation Advisory (RPO), 340 Council (SGAC) Res communis, 399 Shackleton Energy Company, 379, 381 Rescue and return, 24, 99, 459 SIA. See Satellite Industry Association (SIA) Rescue and Return Agreement of 1968, 458 Single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO), 233–235, 238 Responsibility, 21, 23–25, 27, 35, 41, 43, 71, Single-use launchers, 243 78, 88, 89, 93, 94, 96, 98, 101–103, Skybox Imaging, 170, 365, 367, 442 105, 107, 109, 120–122, 125, 126, 134, Skylon robotic spaceplane, 234, 235 136, 148, 158, 176, 189, 196, 218, 219, Small satellites (smallsats), 10, 115–117, 153, 222, 240, 250, 251, 256–258, 260, 284, 170, 235, 236, 242, 243, 279, 281, 290, 293, 295, 314, 315, 322, 324, 342, 305–307, 324, 336, 340, 357–375, 435, 344–348, 371, 391, 396, 401, 422, 424, 442, 444, 450, 531, 542, 548, 554, 555, 427, 437, 438, 460, 500, 501, 505, 509, 591, 595 514, 556, 590, 600 SMPAG. See Space Mission Planning Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV), 233 Advisory Group (SMPAG) RF. See Radio frequency (RF) spectrum SOAR. See Suborbital aircraft reusable RFI. See Radio-frequency interference (RFI) (SOAR) Right to self-defense, 46, 285 SOE. See State-owned enterprise (SOE) ROSCOSMOS-The Russian Space Agency, Soft law, 9, 15, 16, 20, 28, 31, 45–47, 51, 102, 188, 419 128, 129, 135, 136, 198, 289, 343, 590, RRB. See Radio Regulations Board (RRB) 596, 597 Solar concentrators, 208, 214 Solar flares, 132, 194, 419, 421, 425, 427, 435 S Solar Maximum/Solar Minimum Eleven Year Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS), 24 Cycle, 425 SARPs. See Standards and Recommended Solar Power Satellite via Arbitrarily Large Practises (SARPs) Phased Array (SPS-ALPHA), 211 Satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS), 49 Solar storms, 177, 417, 419, 420, Satellite constellations, 82, 149, 153–155, 428, 429, 485 159–161, 183, 260, 305, 358, 360–363, SOLAS. See Safety of Life at Sea Convention 365, 367, 369, 370, 373, 375, 435, 442, (SOLAS) 443, 450, 522, 527 Sovereign nation, 16, 487 Satellite Industry Association (SIA), 161, 191, Soviet/Russian Buran, 22, 25, 232 522, 523 Space and capacity-building, 10 Satellite telecommunications, 9, 17, 42, 66, Space and education, 10, 44, 80, 200, 223, 114, 145–165, 184, 185, 192, 200, 220, 504, 519, 556, 563, 571, 575, 579 271, 296, 395, 521, 548, 552 Space applications, 9, 33, 43, 67, 73, 95, S-Band radar, 315, 318 104, 114, 120, 134, 150, 154, 155, 168, SBSP. See Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) 169, 171, 176–178, 184, 200, 206, 207, SBSPS. See Space-Based Solar Power 217, 219, 221, 231, 274, 341, 363, 442, Satellites(SBSPS) 444, 470, 489, 530, 536, 542, 543, Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of 545–547, 550–552, 554, 560, 561, 568, UNCOPUOS (STSC), 118 570, 571, 591, 598, 601 Scientific Planetary Quarantine requirements Space-Based Solar Power Satellites (PQR), 451–453 (SBSPS), 224 Scramjets, 234 Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP), 205–224 SDA. See Space Data Association (SDA) Space Benefits Declaration of 1996, 558, 560 Secure World Foundation (SWF), 306, 334, Space commons, 268 349, 578, 590 Space Competitiveness Act of 2015 (US), 49, Sentinel, 298, 386, 418, 419, 421, 551 255, 283, 397, 405, 406, 547 SES Global, 546 Spacecom/Space Communication (Israel), 155 Settlement, 87, 402, 483, 485–487, 489, Space Conference of the Americas 492–496, 498, 499, 501, 502, 505, 506, (CEA), 81 510, 515, 578 Space Data Association (SDA), 155, 161, 294 Index 765

Space debris, 4, 5, 10, 26, 27, 31, 32, 38, 43, Space policy, 7, 11, 66–69, 83, 89, 92–94, 97, 46, 47, 50, 79, 90, 106, 117, 128, 149, 100, 102, 103, 106, 108, 115, 120, 241, 155, 156, 160, 168, 177, 207, 214, 216, 320, 543, 557, 571, 572, 575, 577, 578, 220, 221, 232, 236, 239, 241, 258, 260, 580, 581 269, 274, 279, 281, 282, 287–290, 293, Space Policy Institute, 78, 572 305, 306, 314, 318, 319, 324, 331–335, Space regulation, 6, 13, 83, 290, 292, 338, 340–346, 348–351, 360, 363, 306, 335, 488 370–372, 383, 384, 401, 405, 419, 435, Space Resource Exploration and Utilization 436, 441–443, 460, 461, 467, 470, 500, Act of 2015 (Space Resource Act), 397, 533, 534, 542, 553, 556, 573, 578–581, 405–408, 489 591, 600 Space safety, 9, 11, 43, 47, 260, 262, 294, 335, SpaceDev hybrid fuel system, 439–440 360, 533, 542, 555, 577 Space elevator, 10, 209, 238, 239, 241, 242 Space safety magazine, 577 Space exploitation, 98, 553 Space security, 10, 32, 35, 38, 82, 120, 168, Space exploration, 3, 5, 12, 19, 29, 44, 107, 211, 218, 267–271, 273–298, 300, 348, 207, 231, 237, 252, 253, 256, 320, 341, 470, 522, 573, 580 342, 365, 463, 470, 484, 489, 492, 495, Space security index (SSI), 268, 522, 573 531, 534, 542, 547, 548, 554, 560, 562, SpaceShipOne, 254, 439 567–571, 578, 579, 581, 589 Space situational awareness (SSA), 9, 136, Spacefaring nations, 4, 12, 28, 29, 31, 32, 44, 149, 155, 160, 161, 198–200, 220, 293, 73, 74, 88–90, 95, 98, 100, 107–109, 294, 298, 305, 315, 533 127, 135, 217, 240, 251, 252, 272, 274, Space studies board (SSB), 452 276, 277, 288, 296, 322, 323, 349, 350, Space systems loral (SSL), 155 379, 389–392, 398, 436, 437, 489, 541, Space tourism, 5, 87, 116, 131–133, 231, 241, 557, 561, 562 322, 324, 333, 520, 550 Spaceflight participants, 24, 124, 258–260, 484 Space tourists, 24 Space Generation Advisory Council (SGAC), 577 Space traffic management (STM), 10, 51, 136, Space governance, 3–13, 15–58, 83, 87–111, 149, 153, 159–161, 176, 177, 224, 242, 120, 126, 135, 136, 146, 154, 168, 217, 243, 260, 305–327, 440, 442, 542, 555, 231, 243, 253, 268, 273, 290, 292, 318, 600 319, 332, 343, 372, 373, 390, 400, 436, Space traffic management and control, 220, 445, 491, 529, 530, 534, 536, 543, 242, 319, 542, 600 544, 550, 551, 557, 562, 567–585, Space transportation, 3, 51, 106, 107, 115, 590–597, 602 117, 126, 131, 132, 207, 213, 216, 250, Space in long-term economic development, 254, 382, 387, 388, 395, 440, 484 10, 519–538 Space weather, 10, 178, 282, 291, 292, 383, Space launch services, 9, 231–245 384, 388, 419, 425–427, 461, 533 Space migrant, 480 SpaceX Corp., 87, 114–117, 232, 236, 255, Space migration and colonization, 10, 437, 259, 261, 362, 364, 369, 373, 418, 442, 480–506, 508, 509 487, 522 Space mining and resource recovery, 379–410 Spatial resolution, 169–172 Space Mission Planning Advisory Group Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SMPAG), 291, 418, 423, 424, 429, 503 (SPDM), 337 Space natural resources, 10, 231, 379–411, 553 Spectral resolution, 170 Space object, 24–28, 30, 33, 46, 89, 90, 93, SPS. See Solar Power Satellite via Arbitrarily 94, 96–105, 107, 108, 120–124, 127, Large Phased Array (SPS-ALPHA) 130, 173, 175, 217, 219, 220, 240, SSA. See Space situational awareness (SSA) 242, 251, 258, 271, 275, 276, 282, SSB. See Space studies board (SSB) 287, 289, 292, 305, 309, 315, 318, SSI. See Space security index (SSI) 319, 321, 332, 334, 336, 338, SSL. See Space systems loral (SSL) 342–347, 357, 370–372, 397, 449, SSTO. See Single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) 456, 458–462, 467, 469, 470, 519 Standards and Recommended Practises Space operator, 4, 94, 96, 126, 254, 308, (SARPs), 120, 134, 321, 322 311–313, 321, 323, 335 Star One satellite operator, 155 766 Index

Start-up, 3, 114, 115, 117, 255, 366, 380, 504, Treaty signature, 21, 28, 38 535, 594 TSIKADA principle, 186 State actors, 12, 20, 51, 320 Turbo rockets, 234 State-owned enterprise (SOE), 102 TVRO. See Television receive-only (TVRO) Statute of the International Court of Justice Two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO), 233, 234 (ICJ Statute), 126, 128, 295 Tyvak nano-satellite systems, 365 STM. See Space traffic management (STM) Stockholm Declaration of 1972, 437 Stratolaunch systems, 233 U Stratospheric applications, 193 UNISPACE + 50, 11, 33, 207, 243, 307, 429, Stratospheric balloons, 10, 316, 324, 555 569, 570, 591, 597, 601 STSC. See Scientific and Technical Subcommittee UNISPACE I, 545 of UNCOPUOS (STSC) UNISPACE II, 545 Study of the Committee on Space Research, UNISPACE III, 33, 39, 44, 173, 545 Panel on Exploration (COSPAR PEX United Nations Committee on the Peaceful study), 560 Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), 5, Suborbital aircraft reusable (SOAR), 552 11, 12, 20, 21, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32–34, Suborbital flights, 36, 117, 130, 131, 256, 313, 37, 38, 43, 45–47, 51, 80, 83, 118–120, 324, 600 128–131, 134, 135, 156, 159, 161, 197, Suborbital spaceflight, 10, 24, 116, 249, 253, 206, 217, 224, 240, 243, 283, 287, 288, 255, 429 291, 306, 307, 320, 322, 324, 335, 343, Sunsat, 206, 208 349, 371, 372, 381, 391, 398, 403, 404, Surveyor landing site, 384, 449 407, 418, 419, 429, 436, 441, 445, 452, Sustainable atmosphere, 499 454, 455, 460, 462, 467, 501, 528, 533, Sustainable development, 5, 34, 81, 136, 207, 534, 542, 545, 551, 552, 556, 577, 212, 519–522, 526–534, 536, 547–551, 579, 594 559, 561, 568, 569, 571, 579 United Nations Conference on Sustainable SWF. See Secure World Foundation (SWF) Development of 2012 (Rio+20), 551 Systems engineers and ground control United Nations Conferences on the personnel, 496 Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNIPSPACE), 33 United Nations Convention on the Law of the T Sea of 1982 (UNCLOS), 24, 28, 29, Taikonauts, 487 241, 314, 344, 400–403, 436 Tauri Group, 146, 191, 522 United Nations Coordination of Outer Space Telecommunications Act 1993, 91 Activities (UNCOSA), 36 Telecommunication satellites, 146, 152–154, United Nations Economic and Social 223, 521 Commission for Asia and the Pacific Telesat Company, 552 (UNESCAP), 542 Television receive-only (TVRO), 210 United Nations Economic and Social Temporal Resolution, 170 Commission for Western Asia TerraSAR-X, 175 (UNESCWA), 542 Timing satellite, 5, 186, 190, 212, 273, 290, United Nations Economic Commission for 296, 368, 426, 521 Latin America (UNECLAC), TIROS 1 satellite, 167 542, 546 Transhuman descendants, 483 United Nations Educational, Scientific and TRANSIT project, 186 Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 35, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet 545, 556 Protocol (TCP/IP), 148, 150 United Nations Environment Program Trans-oceanic robotic transportation, 116 (UNEP), 35, 322, 590 Transparency and confidence-building United Nations General Assembly resolutions measures (TCBMs), 11, 32, 46, 47, 120, on Prevention of an Arms Race in 286, 287, 335, 348, 349, 589, 590, 601 Outer Space (PAROS), 31, 38, 120, 286 Travaux préparatoires, 559 United Nations Institute for Disarmament Treaty ratification, 15, 119, 128, 543 Research (UNIDIR), 35 Index 767

United Nations Institute for the Unification of V Private Law (UNIDROIT), 119, 131 Van Allen belts, 10, 178, 209, 282, 425, 498 United Nations Millennium Development Goals Vanguard 2 meteorological satellite, 167 and Beyond 2015 (MDG), 529 ViaSat firm, 362, 366 United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of (UNODA), 37, 47, 161, 322, 349 1969 (VCLT), 21, 23 United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs Vikings landing site, 449 (UNOOSA), 12, 26, 28, 33, 36, 44, 47, 118, 197, 243, 258, 320–322, 371, 372, 462, 533, 569, 570, 577, 581, 600 W United Nations Platform for Space-based Wassenaar arrangement, 48, 129 Information for Disaster Management Weaponization of outer space, 423 and Emergency Response Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs), 48, (UNSPIDER), 18, 33 101, 105, 218, 281, 285, 286, 456 United Nations Security Council Weather monitoring, 365, 550 Resolutions, 27 Web-GIS technology, 551 United Nations Space Mission Planning White Knight Two, 233 Advisory Group (SMPAG), 291, 418, Wiess School of Natural Sciences, 572 423, 424, 429, 503 Wireless Power Transmissions (WPTs), 210, United Nations Sustainable Development 214, 215, 221–223 Goals (SDGs), 5, 34, 519, 520, 526, Working group on the Long Term 529–534, 536, 547, 548, 550, 551, 559, Sustainability of Outer Space 561, 568 Activities, 288 United States Air Force (USAF), 116 World Bank, 16, 17, 223, 520, 522, 546 Universiteit Ghent (Belgium), 575 World Economic Forum (WEF), University of Cape Town (South Africa), 575 17, 426 University of Colorado in Colorado World Intellectual Property Organization Springs, 572 (WIPO), 36 University of Maryland University College, 572 World Meteorological Organization (WMO), University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 573 35, 172, 207, 241, 322, University of North Dakota Aerospace (UND 545, 556, 590 Aerospace), 572 World Radio-communication Conferences Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), 149, 307, (WRC), 34, 148, 151, 157, 158, 176, 313, 314 177, 372, 443 Unmanned Autonomous Stations World Telecommunication Development (UAS), 307, 314 Conference (WTDC), 159 US army ballistic missile agency, 277 World Trade Organization (WTO), 16, 17, US Department of Commerce 176, 190, 198, 282, 590 (DOC), 187, 520 WPTS. See Wireless Power Transmissions US National Astronautical and Space (WPTs) Administration (NASA), 22, 26, 40, 50, 69, 79, 107, 113, 115, 117, 120, 130, 155, 171, 172, 208–211, 221, 237, 252, X 254, 256, 259, 335–337, 339, 340, 382, X37 space plane, 232, 278, 339 384, 386, 418, 419, 421, 426, 427, 437, 439, 449–451, 453, 460, 485–487, 498, 525, 527, 531, 572, 577 Y US National Environmental Policy Act of Yahsat Company, 552 1970 (NEPA), 437 Yarkovsky effect, 421 US National Research Council, 422, 452 Yutu-Jade Rabbit site, 449 US NERVA/Rover program, 237 US Space Shuttle, 115, 232, 441, 576 Utilization of space resources, 114, 116, 381, Z 397, 405–408, 489 Zenit remote sensing satellites, 168