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Law(Lessness) in the Final Frontier

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Law(Lessness) in the Final Frontier LAW(LESSNESS) IN THE FINAL FRONTIER: THE IMPERIAL FANTASY IN AMERICAN SPACE POLICY A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN HISTORY MAY 2021 By Lauren E. Hauck Thesis Committee: Margot Henriksen, Chairperson Suzanna Reiss Elizabeth Colwill 1 ABSTRACT This thesis exAmines the historicAl development of AmericAn spAce policy As An imperiAl project. This pAper is periodized in three chronologicAl erAs—the Cold WAr, the 1990s, And the post-9/11 era—that display distinct viewpoints and methodologies towArd the prActice of expAnsionism in outer spAce. Further, despite the multitude of scholArs who refer to outer spAce As the “FinAl Frontier,” few interrogate the use of this traditionally imperiAlist rhetoric. AnAlyzing the lAnguAge And methodology of MAnifest Destiny As it Applied in eArly AmericAn expAnsion And now As it is inscribed upon outer spAce truly illuminAtes the imperiAl project. In understAnding spAce policy As inherently expAnsionist And inherently imperiAlist, this study delves into the vehicles or tools of that project. In the Cold War era, the goal of surveillAnce—akin to Foucault’s Panopticon theory—becomes the early focus in space policy. This coincides with the goAls of the Cold WAr to prevent Communist expAnsion and estAblish the United StAtes As the protector of the “free world.” While surveillance policy in no way stopped, the United States understood the need to present itself as a cooperative world leader. Thus, in the 1990s An emphAsis is placed on cooperation and the presentation on the globAl stAge of benign power. Post-9/11 the new CommunisM is “terror,” setting the stAge for A reinvigorAted And even more overt exceptionAlism in outer spAce. The more pervAsive form of imperiAlism is developed in this period through the process of taking up spAce viA sAtellite plAcement in EArth’s orbit. UltiMAtely, this paper concludes that a discussion of spAce policy must be more firmly written into the rAciAlized And gendered history of AmericAn imperiAlism. As spAce trAvel And explorAtion becomes more prevalent, it is imperAtive thAt scholArs continue to interrogAte And indict the flAws in the system. i TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ I INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 1 NATIONAL SECURITY IN OUTER SPACE .................................................................................................................. 8 HOLDING THE ROYAL FLUSH – POWER GAMES ON A GLOBAL SCALE ............................................................ 11 CHAPTER ONE - EARTHLINGS IN OUTER SPACE: CREATING AN INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR SPACE LAW .................................................................................................. 15 THE FOUNDATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW ..................................................................................................... 17 MODERN INTERNATIONAL LAW ........................................................................................................................... 18 CREATING SPACE LAW ........................................................................................................................................... 22 THE OUTER SPACE TREATY .................................................................................................................................. 24 CHAPTER TWO - THE SPACE PANOPTICON: COLD WAR SPACE POLICY AND THE RISE OF THE SURVEILLANCE STATE ...................................................................................................... 29 THE ULTIMATE POSITION—US SPACE POLICY DURING THE COLD WAR .................................................... 32 A. The Eisenhower Approach ................................................................................................................... 36 B. Moving the Finish Line—JFK, LBJ & the Race to the Moon .................................................... 39 C. Winning the Space Race, What Now?—Nixon, Ford & Carter ............................................. 42 D. The Beginning of the End—Reagan and the CoLd War Legacy ............................................ 45 “BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU” .................................................................................................................... 49 A. AlL-Seeing, Unseen—America’s Space Panopticon .................................................................... 52 B. The “PeacefUL PUrposes” Rhetoric .................................................................................................... 58 CHAPTER THREE - THE EMPIRE'S NEW CLOTHES: POST-COLD WAR SPACE POLICY IN A UNIPOLAR WORLD ........................................................................................................................ 62 FROM COMPETITION TO COOPERATION--AMERICA’S NEXT STEPS ................................................................ 63 A. The Post-CoLd War President—Bush 41 ........................................................................................ 64 B. CLinton and the InternationaL Space Station ............................................................................... 67 BIG STICK DIPLOMACY ........................................................................................................................................... 69 A. Space PoLicy and the War on Terror ............................................................................................... 70 B. The Obama Administration—A New Era in Space PoLicy? .................................................... 72 C. DonaLd TrUmp and the Road to Space Force ............................................................................... 73 CHAPTER FOUR - SPACE COWBOYS: US SPACE POLICY AND THE IMPERIAL IMAGINARY ........................................................................................................................................ 76 MANIFEST DESTINY ............................................................................................................................................... 78 A. The White Man’s BUrden ...................................................................................................................... 83 MODERNIZING MANIFEST DESTINY – TURNER’S FRONTIER THESIS AND THE FUTURE OF EXPANSIONISM ................................................................................................................................................................................... 86 RACE, SPACE, AND THE SPACE RACE ................................................................................................................... 87 A. HistoricaL Mythmaking & ImperiaLism in OUter Space ........................................................... 88 B. PUtting the Frontier Myth into Practice—DoLman’s AstropoLitik ...................................... 90 ii C. Prioritizing Space over Race—The BattLe for ResoUrces ....................................................... 94 D. Private IndUstry—The New Robber Barons ................................................................................ 98 CHAPTER FIVE - SCIENCE FICTION AND EMPIRE: CREATING THE OTHER IN POPULAR CULTURE ............................................................................................................................................. 104 SCIENCE FICTION AND ‘THE OTHER’ ................................................................................................................ 107 SCIENCE FICTION AS RESISTANCE ..................................................................................................................... 110 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................................... 114 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................. 118 iii INTRODUCTION HistoriAns estiMAte thAt the first settlers of the HAwAiiAn IslAnds Arrived from the Marquesas Islands as early as 400 BCE.1 TrAveling some 2,000 miles in cAnoes whittled from the trunks of MAssive trees, these seAfArers nAvigAted into the unknown using only the stArs As A MAp to guide them on their journey. To trAverse the expAnses of the PAcific OceAn, Polynesian voyagers who would become the populAtion of NAtive HAwAiiAns settlers used Star Lines—A system of AstronomicAl MApping by drAwing A figurAtive line from stAr to stAr.2 From the very inception of HAwAiiAn culture, Astronomy hAs plAyed An integrAl role. In lArge part, NAtive HAwAiiAns exhibited fAr more AdvAnced nAvigAtionAl systems thAn their EuropeAn counterpArts. However, As is true of MAny colonized nAtions, HAwAi‘i fell victim to the force And MAgnitude of Western imperiAlism. Despite the deep-rooted connection between Astronomy And HAwAiiAn culture, a modern conflict on nAtive soil centered Around the construction of the world’s largest telescope and has provided A microcosmic exAmple of the distinct interconnection between imperiAlism of BIPOC3 land and bodies and outer space. LocAted on the islAnd of HAwAi‘i (Big IslAnd), A long dorMAnt volcAno hAs become the site of culturAl unrest And An ongoing reminder of the imperiAlist conflict in HawAi‘i And more
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