Adachi et al. Zoological Letters (2020) 6:3 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40851-020-00155-7 RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access Structure and development of the complex helmet of treehoppers (Insecta: Hemiptera: Membracidae) Haruhiko Adachi1, Keisuke Matsuda1, Kenji Nishida2, Paul Hanson3, Shigeru Kondo1 and Hiroki Gotoh4,5* Abstract Some insects possess complex three-dimensional (3D) structures that develop under the old cuticle prior to the last imaginal molt. Adult treehoppers (Insecta: Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha: Membracidae) have one such complex 3D structure, known as a helmet, on their dorsal side. The adult helmet likely forms inside the nymphal pronotum during the final instar nymphal stage. Previous morphological studies have reported that the adult helmet is a large, bi-layered, plywood-like structure, whereas the nymphal pronotum is a monolayer, sheath-like structure. The adult helmet is much larger than nymphal helmet. Thus, the emergence of the adult helmet involves two structural transitions: a transition from a monolayer, sheath-like pronotum to a bi-layer, plywood-like helmet, and a transition in size from small to large. However, when, how, and in what order these transitions occur within the nymphal cuticle is largely unknown. To determine how adult helmet development occurs under the nymphal cuticle, in the present study we describe the morphology of the final adult helmet and investigate developmental trajectories of the helmet during the final instar nymphal stage. We used micro-CT, scanning electron microscope and paraffin sections for morphological observations, and used Antianthe expansa as a model species. We found that the structural transition (from monolayer, sheath-like structure to bi-layer, roof-like structure) occurs through the formation of a “miniature” of the adult helmet during the middle stage of development and that subsequently, extensive folding and furrows form, which account for the increase in size. We suggest that the making of a “miniature” is the key developmental step for the formation of various 3D structures of treehopper helmets. Keywords: Morphogenesis, 3D structure, Treehopper, Membracidae, Pronotum, Micro-CT Background (3D) structures when the furrows are extended [3]. Re- Arthropods are covered with a hard exoskeleton that cently, Matsuda et al. (2017) experimentally and via physically and chemically protects the body [1–3]. How- computer simulation demonstrated that the later exten- ever, due to its limited elasticity, the exoskeleton pre- sion process is a simple physical transition that involves vents continuous growth; most arthropods species no cytological activities, such as cell division, migration, therefore grow via shedding their hard cuticle, a or apoptosis [5]. Thus, the final structure is uniquely de- phenomenon known as molting [2–4]. Before molting, a termined when the primordial morphogenesis has been new exoskeleton forms under the old exoskeleton. A completed. Considering the diversity of arthropod exo- newly developed exoskeleton has extensive furrows that skeleton morphology, this “morphogenesis via folding enable it to expand into complex, three-dimensional and extension” may be able to form various final 3D shapes. However, the developmental logistics of such * Correspondence: [email protected] primordia with specific furrows and coding of various 4Faculty of Environmental Earth Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan 3D structures remains to be understood. 5Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Department of Genomics and Evolutionary One of the most extreme examples of 3D structures Biology, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan formed by “folding and extension” is the helmet (an Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s). 2020 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Adachi et al. Zoological Letters (2020) 6:3 Page 2 of 9 Fig. 1 Various 3D morphologies of treehopper helmets. The morphology and color of treehopper helmets show a wide diversity. All species shown here occur in Costa Rica: a Bocydium mae. b Addipe zebrina, c Cladonota biclavata, d Cladonota sp., e Polyglypta sp., f Poppea sp enlarged pronotum) of treehoppers (Insecta: Hemiptera: descriptions are particularly scarce. In the present study, Auchenorrhyncha: Membracidae) (Fig. 1a-f). The 3D we used a treehopper species, Antianthe expansa (Ger- shapes of treehopper helmets are extremely diverse, in- mar, 1835) (Smiliinae: Smiliini) which has a roof-shaped cluding branched TV antenna-like (e.g. Bocydium helmet, to reveal the two structural transitions and dem- Fig. 1a), roof-like (e.g. Adippe Fig. 1b), crescent or more onstrate developmental trajectories and helmet structure complex C shape (e.g. Cladonota Fig. 1c-d), elongated during the final instar nymph by using micro-CT, scan- cylindrical (e.g. Polyglypta Fig. 1e), spiny to forked (e.g. ning electron microscopy (SEM), and paraffin sections. Poppea Fig. 1f) or ant-mimicking [6–8] shapes. Such complex 3D shapes appear at the time of molting from a Results and discussion final instar nymph to an adult [9, 10]. Over a short time Structure of adult helmet period both the size and shape of the helmet are dramat- The helmet of the adult Antianthe expansa covers most ically transformed at molting. Considering this “trans- of the dorsum of the body [7] (Fig. 2a-d) and has a pair formation” (Supplementary Movies 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5), i.e. of lateral projections (humeral horns) at its anterior end emergence of the adult helmet, it is likely that the spe- (Fig. 2e). The helmet is connected to the main body only cific folding and furrow patterns are already developed at its anterior margin (Fig. 2c, C’), i.e., covering over the on the helmet primordium located below the cuticle of mesothorax, metathorax, and abdomen with no other the last instar nymph. connections (Fig. 2c, d). Thus, the venter of the helmet Previous morphological studies have indicated that the is actually external to the body. adult helmet is a bi-layer, plywood-like structure while In the posterior half of the helmet, there is a wall-like the nymphal pronotum is a monolayer, sheath-like structure that bridges the left and right sides (Fig. 2c-f). structure [9]. Thus, the emergence of the adult helmet This structure is known as the septum, and was first includes two structural transitions, that is, 1) transition named by Buckton and Poulton in 1903 [9, 12]. Detailed from a monolayer, sheath-like pronotum to a bi-layer, observation of the helmet using paraffin sections indi- plywood-like helmet and, 2) transition in size from a cated that the helmet is composed of a bi-layered cuticle small helmet to a large helmet. When, how, and in what (Fig. 3B’,B″,C′,C″). The space between the two layers order do these two transitions occur inside the nymphal is connected to the body. Some unstructured tissues and cuticle? cells were observed between these layers (Fig. 3B’,B″,C Except for a few molecular studies focusing on wing ′,C″). The apical area (median carina) (light blue arrows developmental genes [10] and on transcriptomic profile in Fig. 3a-c) and the bottom of the helmet, beginning at [11], few studies of treehopper helmet morphogenesis the base of humeral horns and extending posteriorly (or- have been reported; histological and anatomical ange arrows in Fig. 3a-c), are enlarged (with an Adachi et al. Zoological Letters (2020) 6:3 Page 3 of 9 Fig. 2 Adult morphology of focal species, Antianthe expansa. a Adults and nymphs of Antianthe expansa in the field. Adults and various nymphal instars are present on the same branch and are often associated with ants. b Side view of adult. Scale bar indicates 1 mm. c Virtual sagittal section of adult via micro-CT scan imaging. Head, prothorax (T1), mesothorax (T2), metathorax (T3) and abdomen are indicated in different colors. Connection point of head, helmet (dorsal prothorax), and mesothorax is magnified in C’. ISM: intersegmental membrane. d Diagram of cross section of C. It can be clearly seen that the helmet is a thin structure and connects only at the most anterior region. e Frontal view of adult via micro-CT imaging. The dorsalmost region of the helmet was graphically excised to show the inner side of the helmet. White arrows indicate a pair of lateral projections (humeral horns). f Magnified image of dashed window in E. Highlighted in green is the septum and in orange is dorsal part of the mesothorax (T2) interlayer space) to form tubular structures. These tubu- Structure of nymphal pronotum lar structures have also been described as median carina In the last nymphal instar the dorsal area of the prono- and lateral carinae in a previous study [9]. The median tum extends to the posterior part of mesothorax forming carina connects to the body at the prothorax, just pos- a “helmet sheath” that contains part of the folded adult terior to the head, and the lateral carinae connect at the helmet (Fig. 4a, b). This helmet sheath is a single layer lateral projection (Fig. 3d). Since the carinae have a and the inner surface of the sheath is connected to the thicker cuticle than the other areas of the helmet (Fig. body (Fig. 4b). As Stegmann (1998) mentioned in his 3b, B’), they are likely to function as a framework for the study [9], the nymphal pronotum is a large, single- helmet.