The Transformation of the Church of St. John the Baptist to the Umayyad Mosque of Damas

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TRANSFORMATION OF THE CHURCH OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST TO THE IMPERIAL PROJECTION OF THE UMAYYADS:THE MA Thesis inComparative History,with the specialization THE UMAYYADMOSQUE OF DAMASCUS in Interdisciplinaryin MedievalStudies Central European University Ashkhen Davtyan May 2013 Budapest 1

CEU eTD Collection

TRANSFORMATION OF THE CHURCH OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST TO Central European University,fulfillmentBudapest, oftherequirements partial in THE IMPERIAL PROJECTION OF THE UMAYYADS:THE of the MasterArts degreeHistory, of inComparativewiththe specialization in THE UMAYYADMOSQUE OF DAMASCUS Thesis submitted totheDeparThesis submitted Accepted in conformancewitht ______Interdisciplinary Medieval Studies.. Chair, Examination CommitteeChair, Examination Ashkhen Davtyan Thesis Supervisor (Armenia) May 2013 E Examiner Budapest xaminer by 2

tment of Medieval Studies, tment ofMedieval he standards CEU of the

CEU eTD Collection

TRANSFORMATION OF THE CHURCH OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST TO Central European University,fulfillmentBudapest, oftherequirements partial in THE IMPERIAL PROJECTION OF THE UMAYYADS:THE of the MasterArts degreeHistory, of inComparativewiththe specialization in THE UMAYYADMOSQUE OF DAMASCUS Thesis submitted totheDepartmentThesis submitted St ofMedieval Accepted inconformancewiththe standards of the ______Interdisciplinary Medieval Studies. Ashkhen Davtyan External Reader (Armenia) May 2013 Budapest by 3

udies, CEU

CEU eTD Collection

TRANSFORMATION OF THE CHURCH OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST TO Central European University,fulfillmentBudapest, oftherequirements partial in THE IMPERIAL PROJECTION OF THE UMAYYADS:THE of the MasterArts degreeHistory, of inComparativewiththe specialization in THE UMAYYADMOSQUE OF DAMASCUS Thesis submitted totheDepartmentThesis submitted Studies, ofMedieval Accepted inconformancewiththe standards CEU of the ______Interdisciplinary Medie Ashkhen Davt Supervisor (Armenia) May 2013 Budapest ______by 4

yan

val Studies. Studies. val

CEU eTD Collection Budapest 2013 May 28 thesi the form anythis ofhigher to institution other education for an degree. academic of part in no submitted been has thesis and the of part no others, that declare also I of copyright. institution‟s or person‟s work the of and unidentified made no was that use declare Iillegitimate bibliography. and notes in credited properly as information here undersigned, the I,

with that the present thesis is exactly my own work, based on my research and only such such only and research my on based work, own my exactly is thesis present the that with

Ashkhen Davtyan Ashkhen

, candidate for the MA degree in Medieval Studies declare Studies Medieval in degree MA the for candidate , 5

______Signature

ifigs n any on infringes s

CEU eTD Collection my of especially and fiancé, my mot family, my of can care Nothing and cooperation. support warmest and the comments with useful compare his for Kraft, Andras friend my to grateful to appreciation proof with me helping for Igrateful very am ofour Judith to department. coordinators andthankful tothe Katalin to Szende coord in assistance and support their with to me helped who those all thank to like also would I me. with working while patience the for Al

- Azmeh for his useful guidance and assistance, professional comments and suggestions, also suggestions, and comments professional assistance, and guidance useful his for Azmeh her. I would like to express my deepest gratitude first of all, to my to all, of first gratitude deepest my express to like would I

l poesr fo wo I ae ere a o drn m suis I m truly am I studies. my during lot a learned have I whom from professors all - edn ad omtig As I ol lk t epes y highest my express to like would I Also formatting. and reading ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ntn ad raiig y ees; seily am I especially defense; my organizing and inating 6

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CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX CO 3. The Imperial Projection the of Umayyads 2. Sharing the Sacred 1. Introductory chapter INTRODUCTION 3.5. FamilyThe of Kings 3.4. correspondenceThe between al 3.3.2. al 3.3. policyThe adaptation of the of Byzantine motifs 3.2. DomeThe the of Rock 3.1. monetaryThe circulation under the Umayyads 2.5. meaningThe Shared of sacred space 2.4. phenomenonThe of adaptation of the sacred 2.3. The Transitional phase 2.2. cityThe in transition 2.1. Sharing the Sacred space Damascus in 1.5. Damascus after Arabthe conquest 1.4. The treaty 1.3. conquestThe Damascusof 1.2. 1.1. Pre Methodological note Sources Previous Research Structure Topics andAim Figures: NCLUSION 3.3.3 Similar layouts of the capitals 3.3.1 Adapted B 3.2.3. The 3.2.2 DomeThe of Rockthe night andthe journey of Mu 3.2.1 UmayyadThe Dome theof Rock 3.1.3. Monetary reform 3.1.2. Arab 3.1.1. Arab 2.4.3. Jerusalem 2.4.2. Rusafa 2.4.1. Mamre 2.1.2. Scholarly theories about the division 2.1.1. Sources about divisionthe

The ConquestThe of Syria -

...... Islamic Damascus Karma decoration

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...... mosaics and the inscriptions of Domethe of Rock the - - Sa mixedByzantine coinage

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...... ssanid mixedssanid coinage

......

yzantine motifs mosaicsin ......

...... -

Historical Background ......

......

...... - TABLE TABLE ...... Walīd and Justinian II

......

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space ...... 10

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95 88 88 84 81 78 76 75 74 74 71 69 67 67 65 64 59 58 58 55 53 51 49 48 47 43 41 38 37 36 35 32 29 26 25 25 23 18 14 13 11 11

CEU eTD Collection Syria 2 1 (379 hea the where century, the into turned was it region, the in Christianity Hadad, deity Aramaean perspective on Umayyads the of projection imperial the symbolism, its and Rock s Islamic early of components rulers its of policies and ideology the and Syria Islamic early on perspective wider a gain to order disc will but mosque, a into church the of transformation Thus politics. Umayyad early overlaps topics. interrelated period Umayyad the to related subject any of or this of investigation and context T agenda. political Umayyad the of context the in it present and Mosque Umayyad the into Baptist Aim and Topics

René Dussaud, “Le temple de Jupiter Damascène et seset tr Damascène Jupiter “Lede temple RenéDussaud, Sauvaget, Jean he of examination

- 395). 3 (1922): 234. (1922): 3 . These topics include include topics These . h st o te oqe tef has itself mosque the of site The the John St. of Church the of transformation the of history the discuss to seeks thesis The 2

Following without

Les monuments Historique de Damas de Historique monuments Les e arly I arly

In fact, an e an fact, In this transformation this

aig no con te euirte of peculiarities the account into taking slamic Syria ofits policies andslamic the

d of the saint was reputedly kept as a relic relic a as kept reputedly was saint the of d h Aa cnus, codn t the to according conquest, Arab the 1

n then and

the conception of the sacred space, the religious and social social and religious the space, sacred the of conception the cey mntr reform monetary ociety, xamination of these themes shows a clearer and wider picture of of picture wider and clearer a shows themes these of xamination ,

the thesis will address not only the actual event of the the of event actual the only not address will thesis the

t eae h Tml o Jptr Atr the After Jupiter. of Temple the became it I NTRODUCTION is not easy to grasp while to noteasy is a

long history: history: long

(Beirut: Imprimeire catholique, 1932), 5. 1932), catholique, (Beirut: Imprimeire 11 ansformations aux époques Chrétienne et Musulmane,” Musulmane,” et Chrétienne époques aux ansformations

c uc of hurch rulers s , the construction of the Dome of the the of Dome the of construction the ,

uss First

. St. St. the surrender surrender a number of number a

t evd as served it

it is it John the Baptist in the fourth fourth the in Baptist the John atclr eid f time of period particular since Ti wl poie wider a provide will This . separate from the historical thehistorical from separate

treaty treaty the time of Theodosius Theodosius of time the

interrelated topics interrelated sanctuary a of

h pol of people the

with several several with spread

of the the of The .

new

of in

CEU eTD Collection 4 3 vi step a make Umayyads the when stage, final the and character, shared mixed, a having for renowned was which period, space, sacred era Umayyad that phase transitional a first, pol Christians the by and Muslims the by such rulers Umayyad broad be can that agenda imperial and theouter withthe relations Byzantine Empire. polici These policy. that into Baptist the John St. of Church the of transformation existed had al of reign the during occurred church this or Syria), of governor the time mu Baptist the John St. of Church the including Damascus,

Al 1. in chapter conquest isArab discussed The sible the gradual policy of the Umayyads, oriented to the expression of power and sovereignty sovereignty and power of expression the to oriented Umayyads, the of policy gradual the sible ṣ icy of the Umayyads the of icy - Ya allā exemplifies ʿ qūbī A qūbī In order to describe the ideological polic ideological the describe to order In , or “prayer room”, “prayer or , 3

evd oh omnte for communities both served ḥ o mr ta a millenn a than more for h Crsin ouain f h ct ws ie te ih t ke is sanctuarie its keep to right the given was city the of population Christian the . mad Ibn Abī Yaʿqūb, Yaʿqūb, Abī Ibn mad

E and ach case ach

h gaul eeomn o te mya ipra poeto ad imperial and projection imperial Umayyad the of development gradual the es aimed both to both aimed es hw a wth rm ht a bfr te mya ea the era, Umayyad the before was what from switch a shows

the monetary the

„Ab toward is

call was constructed as early as the reign of reign the as early as constructed was d al d

portrays an accommodating attitude towards attitude accommodating an portrays - ed already Tārīkh Tārīkh Wal - salsig hi pwr n authority and power their establishing Malik and his son, his and Malik

a y eosrce truh h initiatives the through reconstructed ly ī address d Ibn „Abd al „Abd Ibn d “transitional “transitional . T . al u to o is ia sae n bcm a oqe The mosque. a became and shape final its on took ium policies

- right after the Arab con Arab the after right hese Yaʿqūbī

about

the internal problems that were the result of revolts, revolts, of result the were that problems internal the undertakings . as well as

12 (Beirut: Dār al (Beirut: Dār Yet ies

phase

eet yas utl h fnl transformation final the until years, seventy - , in the southeastern part of the sanctuary, the of part southeastern the in ,

Malīk in 705. In this way the sanctuary the way this In 705. in Malīk of the Umayyads, I will will I Umayyads, the of al as the sharing of the sacred enclosure both enclosure sacred the of sharing the as - Walīd ” in monetary in ” an

demonstrate the gradual change gradual the demonstrate - Kutūb al Kutūb Umayyad Mosque is only one event event one only is Mosque Umayyad . In each case, each In . quest. - „Ilmiya, 1999), 238. 1999), „Ilmiya, Mu„āwiya 4

policy Thus, t Thus, .

T ee w cases two hese

what was before the before was what

argue for an overall overall an for argue one can observe, at observe, can one taken by the latter latter the by taken and in the usage of of usage the in and he sacred space sacred he

(who was at that that at was (who

transitional

of the the of make make

that of of a s

CEU eTD Collection to whether is (there conquest the of manner the and siege, the of duration the conquest, Arabi the in found information the discuss will I Here problems main the as well as Syria of conquest Arab will chapter a into assimilation pre the consis thesis The Structure adaptedalso models were culturally. implemented later was the Umayyads by models/prototypes Byzantine of adaptation gradual the that argue will and projection alread models Byzantine from borrowed first elements features which Damascus, of Mosque motifs the of some about said be can same The Empire. Byzantine the surpass, to attempt t speaking, Broadly building, the of style the in and arts visual the in used motives the construction, its of meaning (the Rock the of Dome the central andIslamization for process a establish to UmayyadEmpire Byzantine the state, rival the against policy a and y been - Th sai hsoy f aacs discussing Damascus, of history Islamic

is that also apparent become will It the citytaken was

thesis will address and put together different expressions of the Umayyad imperial Umayyad the of expressions different together put and address will thesis further further adapted in adapted ts of an introduction and two chapters. The introductory chapter will focus on on focus will chapter introductory The chapters. two and introduction an of ts

major Christian major e mission he discuss the Arab conquest of Damascus. I will present the highlights the present will I Damascus. of conquest Arab the discuss

other as well as well as designed

by force or Umayyad structures.

f h srcue a b itrrtd s n poiin o ad an and to, opposition an as interpreted be can structure the of

cultic space cultic to oppose the rivalingByzantineto oppose the Empire.

the message contained in the inscriptions and the mosaics). the and inscriptions the in contained message the s dsly f mya pwr financially power, Umayyad of display a as by an by

i n addition to glorifying the Umayyad Empire, these these Empire, Umayyad the glorifying to addition n agreement given to the people ofgivenagreement Damascus). tothepeople , namely , 13

the E mpire. Temple of Jupiter Jupiter of Temple of

the Church of St. John the B the John St. of Church the

the chronology of the Arab conquest. conquest. Arab the of chronology the c sources regarding the date of the the of date the regarding sources c With regards to the attempts by the the by attempts the to regards With ization, one must look also at also look must one ization, eoe presenting before

still some still aptist s el as well as debate as debate

that had that of . in

The The

the the the its its

CEU eTD Collection to nineteenth late in emerged interest academic The Previous Arabiccoins epigraphic A mixed the from change gradual the discuss o creation the after Umayyads the of al construction of inscriptions the and mosaics the as such Rock, the of Dome the of representations visual the discuss will I Mosque of Umayyad ambitious Damascus.the RockandGreat most buildings, of the theDome as Empire. Byzantine the power, dominating of agenda political period Arab the sac times different sharing of cases other up - Zubayr, and the rivaling Byzantine Empire. Byzantine rivaling the and Zubayr, an - yatn mxd ong ad h us the and coinage mixed Byzantine imitation through adaptation through imitation red enclosurered inDamascus. will be will I discu will chapter second The compare

Research s

and put it in the context of the polic the of context the in it put and called the transitional phase transitional the called . I will compare these cases of the sharing sacred space with the phenomenon of of phenomenon the with space sacred sharing the of cases these compare will I . the

the

Qur‟ -

Wa phenomenon of the of phenomenon as a n yin itr, n particularly and history, Syrian on ā l i psae. wl as dsus h purp the discuss also will I passages. nic ī sacred space practiced in Syria in practiced space sacred d

. result of the reformresult of ofthe The policy of the Umayyads was oriented against the other world other the against oriented was Umayyads the of policy The early twentieth centur twentieth early

, which , ss the phenomenon of the shared sanctuary shared the of phenomenon the ss ue pgahc rbcmny I h eod hpe I chapter second the In money. Arabic epigraphic pure f

This policy This , can be seen in the visual architectural features of features architectural visual the in seen be can

shared sanctuary with the us the with sanctuary shared e the

f h Gek s h amnsrtv language administrative the as Greek the of rab The same policy same The 14 end o end

- Byzantine and Arab and Byzantine ies „ y Abd al

among of „Abd al „Abd of used a technique that can be characterized be can that technique a used which , in , - Malik. Malik.

French and German orientalists and orientalists German and French saw the implementation of the new new the of implementation the saw Rusafa, Mamre, and Jerusalem and Mamre, Rusafa, on gave way to the to way gave - Malik, the the Malik, aacs n is sanctuary, its and Damascus

s ad infcne of significance and ose - Sassanid e

of Arab of anti

monetary policy policy monetary I Marw coinage to pure pure to coinage will also will - Sassanid and Sassanid ā nid .

bring rebel rebel This

the its at -

CEU eTD Collection 1979). Art Books, 8 “Archeology Assessment. Archeological An Syria, aux transformations 7 “ Villeneuve,. 6 propos a Syrie: musulmansde monuments (1939), 1 231 Damas de Damas”, Antique de “Le Plan are: Damascus concerning works monuments. its and city of the Islamic periods and Hellenistic both history of the covering articles and books Sau city,Jean ofthe ofresearch early the period of Fromscholars the 1921). K., rec comprehensible and detailed a Theyintroduced 5 analys relationshi its mosque the of layout the and plan the of of descriptions the details using also and patterns some reconstructing the of all almost discusses Creswell‟s mosque in research Instead, sanctuary. the of history than scholars these of interests the that evident also is It observations. own authors‟ the on and evidence archeological on based mainly the of history the light, this in and city the travelers

Damas antique Damas The pioneers of this research and reconstruction of the layout of Damascus were K. Wulzinger, wereK. Damascus of layout ofthe reconstruction and research ofthis pioneers The Archibald Archibald ses et Damascénien Jupiter “Le de temple Dussaud, by: Rene was analyzed material archeological The Damascus ofSyria and Antiquewith period the dealing authors, Other

and C. and

with es ihrgrst teacietrl nlsso h mos the of analysis architectural the to regards With , (Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique.1932),“Remarque sur les monuments Omeyyades”, Omeyyades”, monuments sur les Catholique.1932),“Remarque Imprimerie (Beirut: ,

. Watzinger, 5 of of

In this early period of research the focus of interest was more on the antique hist antique the on more was interest of focus the research of period early this In Creswell, history. Until recently, the majority of scholars of majority the recently, Until history. “Le paysage antique en Syrie: l'exemple de Damas.” Damas.” de l'exemple enSyrie: antique “Lepaysage

an and the History of Early Islam: the first seventy years." years." seventy first the ofIslam: Early the History and - monumental 59, “Notes de topographie Omeyyade,” Omeyyade,” topographie “Notes de 59, a number of number a .” wt Bznie cngahc oie i Oe Gaa. e presents He Grabar. Oleg is motives iconographic Byzantine with p attempt

Syria

époques Chrétien et Musulmane et Chrétien époques

Damaskus, Die Islamische Stadt Islamische Die Damaskus, Early Is Early

71 (1994): 71

to identify

monograph

lamic Architecture: Umayyad, Early Abbasids, Tulunids Abbasids, Early Umayyad, Architecture: lamic Islamic monuments such as Dome of the Rock, Rock, the of Dome as such monuments Islamic

- Duckworth Debates in Archeology in Debates Duckworth 43 their

8 had .

d'une étude récente,” récente,” d'une étude

presents The most prominent scholar in the sphere of Islamic art and and art Islamic of sphere the in scholar prominent most The

origins.

more to do with do to more onstruction of the physical topology of the city, see: Wulzinger see: Wulzinger thecity, of topology ofthe physical onstruction had had ”

, a Syria

7 Syria pagan in 2 vol., (Leipzig,1921 vol., in 2 n excellent contribution to the previous researchtheprevious contribution to excellent n

15 focused on the framework of the mosaics of the the of mosaics the of framework the on focused

oqe rlig n rhtcua materials, architectural on relying mosque, 24, 1/2(1944 24, , 3, 3, (1922) , epe too temple, Syria Syria Syria Syria

archeology, art history, and architecture, and history, art archeology,

JESHO 26 (1949): 314 (1949): 26 24, 3/4 (1944 3/4 24,

: 219 67, 2 (1990): (1990): 2 67, . (London: Duckworth, 2007),.Jeremy Johns, Johns, 2007),.Jeremy (London: Duckworth, . had only only had are M. Dodinet, J. J. Leblanc,J. Dodinet, M. are - 1945): 96 1945): u n t tasomto K.A.C transformation its and que - literary vaget is the most famous. He produced produced famous.He most isthe vaget 50, Alan 50, Walmsle , 4 (2003): 411 (2003): 4 , 6 . - 24), 24), h frt scholarly first The - - rarely discussed the actual the discussed rarely 1945): 211 1945): - 112, “Notes sur quelques surquelques “Notes 112, Die antike Die 339 58, 58, sources to reconstruct the the reconstruct to sources , vol 1, (New York: Hacker vol (New Hacker , 1, York: - Les monuments histo Les monuments 367., 367., the - 436.

- Will Journal Asiatique Journal Great Mosque of of Mosque Great Stadt y,

231. and C. and

Early Islamic Islamic Early ,

, (Leipzig, , Ernest Vallat, F. Vallat, penetrating

Watzinger. Watzinger. ok are works .

His ory of ory rique rique . It .

CEU eTD Collection 2001). 16 15 Press:1999). California 14 mosques” cong Umayyad “The 2007), London: Duckworth, 13 1997). University Harvard East Near Byzantine 71 2002), Press, University 12 258 (1989), 3 (1985), 106, 11 (Leide 10 ArtByzantium.” and “Islamic 1996), Press, University inJerusalem”, 9 research scholarly of object an became Damascus in reign Arab the yearsof first the in role Damascus,its Islam Early in Image and Text Conquest: Muslim the after Islamic Early in Continuity Damascus”. and “Change Shboul‟s shown brilliantly is Damascus Islamic Plain Fowden‟s K. E. in described is Saints, of Cult the of light in sanctuary, the of Foss Kennedy‟s Hugh in transformation and change the of topic The heavenearth. onthe t essence, present book outstanding more.architectureIslamicandand artinfluenceon Byzantine Damascus,the

Oleg Grabar, OlegGrabar,

Nancy Khalek, NancyKhalek, “C Shboul, Ahmad K. Elisabeth Alan Country”, and City “Lifein Foss Clive Syria”, Islamic AntiqueEarly Late in Change Urban Madina: to Polis “From HughKennedy, BarryFlood, Finbarr 12 n, Boston: Brill, 2001) Brill, n,Boston: Rusafa. of case the on focusing ,

Walmsley, Alan. Walmsley, and Alan Walmsl Alan and s

Antiquity an art historian‟s view historian‟s art an only in only he book demonstrates demonstrates book he - 67 - 15 ArsOrientalis 27. “Change and Continuity in Syria and Palestine at the Time of the Muslim Conquest,” Conquest,” Muslim ofthe Time the at Palestine Syria Continuityand in “Change and 27. Early Islamic Art 650 Islamic Early Fowden, Fowden,

The topic of transformation was researched by N. Khalek in her book book her in Khalek N. by researched was transformation of topic The Damascus after the Muslim Conquest: Text and Image in Early Islam in Image and Text Muslim Conquest: the after Damascus

79, (2005), 362 79, 11

recent years. Its architectural and symbolic importance has importance symbolic and architectural Its years. recent ed. J. HumphrJ. ed. hange and Continuity in Early Islamic Damascus.” Damascus.” inIslamic Early Continuity hangeand n hs il i FB Flood‟s F.B. is field this in

“From Polis to Madina”. Also one should mention should one Also Madina”. to Polis “From The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Making of an Umayyad Visual Culture Visual Umayyad an of Making the Studies on Damascus: of Mosque Great The The Barbarian Plain: Saint Sergius Between Rome and Iran and Rome Between Sergius Saint Plain: Barbarian The

Early Islamic Syria, An Archeological Assessment. Duckworth Debates in Archeology in Debates Duckworth Assessment. Archeological An Syria, Islamic Early

- 95. “The Near Eastern Countryside in late Antiquity: A Review Article” A Review inAntiquity: late Countryside Eastern Near “The 95.

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- while paying due attention to the to attention due paying while 62, 14

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Transferts, devotions mixtes, rivalities interconfessionnelle rivalities interconfessionnelle mixtes, devotions Transferts,

eds. Angelika Neuwirth, Nicolai Sinai and Michael Marx, (Leiden, Brill,2010), (Leiden, Michael Marx, and Sinai Nicolai Angelika Neuwirth, eds.

has been done little work little done been has Stephan Heidemann Stephan itecture and Architectural Iconography.” Iconography.” Architectural and itecture

general 22 (2005): 1 (2005): 22 "Numismatics," in "Numismatics,"

ḥ 46, 4 (2003): 414 (2003): 4 46,

rāb and „Anaza” or “Sacrum and Spear”? A Reconsideration of an Early Marwanid Silver Silver EarlyMarwanid A ofan Reconsideration Spear”? and “Sacrum „Anaza” or and rāb The New Cambridge History of Islam of History Cambridge New The

27 (2011), 31 (2011), 27

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Le voyage initiatique en terre d‟Islam. Ascensions célestes et itinéraires itinéraires célestes et Ascensions enterre d‟Islam. initiatique voyage Le Moezzi , (Louvain/Paris, Peeters (Louvain/Paris, , Moezzi

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- , (Princeton, Darwin Press, 199 Press, Darwin (Princeton, , scholars assures that there that assures scholars . Azdī al Azdī

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it is noteworthy that that noteworthy is it 51

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possible to possible tend to to tend I CEU eTD Collection 190. 2006), Routledge, 56 siècle 55 Damas.” l'exemplede Damas”, 54 new city, Byzantine53 any in As Empire. Eastern the of t part became leading Syria 395, paths in Theodosius and alleys small with street, main the of sides elitethe of villas luxurious is it practices, cemetery Far the of vicinity the in located stadium; the replaced which a into transformed was times Roman in which second the well; as layout city the in changes made Romans The city. the to added were River Barada the of banks reforms: the n saw period Roman the during Damascus of life the general, In mosque. towers A centuries third and second the in especially Hadad of that for substituted was Jupiter of cult the city, the of control took Romans the After BC. century tenth the from starting region thr spread was cult whose storms, of god Aramean the Hadad, of temple 1.1 Mourad Suleiman, “Damascus,” in “Damascus,” Suleiman, Mourad Joseph Nasrallah, “De la cathédrale de Damas à la mosquée Omeyyade”. Omeyyade”. mosquée Damas de la à “Decathédrale la Nasrallah, Joseph more Pre about For Antique”41. “Damas Will, Sauvaget .

Pre (Damascus n oa tms adtoa cnl t spl eta ae ad etnua wls n the on walls rectangular and water extra supply to canals additional times, Roman In Mosque Great the today where place the On remain Syria - Islamic Damascus Islamic , Les Monuments Historique, Monuments Les ,

26 (1949): 314 (1949): 26 city con ed

: 19

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tinued to function as the capital of theregion tofunction as thecapital tinued oondd tet a te nin ra jiig h tml ad the and temple the joining road ancient the was street colonnaded

67, 2 (1990) 2 67,

- - here where Roman sarcophagi were clustered. were sarcophagi Roman where here 58, M. Dodine M. 58, used as bases for minarets. The towers stand on the outer wall of the of wall outer the on stand towers The minarets. for bases as used

. The houses of Roman Damascus were arranged in “quarters on both“quarterson in arranged Damascuswere Roman of houses The

Medieval

5. : 339

t, J. Leblanc, J.,Vallat, F. Villeneuve,. Villeneuve,. F. Leblanc,J.,Vallat, J. t, -

Islamic Civilization: An Civilization: Islamic 367. - Islamic history of Syria and Damascus see “Le Plan Antique de “LePlan see Damascus Syriaand of history Islamic

53 D. The enclosure ( enclosure The D. Te epe a prily eul svrl times, several rebuilt partially was temple .The 25 - forum

Historical Background

of . The city is known to have had a circus, circus, a had have to known is city The . Damascus

Encyclopedia ā La Syrie de Byzance a l‟Islam VIIe l‟Islam a Byzance de Syrie La dīs gate. In keeping w keeping In gate. dīs peribolus 54

(Fig 1) (Fig (Fig. 2) hem “Le paysage antique en Syrie: en antique “Lepaysage , ed.Josef , 56 Here were located also located were Here ) and two of the corner the of two and ) oughout the Damascus the oughout . fe te et of death the After ”. . stands once stood stood once stands

get hne or changes great o

Meri (London: (London: Meri ith R ith agora oman - VIIIe the , CEU eTD Collection Century 59 Present 58 57 occu encounters minor few a phase this During Iraq. from reinforcements of groups of arrival the until 633 in troops first the of dispatch the from Syria southern in campaigning can Syria Islamic The conquest. the of details other and chronology the regarding uncertainties the for sources The 1.2 and conditions. phenomenaregional to referencewith explained be should and earliergenerations already started (as changes conquest Arab the with connected be cannot disappearance their andconquest, Arabic the ofeve the on even urbanismclassical with associatedelements the in For conquest. the of effects immediate Damascus in life quotidian the affected immediately that changes other few a were there addition, In rulership. political the in change they for populace, Damascene the for apparent were events these of results The region. the of history the in point turning significant a marked rule Arab Islamic was transformedcathedral John intoa dedicated toSt. Jupiter of Temple the notably, most Damascus; in also introduced were elements urban

James Howard James “From Hugh, Kennedy Damascus,” Islamic in Early Continuity “Changeand Shboul .

The The . (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 370. 2000), Press, University Oxford (Oxford: . 106 The Arabic word for the conquest the for word Arabic The new the of up setting the and 636) AD in ended (which Syria of conquest Arab The c

onquest of Syria of onquest (1985): 13. (1985): e iie it tre an hss Te is pae nldd h ery military early the included phase first The phases. main three into divided be , for instance, in urban planning) that became apparent after the Arab conquest had conquest Arab the after apparent became that planning) urban in instance, for , - Johnston, Johnston,

futū Polis Witness to World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Seventh the in East Middle the Histories of and Historians Crisis: World Witnessto ḥ

to Madin to

were systemized and completed much later, which is the reason for for reason the is which later, much completed and systemized were

a: Urban Changes in Late Antique and Early Islamic Syria,” Islamic Early Antiqueand Late in Changes Urban a:

stance, the city planning of Syrian cities did not show not did cities Syrian of planning city the stance, is 57 Oe ed t b cuiu nt o vrtt the overstate to not cautious be to needs One . futū

26 ḥ

the Baptist. , which is a noun derived from the verb the from derived noun a is which , ARAM, ARAM, 6 (1994): (1994): 6 58

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experienced at first hand the the hand first at experienced 80.

Past and and Past futū rred in in rred fat ḥ ḥ

. of 59

CEU eTD Collection 64 63 62 61 60 relevan the of recollection systematicrecording. 648, was consolidation in one of 647 roughly until 637 the from lasting Syria, to of conquest the resistance of phase third organized The advance. Muslim offer to Byzantines the of ability the broke defeats the control, northern of all and Syria southern and in towns Syria many although in army Byzantine the of defeat decisive the saw battles These river. Yarmūk the Fa Ajnādayn, at armies Islamic and Byzantine the between encounters major in tur in This troops. Muslim the against reinforcements sent attacks, repel to inadequate were garrisons city Byzantine local that realizing Heraclius, emperor Byzantine the authorities; o were cities These cities. these among was Damascus attacks. Byzantine final the during them by abandoned been or control Muslims‟ the of out slipped had but once conquered been had that cities were there and besieged were towns selected towns; major to countryside tribal the from Syria southern in control their extend to began Muslims resistance Byzantine substantial more with met was he when 634, in Syria b phase second The control. their outside remained towns large the which in but Syria, southern of countryside open the dominate to came Muslims the which in phase a was It place. took Byzantines the with confrontations major no but Syria, southern

Howard Ibid. Ibid. 118. Ibid., Fred, Donner

hr ws gp f prxmtl ffy er bten hs eet ad hi first their and events these between years fifty approximately of gap a was There - Johnston, Johnston,

The Early Islamic Conquests Islamic Early The Witness to World Crisis, World Witnessto cpe oc again once ccupied

In these first historical records scholars of a later generation later a ofscholars records historical Infirstthese t stories of the authentic memories of thousands of and arranged the the arranged and of thousands of memories authentic the of stories t

the aftermath victory at ofthe the Yarmūk.

(Princeton: The Darwin Press, 1983), 111. 1983), Press, Darwin The (Princeton: 379. 62 Ti pooe a tog ecin rm h Byzantine the from reaction strong a provoked This .

occupied 27

61 Atr h scn pae n eta Syria central in phase second the After . Syria still remained outside Muslim outside remained still Syria egan with Khālid‟s arrival in in arrival Khālid‟s with egan

63 60

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compiled the compiled - Ṣ n resulted n uffar, and and uffar, - CEU eTD Collection 461. (1989): 66 65 simple a from vary entered army the Muslim the gatewhich from is, conquered,that actually citywas debatedhow the is Moreover, it or monks the city: the surrendered finally and defended who uncertain commander the of identity the also and Yarmūk the at battle the of date the is question main the regard latter the In armies. Byzantine and Muslim the of encounters the and armies, besieging the of position the siege, the of th and siege the about given information ambiguous or conflicting Among particular. in only not arise questions These conquests. the of consequences administrative and political the and the conquests, and battles Mu the of leaders the and the commanders actual the conquerors, Muslim the ofstrategy of sequence chronological the events, the of dates exact the actual the eventsunable participants tobring were personal experiences their chronological into order after shortly even movement; collective general a as but sequence, chronological the during had Arabs the which experience psychological the with conquest the regarding sources the in confusion the connects source narrative the in coherence of lack certain a from grasped be can as limitations, narrative coherent of sort some into traditions transmitted

Albrecht Noth, “Futū Albrecht Noth, 372 Ibid.,

Damascus are: the date of the conquest of the city and therefore a difference a therefore and citythe of conquest the of date the are: Damascus The hi The futū

ḥ the city. Finally, there are different versions of the conditions of surrender, which surrender, of conditions the of versions different are there Finally, city. the storiography of the conquest raises a number of questions. To mention only a few: few: a only mention To questions. of number a raises conquest the of storiography

itrorpy n eea, u ae eeat o h cnus o Dmsu in Damascus of conquest the to relevant are but general, in historiography ḥ aman, aman,

–

History and Futū History and which granted protection of Christian lives, possessions, and churches and possessions, lives, Christian of protection granted which - in

- he o t of chief futū ḥ

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H age ta fr hm the them for that argues He . Historiography: The Muslim conquest of Damascus”, Damascus”, of Muslimconquest The Historiography: e ulm ros Aū Uad o Kāi? t s also is It Khālid? or „Ubayda Abū troops: Muslim he 28

65 . Yet these scholarly efforts had their had efforts scholarly these Yet . futū ḥ

was not taken as a a as taken not was

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10 . CEU eTD Collection 73 al 'Abdallah'Umar ed. and 3, A 116; Fikr,1995), 72 al Sijil Muʼassasat (Cairo: al 71 70 Alof accounts ofthe formsbasis the account 69 435. Mu ed. 68 67 Muslims the by defeated were reinforcements d ( camp military the of leader the as mentioned Sufy Abū Ibn Yazīd and Gate, Ibn al Ibn Khālid gates: the of one at position a up took B certain a was commander Damascus the paying to subjected were Damascus of people the and conquered was it until city the besieged gates the closed and Damascus inside went Greeks the Arabs, the of army the 1.3 between theconquered and population theMuslims an to fnes f aacs se fr enocmns rm h Bznie meo, u the but emperor, Byzantine the from reinforcements for asked Damascus of efenders

- al „Asākir, Ibn al al Is isIbn by reconstructions fewcomplete Oneof al 454 Ibid., Azdī al

- - - -

Ḥ Azdī tellsthat Azdī al The conquest of Damascus of conquest The abarī, abarī, Mu AbūJaʿfar abarī - asana at the F the at asana ḥ jiziya aman/ ammad Abu‟l ammad n 3, fe te ate o Fa of battles the after 635, In of victory the After Damascus. of vicinity the in met armies Byzantine and Muslim The - Ba - - 69 Tārīkh 455. Ba ṣ , thepoll wee h rmat o t of remnants the where , rī, Mu rī, Tārīkh

ṣ ray hc dmne te hrn o al oal ad immovabl and movable all of sharing the demanded which treaty rī, rī,

ḥ Tārīkh Khālid al mad Ibn Ya mad Ibn ḥ

- ammad Ibn ʿAbdūllah Abū Ismāʿīl, ʿAbdūllah Ibn ammad - Madīnat Dimashq Dimashq Madīnat rusul wal rusul F a ar -

ḍ tax -

ā l Ibrāhīm, (Cairo: Dār al Dār (Cairo: l Ibrāhīm, ḥ F camped at a monastery which is now called called now iswhich monastery a at camped „Arab, 1970), 1970), „Arab, ammad Ibn Jarīr, Jarīr, Ibn ammad dīs Gate, „Amr Ibn al Ibn „Amr Gate, dīs utū - 68 Tabba' (Beirut: Muʼassas (Beirut: Tabba' . ḥ -

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435. 435. 70 Balādhurī , , Balādhurī [History ofDamascus] [History 179. , 180 , hnteMsis eigdtect,ec fte generals the of each city, the besieged Muslims the When . -

Tārīkh Yaʿqūbī, see: Donner, Donner, see: Yaʿqūbī, - ḥ 181; 181; e yatn am hd ae rfg. h Byzantine The refuge. taken had army Byzantine he ad aj al Marj and l ḥ - Mā'arif, 1962), 435. 435. 1962), Mā'arif, ā āq, which is reflected in the account of al of the account in isreflected which āq,

Kitāb Futūh al Futūh Kitāb Ibn „ Ibn al b al b - -

rusul rusul wal al A 29 As - Tārīkh Futū Tārīkh - ṣ Mā'arif Ṣ

ā at the Bāb Tūm Bāb the at aghīr and Kīs and aghīr 73 kir 67 masla Ms acut are ht h Muslims the that agree accounts Most . , . , -

ed. - Walīd Tārīkh Madīnat Dimashq Madīnat Tārīkh , 1987), 165. 165. 1987), , mulūk mulūk - Ṣ - Buldān Buldān

The Early Islam Early The ʿUmar b. G ʿUmar b. fa, h Msi top avne on advanced troops Muslim the uffar, ḥ ḥ ah dayr dayr

71 [History of the Prophets and Kings], and the[History Prophets of i Bra er Damascus. near Barza in ) - Shām was at the eastern gate, Shura gate, eastern the at was [Book on the Conquests of Lands] theonof Conquests [Book Khālid ā n

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ī ā biya ‟s The ḥ ʼ -

bīl is is , CEU eTD Collection 77 76 75 74 while Abū „UbaydaBābal entered al Bāb the from city the conquered Khālid that it has account K by the under conquered was city the accounts some to according instance, for numerous; the sunrise At it. left and stones with Sharkī Bāb the closed had They busy. were guards the and city the in [Easter] feast a was there that him informed and Khālid to came bishop Damascene a that asked treaty.Khālid a for and city the of out came monk a him, to According account. different a gives „Asakīr under also Khālid by conquered part the considered and city the of middle the treaty the under city the entered Damascus besieging troops the All treaty. peace a offered and terrified were people The gatekeepers. the killed and gate the of walls the climbed Muslims other and He ladders. and m his equipped he and this about agents his through informed was Khālid posts. their ignoring drank, and ate people the and this celebrating was He Damascus. in troops the anecdote by al an in told is city the conquering in success Arab the of story The gate. different a at commander another with treaty a negotiating were Damascus of people the when moment the at just gates city the of one breaking in succeeded commanders Muslim the of one when city the conquered

Noth, “Futū Noth, al Ibn al

- - Muslims brought the killed guardiansMuslims climbed and the ladders, wall Balādhurī, Balādhurī,

„ abarī abarī āi a te ā al Bāb the at hālid As The combination of the gates, commanders, and the narrative versions of the capture are capture the of versions narrative the and commanders, gates, the of combination The ā kir Tārīkh , ḥ Tārīkh Madīnat Dimashq Madīnat Tārīkh

Kitāb Futūh al Futūh Kitāb – - History”, 455. History”,

al abarī. He relates that a child had been tothe child had relatesborn thata abarī. He - Rusul wal 75

Al --

- all the troops except tho except troops the all

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440.

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ṣ ul ḥ an 30 se commanded by commanded se , i.e.,

takenag uponan - Jābiya patrikios Khālid. The Muslims met in met Muslims The Khālid. anwatan - Jābiya by force. Another Another force. by Jābiya 76 reement .

who was in charge who was of in ,

i.e., ṣ 77 ul .

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took by force, bytook en with ropes with en / treaty ṣ ul ḥ 74

made made . Ibn . CEU eTD Collection 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 called place a at months. six and year one to days seventy commanders, acting who were independently by sides, two from besieged was Damascus follows: as was traditions, narrative the in finds one which solution, The contradiction. this to solution a for look to had chroniclers Muslim the Therefore, exclusive. mutually were treaty by conquest ( force by taken by conquered was city entire come from him treaty the that asked and them to kind was he as „Ubayda Abū preferred Damascus of people Damascus to withdrew again Greeks al and Palestine between was which Fi „Ayn called town a in Greeks the met again Muslims the when Khālid replace should he treaty/ peace the of document Damascu until Khālid to letter the read not did „Ubayda Abū Khālid. appointing replacing „Umar„Ubayda and about him camefrom a abarītoAbū reports letter that

al „Asākir, Ibn 454. Ibid., “Futū Noth, „Asākir, Ibn al Ibid. - - Balādhurī, Balādhurī, Azdī al

What is more, the duration of the siege is not established exactly either; it varies from varies it either; exactly established not is siege the of duration the more, is What are There al Damascenes, the to treaty the gave commander which of question the Regarding -

Ba ḥ Tārīkh Dimashq Madīnat Tārīkh

ṣ Kitāb Futūh al Futūh Kitāb – rī, rī,

Hist 79 Tārīkh anwatan . conflicting reports about which commander played which role and whether the the whether and role which played commander which about reports conflicting al

ory”, 457. ory”, Madīnat Dimashq Madīnat - muqasall

F utū ) - 80 Buldān ḥ

. Noth states that in the eyes of the chronicles the fighti the chronicles the of eyes the in that states Noth . al - ā ṣ

Shām ṣ ul ṭ ul 83 ,166. ḥ ḥ , which was situated in the district of the coppersmiths. the of district the in situated was which , , 117. , 117n2. , an

, 185. , was given and signed by Khālid. Abū „Ubayda revealed that that revealed „Ubayda Abū Khālid. by signed and given was

- or only one part was taken with taken was part one only or 78 Urdunn. They Urdunn.

. Al .

82 -

Azdī relates that the commander was Khālid, but the but Khālid, was commander the that relates Azdī The Muslim troops entering from diffe from entering troops Muslim The 81 .

fought a fierce battle there, after which the the which after there, battle fierce a fought two groups of Muslims under two different different two under Muslims of groups two ṣ ul s was conquered, so the the so conquered, was s ḥ

and the other part was was part other the and rent gates met gates rent ng and the and ng 84

The ḥ l, - CEU eTD Collection original „ The wasdebated. being thequestion that and this question concerning consensus nowas the and theMuslim treatybetween ofthe versions wereseveral ninth there ofthe beginning the and century eighth ofthe end thatthe at 95 Mesopotamia Northern 94 93 East Near the in Culture of History 92 church and houses mentionofDamascene 91 90 89 al Bāb fromthe arriving commanders 88 Dimashq, Madīnat in 1178/1179, columnwas removed The command”. theby Greek statue ofthe hand insidethe grain „These that someonetold it and about madeinquiries Muslims The it. wheat inside grainof a found and thehand broke [theMuslims] They wastight fist. a in hand one and stretched hands its had It column. whichin is column a on found they Damascus entered 87 86 “Lepl in bigjaw” a having 85 treaty vary al Shurūt to additions later of text treaty1.4. The thechurch.on themain to road, butnext pala word Greekfor derivedfrom the with it indentifies stood statue imposing market Greek/Latin from derived plausibly is name meeting ofthe the and city, ofthe center wouldthevery mark streets major two meeting ofthe the case Inthis Levy Robinson see: Chase more treatyonFor “Futū Noth, al Damas”,352 de “Leantique plan Sauvaget, al Muslims the “When emperor. the Byzantine whichrepresented plausibly statue, this „Asākirtells about Ibn word the states that Sauvaget Noth, “Futū Noth, “Futū Noth, - - Balādhurī Balādhurī Balādhurī, - Rubin argues, “So Ibn „Asākir included both the mothe both “So„Asākirincluded Ibn argues, Rubin 86 ṣ After the conquest the Muslims made a treaty with the population of Damascus of population the with treaty a made Muslims the conquest the After ul . Sauvaget argues that it was located at one of the cros the of one at located was it that argues Sauvaget . ḥ 94 /aman ḥ - ḥ ḥ : Ib: transmits the reports ofal the reports transmits

„Umariyya all the way to notion of the treaty of Damascus of treaty the of notion to way the all „Umariyya Kitāb Futūh al Futūh Kitāb

– – – 92

Arthur, Voobus 458; History”, History”, 458. History”, History”, 455. History”,

n „Asakīr alone givesfiveversions„Asakīralone ofthe different „ n . The text of the treaty varies treatythe of text The . 280. 280. dhimmī

repeats the main points in differe in points main the repeats al

(Cambridge: Cambridge university Press, 2000). 6 2000). Press, university Cambridge (Cambridge:

barī an antique de Damas,” Damas,” antiquede an , which reflect, in fact different positions on the on positions whichfact different in , reflect, 87 Atog Suae places Sauvaget Although . ṣ -

Buldān , al

which is mentioned in al in mentioned is which - muqasall

(Louven: Secretariat du CSCO, 1988), 311. 1988), CSCO, du Secretariat (Louven:

- Jābiya and the Bāb al Bāb the Jābiyaand ,166. - Waq es, see: es, Empire and Elites after the Muslim Conquest: The Transformation of of Transformation The Muslim Conquest: the Elitesafter and Empire ā

ce. However, as far as is known, the palace was not situated palace notsituated was the isknown, far as as However, ce. ṭ

- ī is not Arabic and is derived from the Latinfrom the is derived and isnot Arabic 353. d ī 90

History of Asceticism in Syrian Orient: A Contribution to the to Contribution A Orient: Syrian in Asceticism of History saying that the latter saw the text of the treaty and there isno there treaty and the of text the saw latter the that saying al Syria

- Balādhurī, Balādhurī, from simple simple from al

26 (1949): 352. (1949): 26 - 32 muqasall maccellum

- st moderate and radical versions of the treaty”. He states oftheHe versions treaty”. radical and moderate st Sharkī would have carried symbolic assoc wouldcarried have Sharkī nt accounts, but the detailed versions of it are it of versions detailed the but accounts, nt - Kitāb Futūh al Futūh Kitāb Balādhurī ā ṭ al . It It . aman - 85

muqasall was placed in the iron axe and it was on the was on it axeand in wasthe iron placed

- 15. n my ae en a covered a meant have may and subject. It seems that at this time there there time this at seems It that subject. 89 sroads of the main road, where an where road, main the of sroads , guaranteeing rudimentary rights rudimentaryguaranteeing ,

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ahd ā ṭ

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seem to have have seem to iations. Tārīkh Tārīkh 91

88 . The .

CEU eTD Collection 99 98 Mosque Study Archaeological Schick, see: Robert co 97 96 the theof Status on Debate Legal Alternatives: with werereplaced and validity theirlost which thelatter verified: of conditions with texts presents „Asakīr Ibn by the of text The version. later a presents plausibly and Damascus of church the „ the of version the than detailed more much is account al appears dhimmī be to not ru or were occupied which churches, the for and lives their for guarantee a was it and Damascus

- It corresponds to AD 635/636, see: Ibn „Asākir, see: Ibn AD to 635/636, corresponds It al oftheirchurches, state the rule, underthe Muslim Christians ofthe of life ofthe conditions the description For „Asākir, Ibn nversion to Islam, also Arab Islam, also to nversion Mu„allā: - Balādhurī, Balādhurī, . Princeton: Princeton Unive Princeton Princeton: . do not prevent any Muslim to enter our churches at daytime or at night, and we we and night, at or daytime at churches our enter to Muslim any prevent not do andwe from pay community of will the people our inreturn an askingare [Christians] We „ entire tothe chapter an Ibn dedicated „Asakīr yearin the fifteenth wa it when day the in document „ Nubaysha, Ibn Jarrā God, al Ibn „Amr of protection the believers; the from part their the pay they if well treated be of have will and hurt be not protection will they caliphs, They the of them. protection prophet, inhabit the of not protection will chu and their them belongings, their destroy for lives, their for guarantee them gives the It conquest. its of day the in Damascus of people the to al givesIbn Walīd Khālid what is this compassionate: and merciful the God of name the In 97 „ shortest The

one of the earliest versions of the treaty, which he transmits on the on transmits he which treaty, the of versions earliest the of one , thus their lives were protected until they paid paid they until protected were lives their thus ,

ḥ Tārīkh Kitāb Futūh al Futūh Kitāb Mu , ined. The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and and Historical A Rule: Islamic to Byzantine from Palestine of Communities Christian The

.(Princeton: Madīnat Dimashq Madīnat „ ma In Ghiy Ibn ammar - 96 „A

ahd Furthermore, the treaty stipulated that the inhabitants gained the status of status the gained inhabitants the that stipulated treaty the Furthermore, ṣ , Iya ,

b All Abd - -

is said to have been given in the name of Khālid to the inhabitants of of inhabitants the to Khālid of name the in given been have to said is Christian dialogues and the Arabic Christians literature of the early Islamic period period early Islamic ofthe Christians literature Arabic the and dialogues Christian Buldān 99 ḍ The Darwin Press, 1995), Sidney, Griffith. Sidney, Griffith. 1995), Press, Darwin The .

r Ibn Ghan Ibn sity Press, 2007. Press, sity ,

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Shboul, “ Shboul, „Asākir, Ibn Ibid. Fattal, Antoine 182. Ibid., 174 Ibid., Waqīdī, re Waqīdī, al -

, Balādhurī Al differs account „Asakīr‟s Ibn of version Another and Muslim, a hit never will We would notenter where thereached thearrow house, has funerals. the during voices our raise not will w and wine sell not will We lands. Muslim other in also but onlyhere not swords, or weapons keep not will We houses. their in and roads their in up having show of not rightwe will their names; in not and letters, Arabic with rings have or horse a rid to right their in nor life, of way their in nor clothing, their in neither Muslims the resemble not will We faith. our by obliged is which belt a wear will We ruin. monaster or churches, or towers monastic our renovate not would treat we will enemies, but our enemies, as our them of agents host our not raise will not we will and and reading quietly, while bells voices our ring will We doors. our them for prov open will and days three for Muslims the host will 104 dīnār - Change and Continuity and Change - Balādhurī reports that the Christians agreed to share their churches and possessions and churches their share to agreed Christians the that reports Balādhurī . Shboul asserts that it is clear that the majority of the population remained in the city,the in remained population the of majority the that clear is it that asserts Shboul .

175. Tārīkh lating that he had read the text of the agreement and that there was no mention of mention no was there that and agreement the of text the read had he that lating

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102 Madīnat Dimashq Madīnat l nteps t w ilntmk ueas n ulm tet, and streets, Muslims in funerals make not will we it; expose not ill

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cells, and would not reconstruct none of them when they will will they when them of none reconstruct not would and cells, - Buldān ,” 81. ,”

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ā h CEU eTD Collection 108 107 106 Late in common was that phenomenon a planning, city regular its of breakdown a suffering intact essentially remained buildings other and churches, markets, the as well as gates, seven city‟s The siege. the during damaged 1.5. DamascusArab after the especiallyIbn al „Umar „Abd caliphs, Umayyad show to tried They period. Abbasid the of compilers the of perception the l added were compensation received the and mosque the of construction the about discontent Christians‟ to related accounts anecdotal other the and these Presumably compensation. with them provided and rights their against taken was it that agreed ba church the for asked and John St. of church the of capture the about him reminded Damascus buil to right the and al „Abd Ibn „Umar and st anecdotic tell accounts various Nevertheless, neglected. was world of one as itself established caliphate Islamic the when Also, privileges. these need not did they and Islam to converted had Christians local many time, that By Damascus. in rule Muslim of years first the during only kept ri these However, churches. and possessions, lives, their for rights, simplest the were given cities, conquered other of inhabitants the like Damascus, of Christians the Presumably

Ibid. El Tayeb „Asākir, Ibn

only Not ca One - 106 Hibri, “The Redemption of Umayyad Memory by the Memoryby ofUmayyad Redemption “The Hibri, . Also, it is related that during the reign of „Umar Ibn „Abd al „Abd Ibn „Umar of reign the during that related is it Also, . Tārīkh Madīnat Dimashq, Madīnat Tārīkh n assume that the details of the the of details the that assume n were the belongings of the inhabitants, but also the city itself city the also but inhabitants, the of belongings the were d other churches as a replacement for the church of St. John the Baptist in Baptist the John St. of church the for replacement a as churches other d

- „Azīz. According to these stories, Christians were given compensation given were Christians stories, these to According „Azīz. -

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253. 108

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were added later, by later compilers. compilers. later by later, added were ater; possibly this was connected with with connected was this possibly ater; ories related to caliphs al caliphs to related ories JNES,

61, 4 (2002): 243. 4 (2002): 61, - „Azīz, the Christians the „Azīz, 107

not significantly not

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ck. „Umar „Umar ck. ghts were ghts - Wal ī d CEU eTD Collection 111. 2006), world, One 111 Syria,” 110 109 communication the Egypt, Iraq, wa it Besides, Syria. of by made decision natural a was capital their concerning Umayyads the of choice The however. eminent, residences/ desert luxurious in time their of most spend and city the of out move to preferred usually caliphs Umayyad Later time. some quite for by ainto mill while theagora an theMuslims, became open square turned was conquest, the to prior already abandoned probably was which theater, The citadel. a The disappeared. even or functions their changed structures Several disappear. to began plan orthogonal Damascus‟ century seventh the By cities. Antique

Stephan Humphreys, StephanHumphreys, For more see: Elizabeth Ibid. Khalek, Sacralidad y Arqueología y Sacralidad Following the capture the Damascus, the Umayyads did not o not did Umayyads the Damascus, the capture the Following Mu„ Damascus after the Muslim Conquest, the after Damascus āwiya 111 Ḥ .

ijāz, and the Mediterranean ports which provided the city with vital lines of lines vital with city the provided which ports Mediterranean the and ijāz,

, since he had built a strong political base there during his years as governor as years his during there base political strong a built had he since , Muawiya Ibn Abi Sufyan: From Arabia to Empire, Makers of the Muslim World Muslim the of Makers Empire, to Arabia From Sufyan: Abi Ibn Muawiya

s close to the critical Byzantine frontier and centrally located between located centrally and frontier Byzantine critical the to close s

KeyFowden,

21 (2004): 565 (2004): 21

“Christian Monasteries and Umayyad Residences Umayyad and “ChristianMonasteries -

581. 581. 88. 88.

36 qu

ṣ ūr 110 . The importance of Damascus became Damascus of importance The . ncient 109 castrum . rder any major construction major any rder

of the city became a a became city the of

in Late Antique Late in (London: (London:

CEU eTD Collection De Patronage.” on Speculations Activities: 115 Architectural Perspective and Challenges Architecture: Islamic “Studying Hillenbrand, Robert mosquesee: ofthe solutions and 114 113 112 andChristians.the Muslims the of chu policies the in enclosure sacred adaptingthe of sharing the i.e., and Umayyad, sharing the of expressions major the of one discusses chapter al phase transitional the of end The innovation. marked is It caliphate. th achieve to steps firm taken yet not had Umayyads the when dynasty, Umayyad the of consolidation the and conquest Arab pre it shapethe on took millennium, a than morefor 705 constructed However, Damascus, 2.1. -

signs in Early Islamic Architecture.“ Architecture.“ in Islamic signs Early Other building activities of the Umayyads are discussed in Jere Bacharach, “Marwanid Umayyad Building Building Umayyad “Marwanid Bacharach, Jere in discussed Umayyadsare ofthe activities building Other architectural about discussion view. ofFor point architectural mosquefrom the the thesis notdiscuss does The al 1. in chapter conquest isArab discussed The Malik and al and Malik 114 - Sharing the s Sharing Ya , during the reign of al of reign the during , ʿ fe te rb oqet a i ws etoe i the in mentioned was it as conquest, Arab the After qūbī qūbī as already mentioned, mentioned, already as 112

History , for the Muslims the for Tārīkh

h Crsin ouain f h ct hd h rgt o ep hi sanctuaries. their keep to right the had city the of population Christian the - Walīd: this was the period of establishing the self the establishing of period the was this Walīd:

46 (2003): 1 (2003): 46 acred al - Yaʿqūbī

space y hrn ad dpig oiis f h Uayd, hc led which Umayyads, the of policies adapting and sharing by , 113 238.

- - 18. Walīd Ibn „Abd al „Abd Ibn Walīd

eir imperial ambitions, is the transitional phase transitional the is ambitions, imperial eir .

in Damascusin

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Muqarnas Muqarnas Muqarnas in the in 2. Sharing the 2. Sharing

southeastern part of the of part southeastern stage in the long history of the sacred space sacred the historylongof the in stage

13 (1996): 27 13 10 (1993): 21 10

was marked with the reforms carried out by out carried reforms the with marked was 37 - Malik

serves until today. The period in between the betweenthe in period today. The until serves Sacred - - 44, 28 115

Jonathan Bloom, “On the Transmission of the Transmission “On Jonathan Bloom, . It was then that the sanctuary, existing sanctuary, the that then Itwas .

rch of St. John the Baptist between between Baptist the John St. of rch sacred enclosure a enclosure sacred - aman confidence of the empire. This empire. the of confidence

ie t te epe of people the to given

for the Umayyad the for mu occurred inoccurred ṣ allā „Abd „Abd

was was

s.” to CEU eTD Collection 118 with 117 223 1997), Islam Early Writingson Zoroastrian and Jewish, Christian, of Evaluation 116 Madīnat Dimashq Mu„ pil his made he that mentions bishop the by related information scarce the that fact the by supported also is reading This sanctuary. a of space shared the here signify may “church” rather, Muslims); the ecclesia quaedam reigns” and ( church” of kind “a where power seized Saracens the of king a where city, royal large “a describes: Land, includingtexts, eye several present to like would I other, each alongside praying Christians and Muslims about or Muslim the about information particular no is there that argue scholars some Although the of situation the understand to enough is information little this 2.1

Ibn „Asākir Ibn Khabar 220, 2.XXVIII, Sanctis locis De Adomnan, . 1. ḥ āwiya ikāyā Sources about the the Sources about division [Christians] [ church the of part one Muslims] [to give [Christians] al until change not did it conquest: the since situation the was This another. in Christians [ foreign/barbarian the of one of „ajm site the was Damascus of mosque the that al Māzinī/Ibn Ya Tammām/ by told was I evident most The hi on Damascus through passed who Arculf, bishop, Frankish A Yet Damascus. in enclosure sacred the of division the about much say not do sources The

- (pl. (pl. 224. . El , was already the governor Syria. already, was the of , Tārīkh Madīnat Dimashq, Madīnat Tārīkh , cuce [ churches ] 2 akhbār

rmgs n 670 in grimages see - aī In Ad al „Abd Ibn Walīd Khabar, Khabar,

: ) report, piece of information of historical, biographical or even anecdotal nature, corresponds corresponds nature, even anecdotal or biographical ofhistorical, pieceofinformation report, ) cannot be the basilica of basilica the be cannot

- ayou building wherever Damascus wouldlike within witness reports,refer explicitly. whichtothis witness do

- Mu„allā, A Mu„allā,

H. Fleisch. Fleisch. H. kanāi‟s account/ quaedam ecclesia quaedam

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mad Ibn Abū al Abū Ibn mad

khabar

253 - ai bcm clp. e od hm Wa i you if “What them told He caliph. became Malik ḥ ā b „ Ibn yā cited in Hoyland Robert, Robert, in Hoyland cited .

117 John the Baptist (because it was not constructed for for constructed not was it (because Baptist the John

) is built for “the unbelieving Saracen.”unbelieving“the for built is ) ht etos h dvso i In „Asākir‟s Ibn is division the mentions that

balh „b al „Abd Abdallāh, 38

- „Abbās/ Seeing Islam as Others Saw it: Saw Others as Islam Seeing Ḍ

(Prince amra/Alī/ Ibn Abū Ibn amra/Alī/ kanīsa - Ra sacred place in a general way. way. general a in place sacred ton: Princeton University Press, Press, University ton: Princeton ḥ m In A Ibn īm/ ] and build for you for build and ] s pilgrimage to the Holy the to pilgrimage s ” . 118

ḥ a al mad Ḥ

amala amala 116

A Survey and and Survey A the the

al Thus, thisThus, mu - - mu Tārīkh ṣ ṣ allā allā ,

CEU eTD Collection Ḥ 122 121 Ri his Jubayr in XXXIV Damas,1959), de Francais (Damascus: Institut 120 119 reading of case the in Thus, worship. word Arabic the but church, the replaced mosque the that mean simply may This mosque”. the inside was mosque/ Al that reports The it. destroy to started and ladders on climbed Muslims the that, After demolition. start Al place. its in mosque a build and church milieu. cultural Christian about reports include specifically transmitt wa akhbār Kitāb transmitter and al Mushir Abū in Damascus of churches the about given information the transmitted „Asākir. al Khabar fī century ninth the from sources adīth

Ibn al Ibn Ibid., 44 Ibid., en571/1176 Damas a Mort „Asākir: Historien d‟Ibn Damas de La Description NikitaElisseeff, Ibid,10; Khalek,

al - The lines “ lines The the of Some A by transmitted was report The - Fay 120 Nūrīyah, 1994), 40; 1994), Nūrīyah, masjid r, Ya ers, - Muslim Conquest the after Damascus 45.

ḍ

al Ibn

ḥ masjid - - la Masj Ghassānī, Kitāb akhbār waakhbār Kitāb Ghassānī, ”. 121 mu also refers to al to refers also ḥ 122 „Asākir - -

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addith

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Jāmi„a Ibn „Asākir, Ibn

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They are They from famous al ore s h frt o eto te iiin f h sntay H also He sanctuary. the of division the mention to first the is source - Ghassānī traditions by Ibn „Asākir are also given in Ibn al Ibn in given also are „Asākir Ibn by traditions - ḥ Mu„allā, which is why in both account the same reports can be found. found. canbe reports same account the both whyisin which Mu„allā,

ā al yā 119 wih s o ls ecp fr oe rget fud n Ibn in found fragments some for except lost now is which , . He was a was He .

Tārīkh Madīnat Dimashq Madīnat Tārīkh - on the authority of another member of the famous family of of family famous the of member another of authority the on Ghassānī -

ḥ describes the scene when alscenewhenthe describes masjid s any place where a person performs an act of devotion or or devotion of act an performs person a where place any s ikāyāt [Book of Accounts and Anecdotes] (Damascus: Dār (Damascus: Anecdotes] and Accounts of [Book ikāyāt ḥ , 143. 143. , mad Ibn al Ibn mad - - Ghassānī family.Ghassānī Walīd is said to have been the one who took an axe to to axe an took who one the been have to said is Walīd qā

as a place of worship, the account may also refer to refer also may account the worship, of place a as -

- ulm nones n soig hi common their showing and encounters Muslim XXXVI; Shboul, “Change and Continuity”, 71 Continuity”, and “Change Shboul, XXXVI; ḍ d 97. The 927). (d. 39 ī masjid

in Damascus and left a small work entitled work small a left and Damascus in

- Mu„allā, who was one of Ibn „Asākir‟s early„Asākir‟s Ibn of one was who Mu„allā, ” can be translated as “the church which which church “the as translated be can ” , 252. ,

kanīsa a ḥ - ādīth ādīth Walīd wanted to pull down pull to wanted Walīd ] which was inside the the inside was which ] transmitted by him are are him by transmitted - Fay ḍ

al - - Ghassānī - Ghassānī‟s 75. 75.

al Ibn - ḥ adīth adīth

Juz‟ the , a , CEU eTD Collection 127 126 125 124 Wiley (Oxford: Jonathan, see: Mikalson deity, ofthe being the“sacred”, property withinit is everything 123 714 temenos ninth al until [Christians] them to left [ church “The relates: „Asākir Ibn Baptist the John St. of church the mentioning When conquest. the the after Damascus in included churches fifteen the of list a presents simply cultpracticesa spaceformer for the Muslim inside or structure a and church Christian the parts: different two of existence the of theory Creswell‟s temenos temple. pagan or church, synagogue, “chur meaning the

Al Ibn „Asākir, Ibn am t using I Inthe text, EI from Greek derived area, Anenclosed - - temenos 2 2 715 AD, mentions that al that mentions AD, 715 Yaʿqūbī - see etr Aain egahr n hsoin al historian and geographer Arabian century h ato o te u the of author The the was which and made was peace which on western was of the thechurch, part left thehands Christians. in of part other the on and mosque the [of [ city the conquered the the of the middle the in for stopped and side part western the from a and one eastern „Ub the As one. western was the was which Christians which Muslims two the were there for because part mosque, one the parts: into it incorporated and Christians the of Al to references possible other are There : 125

Kanisa - I ti cs, iiig the dividing case, this In . Walīd was the one whot one the was Walīd , al , Tārīkh ṣ 123 - ul Tārīkh Madīnat Dimashq, Madīnat Tārīkh Blackwell, 2010), 7. 2010), Blackwell, kanīsa ch” also has other meanings. It can equally refer to a general cultic place such as a a as placesuch cultic general a to referequally It can meanings.other has also ch” . ḥ

G. G. Troupeau t s ot mninn ta te word the that mentioning worth is It a md bten i ad h Crsin. hld b al Ibn Khalid Christians. the and him between made was - Yaʿqūbī, 236. Yaʿqūbī,

] which was] and possessed theeastern it made a Theit one. Muslims kanīsa emenos

anwatan iesl itr, al history, niversal

] of John is very much visited today visited very much is John of ] and sanctuary interchangeably. interchangeably. sanctuary and

Walīd wished to build the mosque of Damascus, but there was a a was there but Damascus, of mosque the build to wished Walīd

- Walīd took it from them as it was mentioned before.” mentioned was it as them from it took Walīd temein 257. ook the part of the left church[ the left of part the ook ] from the eastern side and stopped at the at stopped and side eastern the from ] 124

, cutting , off.

kanīsa Thus, by Thus, -

40 abarī, talking about the events in the years of of years the in events the about talking abarī, ae o aohr enn ad corre and meaning another on takes temenos

Temenos kanīsa - aqb as mnin te iiin f the of division the mentions also Yaʿqūbī ayda Ibn al Ibn ayda

sntay n h sucs Ibn sources. the in /sanctuary

kanīsa

the sources could equally refer to the to refer equally could sources the temenos is to be dedicated to a god and hence it and hencea and itand to god dedicated be isto ṣ ul ḥ , retained by the population of of population the by retained , kanīsa . Half of the church [ church the of Half . etoe i te ore and sources the in mentioned - kanīsa . Jarrā

. The agreement of agreement The . ḥ 127 ] from the hands thehands from]

Ancient G Ancient entered the city the entered

second part part second reek Religion, reek - Walīd Walīd kanīsa pns to sponds „Asākir „Asākir 126 ] was was ]

The

CEU eTD Collection 129 128 the over added was dome a and mosque Umayyad an into converted later was monument same The it. of center the in situated was church, the into the in temples t to According Wulzinger. C. and Watzinger K. scholars, German were division the the about theory the in advance to discussion scholars first the much Among Islam. provoked early on scholarship has parts Muslim and Christian into church Damascus 2.1 One venerating God were communities these of both that crucial was it cult shared of space a as part one of adaptation the For group. other the of place holy the visit also would they while “sanctuary,” own its in venerate could group each where space a became It space. single a shared cults both rather but Muslim, nor Christian exclusively the of space the respect, this In there. centralized were communities the visited Muslims and Christians Both groups. he essential as not are featuresmay, architectural it the assanctuaries. Bethat the location of exact definethe not do temenos ( it” “inside church

Elizabeth Key Fowden “Sharing Holy Places,” Places,” “SharingHoly Key Fowden Elizabeth al . 2. - 129 abarī

Scholarly theories theories Scholarly the about . ic te einn o te wnit cnuy h ter aot h divis the about theory the century twentieth the of beginning the Since they sanctuaries, Christian and Muslim the of location the mention sources the Although

,” soagain , Tār īkh al īkh temenos re as the symbolic meaning of the veneration performed by different religious religious different by performed veneration the of meaning symbolic the as re - fī Rusul wal Rusul fī ḥ

ḥ i i )

refers to prior the Arab conquest. The temple of Jupiter, which Theodosius turned turned Theodosius which Jupiter, of temple The conquest. Arab the prior 128 , which can be read to mean that: “the church was situated inside th inside situated was church “the that: mean to read be can which , - Mulūk

temenos , 499 , division .

Common Knowledge Common

temenos

of the space by the Muslims and using it using and Muslims the by space the of t asp b al by ransept

over seventy years; the cults of both of cults the years; seventy over 8, no. 1 (2002): 130. 1 no. (2002): 8, - temenos aī. ale, n 629, in Earlier, Walīd. e, hr wr two were there hem,

became o o the of ion

neither neither e CEU eTD Collection 134 Omeyyades 133 132 131 130 been have to former the within but itself, church the needwithin located not do cults separated the mentioned, already as however, side, western o Christians the and side eastern the on praying former were Muslims the that the explicit are sources in included were they separate, were parts Christian and Muslim q would which enclosure, sacred the on right constructed was church the that Wulzinger and Watzinger of hypothesis the rejects also earlyc of Christian list givesa and facingwest above story the about sharing him before scholars most as Sauvaget, J. Similarly, church. the of part western by built was the where church the of part eastern the in praying were Muslims the that proposes and Jubayr Ibn traveler Arab the by given information the on this considers example, for Dussaud, R. ritua Christian the contradicts east. it because best at dubious be to information the in Muslims the and church the of part there campaignsearthquake. or by an same the inside church another built had Heraclius

Ibn Jubayr, Ibn Sauvaget, Leone, Caetani on More Jupiter “Lede temple Dussaud,

had been an initial division according to which the Christians were praying in the western the in praying were Christians the which to according division initial an been had - mentioned scholars who hold that it was against the Christian tradition to have an altar altar an have to tradition Christian the against was it that hold who scholars mentioned K. A. C. Creswell discusses this phenomenon in detail. First he rejects the opinion of of opinion the rejects he First detail. in phenomenon this discusses Creswell C. A. K. above the whether disagree Scholars

(Beirut, 1930), 269 1930), (Beirut, qibla Les monuments Historique, monuments Les Ri Mu„ ḥ , l mu Annali dell‟ Annali ā aiy t s uiul hg cntuto. et h age ta atog the although that argues he Next, construction. huge uniquely a as it ualify

Ibn Jubayr Ibn āwiyah ṣ allā allā

temenos and and tem 132

- Islam mi , 183. , 183. 270. enos . In Ibn Jubayr‟s account there is a mention of Christians using the using Christians of mention a is there account Jubayr‟s Ibn In . ḥ ” r , 240 ,

ā . According to their theory, the church was over 136 meters long, long, meters 136 over was church the theory, their to According .

b (Milan: Ulrico Hoepli, 1910), cited in Henri Lammens, cited 1910), Hoepli, (Milan: Ulrico

130

is amere legend. see .

14.

Khoury Nuha, “The Nuha, Khoury

- etoe acut r eibeadtu whether thus and reliable are accounts mentioned hurches with the altar located on the west side. He side. west the on located altar the with hurches 42 134

maq

temenos

Mihrab: from Text to Form”, Form”, to fromText Mihrab: temenos ṣ ura , which was destroyed by the Persian Persian the by destroyed was which , /

mu . In this case the shared cult space cult shared the case In this . ṣ allā 131

mentioned by Ibn JubayrIbn by mentioned l of worship. He relies relies He worship. of l Etudes sur le siècle des des siècle le sur Etudes IJMES 133 , argues that thethat argues ,

temenos 30 (l998): 30 . The The . 1 n the n - 27.

CEU eTD Collection 137 136 social through its occurred 135 and and changes culture political local the The on Damascus. dependent of not life were transformations social and cultural the in changes gradual conq Arab the After conquest. Arab the after Damascus in transformation 2.2 plausible asincorporates architectural it both written evidence. and Muslim a and enclosure sacred the of part northern the on church Christian the of existence the about division the about Flood, central former wall prayer the Walīd, the to right, southern turned Muslims wall. southern the of center the at entrance triple monumental divi the of area the in sanctuaries their entered Muslims and Christians both shared the of theory the upholds Flood, B. F. start the construction sanctuary. of the the around colonnade al When space. sacred same the sepa structures two but one, in structures two mean not did

Flood, Flood, Creswell, Ibid., 169. Ibid., .

136 The cityt The in . He argues that the that argues He . The phenomenon of the shared sanctuary reveals also the gradual nature of the the of nature gradual the also reveals sanctuary shared the of phenomenon The maq Damascus, of mosque the with dealing scholarship recent in figure prominent most The temenos The Great Mosque of Mosque Damascus Great The - atr pr o the of part eastern Early I Early

ṣ ura

had more political and religious importance in the early Islamic period than the the than period Islamic early the in importance religious and political more had slamic Architecture slamic built ransition - hall was extended to occupy both both occupy to extended was hall

by al by temenos

- mi Walīd ḥ temenos

rāb and only when the four enclosing walls were left standing did he he did standing left were walls enclosing four the when only and , 180 , mi 137 , 123. 123. , of the Companions constructed in the southeastern part of the of part southeastern the in constructed Companions the of - ḥ Walīd became caliph he demolished the church and the the and church the demolished he caliph became Walīd . I assume that the hypothesis of Creswell, later taken up by up taken later Creswell, of hypothesis the that assume I . rāb/mu - 196. ad hitas und et Wt te osrcin f al of construction the With left. turned Christians and , 135

ṣ allā allā 43 temenos. temenos.

n h suhatr pr ses o e t be to seems part southeastern the in the eastern and western halves of the south south the of halves western and eastern the He relates that since that relates He rate from one another, yet covering covering yet another, one from rate

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by the the by - CEU eTD Collection 143 485. 2000), University, Princeton (Princeton: 142 141 140 139 138 wh of clans Arab Christianized several by represented were These population. its among Arabs of the majority a In included Syria Syria. of part southern this ofperiod Byzantine Arabs the with connections distinct to point would Damascus of geogra the majorityMiaphysite.historyandThe the Syrian was Chalcedonian, but Hellenised mostly as described be could He with Syria leave not did and remained who people the of destiny later and origins the define beliefs” of system new a following language, new a speaking elite, Heraclius. Gree these of properties abandoned Emperor followed and homes their left Syria of population identity.” regional damascene their and distinguished the learning of circles and traditions own their attributes, “urban own their had They forefront. political the to advanced Damascus,” t or two only within features cultural the and Syria for Damascenes, local the to unknown not were conquerors Arab the transformation; cultural and social The practice. cultural and relationships 83. Continuity”, “Changeand Shboul, Ibid., 489. Ibid., MakingIn Islam: and Byzantium “Syriabetween Victor Tannous, al 80. Ibid., Ibid. alu. rsmby mn o te wr nihr yatns o Arabs. nor Byzantines neither were them of many Presumably, raclius. - Ḥ Balādhurī, Balādhurī, ijāz

It is well known that following the Arab conquest many Greeks from among the the among from Greeks many conquest Arab the following that known well is It

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speaking elites are filled literary and figuratively by a new a by figuratively and literary filled are elites speaking hree generations hree Aramaean 44

hitas A ml nme o te were them of number small A Christians. new commensurables Speak”. Ph.D. dissertation. dissertation. Ph.D. Speak”. commensurables

Arab elite, the so the elite, Arab practice had a strong impact on the the on impact strong a had practice om the Miaphysite Ghass Miaphysite the om 142 . However, it is difficult to difficult is it However, . 140 138 . Truh h adopted the Through . 141

143

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Ibid. 89. Ibid., Ibid., 90. Ibid., in a role with significant a associated be to continued ofDamascus name the that AsShboul argues 80. Ibid, 79. Continuity,” “Changeand Shboul, -

established faction growingand Muslim steadilyand theChristian fro identity their in differed Damascenes the respects, political and cultural both In The cultural transformation was a gradual process resulting from the interactions of these gradual interactions ofthese resulting from the was process a The transformation cultural 149 tion. It shows that specific cultural features of the population were the result of mutual of result the were population the of features cultural specific that shows It tion.

The territory of Syria, being a borderland, was a seedbed for cultural fusion, and in and fusion, cultural for seedbed a was borderland, a being Syria, of territory The foederati -

world: one might even say a common Eastern Christian Eastern mightsaycommon a world: one even

f yatu, ee atclry prominent particularly were Byzantium, of

Hleitc Rmn Byzant Roman, Hellenistic, , ell as dwellings and commercial establishments. commercial and dwellings as ell 146

A. Shboul proposes that the transformation of Damascus of transformation the that proposes Shboul A. 45

ḥ annā Ibn Man Ibn annā t ws naie ol b the by only inhabited was ity ine, Christian urban cultural cultural urban Christian ine, 144 - Islamic thought world. Ibid. 89 world.Ibid. thought Islamic ṣ ūral 145 Te yatn influence Byzantine The .

- Dimashqī. Dimashqī. community

147 148 common common

. The thirdThe

m the the m - ng CEU eTD Collection 156 155 154 153 464. Islam”, and Byzantium between “Syria see: Tannous, church, Christian ofa construction a was that it believed ofJerusalem Christians the the Rock th that during churches Christian of patronage Umayyad of manywerecases so There from resources. royal werecovered theconstructions of expenses The wouldlike. monk the wherever monasteries Daylam, the John monk, Syrian that the example is (another Mu„āwiya by ofEdessa/Ruha the church of as the renovation caliphs, Umayyad by renovated 152 151 460 Islam,” and Byzantium “Syriabetween in: Tannous, 150 the hardship economic avoid to order in and expediency numbe a Also, meant. “Islam” what of experience”. religious interiorized highly and personal “intensely through not conversion, mass through Islam to brought were men churches Christian visiting Muslims about churches Christian frequent to Muslims Islam adopted having after them practiced and Christianity with associated habits social or rituals their group through converted Muslims of majority the conversio that fact the to due part in was this for reason The history. Islamic of periods later other in than community Muslim the of period early negotiat and elaborated were claims

Ibid. Ibid., 507. Ibid., 721. Ibid., 465. Ibid., or constructed buildings Christian wereseveral which there to according reports several presents Tannous 445 Ibid, more marriages,see mixed by influenced stronglywas society ofthe character diverse the Tannous, to According al 154 151 -

jiziya .

Right after the conquest the Muslim community was sma community was Muslim the conquest afterthe Right Tee s oe vdne ruh frh y anu soig ht it that showing Tannous by forth brought evidence some is There . n and possessed only basic knowledge about the new religion. Often the converts kept kept converts the Often religion. new the about knowledge basic only possessed and n - 446.

wih eae nraigy udnoe priual udr h rin f Ad al „Abd of reign the under particularly burdensome, increasingly became which ,

was awarded permission by „Abd al „Abd by permission wasawarded 155

ed. In the result of this there was more diversity more was there this of result the In ed. Therefore, many Muslim converts did not have a clear idea clear a have not did converts Muslim many Therefore, 152 r of Christians adopted Islam only for reasons of of reasons for only Islam adopted Christians of r Mroe, hr ae nme o acut talking accounts of number a are there Moreover, . 153

- s el s aig igiae t Crsin holy Christian to pilgrimages making as well as 46 507. 507.

156 , since the since , - Malik to build churches and churches and build to Malik ll. The majority of later converts converts later majorityof The ll. dhimmīs e construction of the Dome of the Dome of construction e were obliged to pay to obliged were

a cmo for common was 150

in this in - - CEU eTD Collection 160 20 Routledge, 159 158 47. 157 population. the of life cultural and social the in occurred which transformations broader also but and centralization the strengthen to Islamization/Arabization of thecaliphate. aiming policy a was it administration in innovations and Byzantine of rulers. representations Sassanid pictorial using practice previous the rejecting formulae, religious Muslim with only inscribed were They chapter. next the in discussed be will which t of one was this epigraphic; purely became coinage as to referred were they designations: new on took follies copper and drachma, silver denarius, gold The inscriptions. Arabic short had T them. circulate to continued and coins Sassanid and Byzantine existing the adapted al „Abd when 690s, th towards step a was it and process gradual a was certainly language the of change The bureaucracy. the of charge in non of number a were there that means admi the of language the had year 700 the Onlyby 2.3 the Malik.

Tannous, “Syria between Byzantium and Islam,”441. and Byzantium “Syriabetween Tannous, Ibid., 64 Ibid., Hawting, Gerland DanielDennett,

. The t . The dhimmī 157 These changes suggest not only a shift in the political sel political the in shift a only not suggest changes These al „Abd Before

- ransitional phaseransitional addi an Thus, 65. 00), 10. 00), tax

158 160 Conv . The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD AD 661 Caliphate Umayyad The Islam: of Dynasty First The

This was a de a was This - ersion and the Poll Tax in Early Islam Early in Poll Tax the and ersion

Malik initiated minting purely epigraphic coins. Previously, the Arabs had Arabs the Previously, coins. epigraphic purely minting initiated Malik e centralization of the state. the of centralization e - Malik‟s reforms the administrative language of the caliphate was Greek. was caliphate the of language administrative the reforms Malik‟s tional reason for the Christians to convert to Islam was to avoid paying avoid to was Islam to convert to Christians the for reason tional

cisive break in the numismatic tradition and together with the with together and tradition numismatic the in break cisive dīnār - Arabs with knowledge of Arabic as they continued to be be to continued they as Arabic of knowledge with Arabs

, dirham

159 nistration changed from Greek to Arabic. This This Arabic. to Greek fromchanged nistration

(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950), 46 1950), Press, University Harvard (Cambridge: , A parallel action was initiated at the end of end the at initiated was action parallel A

he important features of the new coinage, new the of features important he and fils . After „Abd al „Abd After . f - identification of the caliphate, the of identification - 750 750 (New York; London: London: (New York; - Malik‟s reform the reform Malik‟s hese coins coins hese - CEU eTD Collection the and space sacred the of that was adaptation such One policy. Umayyad in implementation car often was policy This perspective. “Islamic” an through articulated were they rather but “Islamic”, purely not were motifs these population; the to acceptable and understandable were that motifs include to had elite Umayyad the areas) (as making policy of terms in Thus, population. bilingual, and mixed already local, the of features cultural the adopted newcomers Arab the as values, social and cultural, local the that mind in keep to needs One region. the of masters uncontested the as themselves view theto whenUmayyadsstarted time the wasThis Shboul. articulatedbyA. as period transmission w as century eighth 2.4. firm establish stepsto their imperial ambitions. when dynasty, Umayyad the of consolidation the and conquest dominating the phase transitional as The Caliphate region. Umayyad the in the sovereignty of establishment the of result a were reforms of territory entire to applicable be would that culture religious centralized al „Abd for Muslims Theseone ofthe a innovationswere first stepstowards policy of t interactions cultural of process ongoing the upon building that illustrate innovations numismatic and administrative The The phenomenon of adaptation of the phenomenonadaptation The sacred of space

popul The common cultural milieu of Damascus at the end of the seventh and beginning of of beginning and seventh the of end the at Damascus of milieu cultural common The h peoeo o sae sce sae ie, h sae sntay bign both bringing sanctuary, shared the i.e., space, sacred shared of phenomenon The

and Christians toget Christians and a in n te mya eie ee ah h hlig n o mxue f symbolic, of mixture a to on holding the each were elite Umayyad the and tion - ai‟ rfrs wih ee eind o aiiae h etbihet f one of establishment the facilitate to designed were which reforms, Malik‟s ell as the transi the as ell he Islamic caliphate could now create its “own” traditions and features. and traditions “own” its create now could caliphate Islamic he her to pray side by side was a transitional phase transitional a was side by side pray to her tional period tional 48

of the caliphate can be compared with the third third the with compared be can caliphate the of

ried out by adapting existing models for its its for models existing adapting by out ried

was the interim period between the Arab Arab the between period interim the was

the Umayyads had not yet taken taken yet not had Umayyads the Islamization/Arabization the caliphate. These These caliphate. the

that paved the way way the paved that

ela i other in as well .

CEU eTD Collection 164 429. 2006), 163 35 2010), University, Harvard 162 Sauvag in mentioned Armenia), Dabil and (Dvin, n.2 238, Damascénien,” Jupiter “Lede temple in (mentionedDussaud by Cordoba 161 associated was Mamre of space sacred the originally However, Hermes. god the of veneration site the AD century third the before that suggested was It times. prehistoric (74 Herod tha argued have Archeologists location. particular this with associated were cults several time, of course 2.4 Abraham. K in space deities ancestral and tribal honor to site the to pilgrimages annual made They K Muḥammad. of triumph in existed also sacred shared that note to important sacred concerned. spaces is furtherm It Damascus. in existed have also could phenomenon a such that likelihood the increases cases comparative of existence The sanctuaries. shared of cases further exemplify Mamre and Rusafa shared a of existence the Damascus. of enclosure former the in cult

Donner, Donner, in “Ka„ba” AzimNanji, McGrawDonner, Fred and (todayHoms) suchas Emesa literature, mentioned secondary in the are phenomenon this cases of Other .1. Mamre Mamre One example of a “collective” cult is the veneration of the oak tree in Mamre. Over the Over Mamre. in tree oak the of veneration the is cult “collective” a of example One is It East. Middle Islamic the in space sacred of sharing of cases first the not are These ore shows a common tendency in Umayyad practices and policies as far as the use of of use the as far as policies and practices Umayyad in tendency common a shows ore

Muḥammad and the the Believers, and Muḥammad 164 t they had discovered a tomb built to worship two ancient deities ancient two worship to built tomb a discovered had they t a BC ‟

ba was first associated with pagan god Hubal, a Hubal, god pagan with associated first was ba

–

et, “Les Monuments Historiques” 14. Historiques” Monuments “Les et, 4 BC). Their conclusion was that the site had been a religious center since since center religious a been had site the that was conclusion Their BC). 4

Muḥammad and the Believers At the Origins of Islam of theOrigins At Believers the and Muḥammad Medieval

a ard pc. oee, h cs o Dmsu ws o unique; not was Damascus of case the However, space. sacred

‟ a a sae sce sae o vros oai Aai tribes Arabic nomadic various for space sacred shared was ba

Islamic Civilization: An Civilization: Islamic

36.

As mentioned above, some scholars are suspicious of suspicious are scholars some above, mentioned As 49

Encyclopedia K a ‟ ba nd later the cult was associated with associated was cult the later nd

, ed. ed. Josef , rm Pre from

(Cambridge, Belknap Press of Press Belknap (Cambridge,

Me - Islamic ri (London: Routledge, Routledge, (London:ri , established by King King by established ,

was a place of of place a was 163 ie utl the until times Te sacred The . 162 161 .

CEU eTD Collection 171 170 169 168 167 166 Stroumsa 165 and Rusafa, int political Mamre, the show general. Damascus in tendencies political of feature a was but period, Umayyad social interactions. w Mamre at cult the Sharing place. holy this adapt to able been have would Christians the Mamre, at site worship pagan previously the of case the in that argues Fowden K. E. vicinity. the in emerged markets often and people for point meeting a was Rusafa Palestine.” of population religious diverse important tradethe fair center as cult attracted and numerous the pilgrims. place” holy international “an became Mamre of space sacred the commercial”: and “international to regional from moved Mamre and adapted pan informal was it now but space, sacred “Christianized” of status the kept Abraham with associated sacr the on constructed was age her despite son, a of conception strangers, Sara‟s foretold Yahweh the to hospitality offered they After Sara. and Abraham to came humans, of form tree oak the under mission angelic the received and altar, an built there, lived Abraham that believed was It Abraham. with

Ibid. Fowden, Ibid.,19 Kofsky, 129. Ibid., Fowden, AryehKofsky,

the reflected worshippers “the Jews; and Christians by only not frequented was Mamre , ( The example of Mamre shows that, certainly, this practice was not specific to the the to specific not was practice this certainly, that, shows Mamre of example The - Jerusalem: Ben Zvi Institute, 1989), 19. 1989), Institute, Zvi Ben Jerusalem: 30. Cult,” Regional ofAa Case “Mamre: Sharing the H the Sharing Sharing the Holy Space Holy the Sharing

grs etvl. osy ass h ie ta i te osatna ae h cl of cult the age Constantinian the in that idea the raises Kofsky festivals. egyrus “ 167 Mamre: A Case of a Regional Cult?” Regional ofa Case A Mamre: I te osatna ae te xsig aktlc bcm a lc for place a became marketplace existing the age, Constantinian the In . 171

oly Space oly 165 ed location of the cult of the Mamre tree. The cult of the sacred space sacred the of cult The tree. Mamre the of cult the of location ed . It was in this tree‟s s tree‟s this in was It .

, 126. , 126. , ention of the ruling elites to keep the veneration of local cults local of veneration the keep to elites ruling the of ention

168

27. Te ard pc i Mme a i Rsf, a an was Rusafa, in as Mamre, in space sacred The .

170

The sacred space, the space, sacred The

50 Sharing the the Sacred Sharing

hade that Yahweh and two angels, taking the taking angels, two and Yahweh that hade 166 , ed. Aryeh Kofsky and Gedaliahu Gedaliahu ed.Aryeh , Kofsky and . In Constantine‟s time, a church a time, Constantine‟s In . as part of a larger complex of of complex larger a of part as ḥ aram 169 , in both Mamre an Mamre both in ,

CEU eTD Collection 173 172 the through led courtyard the to entrance The too. unusual, is mosque the of construction The communities. both over patronage took saint the that so Sarjis, Mar called was mosque the that Isla“ease into Christians attempt to the Muslims‟ by also explained be can This cult. saint‟s the of worship the in participate even could pilgrims nearby mosque the with Moreover, church. the with compete to attempt no was there Rusafa after Hishām al Caliph was mosque the of construction co was mosque a conquest Arab the After center. trade and pilgrimage major a became It site. the of popularity Later, Sergiuscult ofthedeitySt. Arabwarriorand cult even „Azīz. emerged the increased faith Christian the of martyr a Se and officer St. military of cult the adopted it before site pilgrimage major a been had Rusafa Al of city the of southwest situated Sergiopolis, as known 2.4 ofview.only point be from beneficial this could cult previous a of adaptation the and revenue mean pilgrims for pilgrimage, encouraging behind lay that interests economic the mind in keep to needs also One reasons. pious similar s sacred the frequent to started who in, joined Christians also but site, this to pilgrimages made believers previous had only Not shrines. the visiting continue to pilgrims encourage to and

Fowden, Bacchus,” Sergiusand of the Passion Julian and Emperor “The David, Woods .2. Rusafa Rusafa poiet xml o a hrd ard pc i ta o te hrh n uaa (also Rusafa in church the of that is space sacred shared a of example prominent A “Sharing the Holy Space,” 135. Space,” Holy “Sharingthe

him. The major scholar of the site, E. K. Fowden, has suggested t suggested has Fowden, K. E. site, the of scholar major The him.

nstructed adjacent to the church, which was still functioning. The initiator of the of initiator The functioning. still was which church, the to adjacent nstructed

Hishām ( Hishām 51 m.”

172 691 173 . Initially, the site was associated with the with associated was site the Initially, .

Moreover, she suggests that it ispossible thatit suggests Moreover, she - 743): the site is often called Rusafa al Rusafa called often is site the 743): - Raquel

on the Euphrates). The site of site The Euphrates). the on JECS,

5, no. 3 (1997 3 no. 5, hat in the case of case the in hat rgius, a Roman Roman a rgius, ): 4 ): - 5. pace for pace

- CEU eTD Collection 175 181. 1999), Press, California 174 shared the of existence The region. sanctuaries the of scholarly locations empire this inother supports assumption. Syrian wider the in centuries for practice in been had Muslim common promoting that assume can one Thus, systems. religions various for worship of place a as serving of phenomenon same the represent all they that is one important most the but features, sacred by space venerated both communities. or cult shared a creating and cult previous the adapting of Umayyads the of policy the expressed place. sacred the or cult previous the adopting by another to form religious one from switching of process the facilitated that technique a was another one with association their and deities of identification deity‟s or hero‟s the of reattribution the through cult and space sacred of association and identification the Rusafa of case the in that argue also groups both of protection and healing supernatural for aspirations “shared Khi with Sergius St. of identification The abilities. healing their on Khi of cult the with associated also was Rusafa in Sergius St. of cult the Later, house). deity„Az the with identified was Sergius, St. saint, Christian the of cult The authorities. political new the to known already the of harmonization and identification the also but space, mosque tothe church. qibla

Idem. Key, FowdenElizabeth

al I seem It wall. , h css f h sae sce spac sacred shared the of cases The sacred associated the and cult a adapting of case a only not is Sergius St. of cult The -

“Sharing the Holy Space,” 190. 190. Space,” “Sharingthe Holy Christian Christian As a result of the adaptation of the cult a shared sacred space was formed; it it formed; was space sacred shared a cult the of adaptation the of result a As sanctuaries or sacred places was motivated by the same political agenda that that agenda political same the by motivated was places sacred or sanctuaries ta ti cntuto ws ae o ae h tafc f eivr fo the from believers of traffic the ease to made was construction this that s

The Barbarian Plain, Saint Sergius between Rome and Iran and Rome Sergius between Saint Plain, Barbarian The 6) (Fig.

īz, a warrior god on a horse (as St. Sergius was usually depicted on a a on usually depicted was Sergius St. (ashorse a warriorgodaon īz,

174

e in Damascus and Rusafa certainly have similar similar have certainly Rusafa and Damascus in e

hrceitc hd pltcl neto. The intention. political a had characteristics

space with various deities or saints or deities various with space ḍ r is explained b explained is r

(Berkeley: University of of (Berkeley: University 175 ”. However, one can one However, ”.

y Fowden as Fowden y ḍ r based based r CEU eTD Collection 178 177 176 Jerusalem. in sanctuary Muslim foremost the became which stone foundation al the „Abd constructed caliph, Umayyad the 690s early the In city. the occupied Muslims the after absorbed thenew into topographyofJerusalem space sacred sharing of nature symbolic the shows Christians. the to transferred were meanings these site the of Christianization the With Jewish the as stone Muslims andfocused. remained prayer stood Jewish removal, forced had ark‟s the after Covenant where, the of Ark the where place the mark to considered was built, later heav to entryof point the altar, the is it creation; of center the be to believed was stone foundation the the considered was It people. the with communicated templ The resurrection. his and destruction, temple‟s the about prophecy his Jesus, with it connected they but idea, this adopted sharing the inJe sacred of place the time: in period same the in Damascus of enclosure sacred the in as groups different between shared never was Jerusalem in space sacred the of location The chapter. next the in presented times. different at groups religious different by venerated location, apresented as only is Jerusalem of space sacredchapter the In this Jerusalem. of temple 2.4

Ibid. 139 Places,” “SharingHoly Fowden, Khalek, .3. en, the burial site of Adam. The foundation stone, over which the Dome of the Rock was was Rock the of Dome the which over stone, foundation The Adam. of site burial the en, Jerusalem

The power of the old symbols of Jerusalem was again transformed into new directions directions new into transformed again was Jerusalem of symbols old the of power The Christians The there. present was God that idea Judaic the incorporated temple The the was place one in worshipped groups different where place holy a of example Another Damascus after the Muslim Conquest the after Damascus

qibla

. It stood in that place as a reminder of God‟s presence in the world. the in presence God‟s of reminder a as place that in stood It .

rusalem was purelynotional and symbolic. ws eadd s h cne o te ol, rm hr God where from world, the of center the as regarded was e - 140.

, 8 - 9.

178 53

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mr eaoae dsuso is discussion elaborated more A , the navel of the world, the of navel the ,

referred to the to referred 177 - 176 Ma

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CEU eTD Collection 181 180 51. 1995), 179 traditions andfeatures. self self increasingly political became the rulers Umayyad in The caliphate. shift a suggest changes these that again stress to and incorporated, adapted, were they rather, outright; rejected werenot cults previous places.The sacred these in “cults”the of continuation the time, same the at show, and Umayyads the of ambitions imperial the express p Christian/Judaic the over Islam of superiority the to proclaim order in mosques into converted were Jerusalem and Damascus both in spaces sacred the the indicated and sovereignty the also Jerusalem, the Jerusalem venerat space sacred placegatheredcommunity where thepresence of Muḥammad. toinvoke the oftheGod one s Muslims which and built had Solomon which sanctuary the just not became understanding Muslim its in temple Jewish The appeared. gradually Mount Temple the with Muḥammad associating Traditions Trinity. the of doctrine the and position monument‟s bythe powerfullyconveyed is message The constructed. was hegemony Muslim of symbol a Christianity, and Judaism of city city holy the over sovereignty Muslim the expressed and 7) (Fig

Ibid., 140 Ibid., 142. Places,” “SharingHoly Fowden, AmikamElad, 179 The similarity of the cases of Jerusalem and Damascus is that both cases are examples of examples are cases both that is Damascus and Jerusalem of cases the of similarity The

As argued by E. Fowden, it was designed to upstage the Church of the Resurrection the of Church the upstage to designed was it Fowden, E. by argued As - sacred space and the former the and sacredspace 142. 142. Medieval Jerusalem Medieval

Jewish

ed by different religious groups in different times. Both in the case of the the of case the in Both times. different in groups religious different by ed

) sacred place was replaced with Muslim structures which structures Muslim with replaced was place sacred ) merged with the Islamic understanding of the sacred. the of understanding Islamic the with merged

and Islamic Worship: Holy Places, Ceremonies, Pilgrimage Ceremonies, Places, Worship:Holy Islamic and

gradual process of Islamization. Having a rich symbolic past, symbolic rich a Having Islamization. of process gradual temenos till considered to a holy place, but it was also a sacred a also was it but place, holy a to considered till

54 in Damascus, previously Christian (in the case of of case the (in Christian Damascus,previously in

- 180 ofdn i itouig hi “own” their introducing in confident Qurʼānic . In Jerusalem In . ast of these sacred places. They They places. sacred these of ast

texts denying the Christian Christian the denyingtexts - , which was the holy the was which , identification of the the of identification

It is important important is It (Leiden: Brill, (Leiden: Brill, expressed expressed 181

CEU eTD Collection 188 (Fernelont interconfessionnelle 187 50. (2002): 186 185 Ages.” Moyen century. twelfth in the ofDamascus Syria Medieval 184 183 23. Jupiter”, “Lede temple see: Dussaud, Emesa, from translated was Damascus oftheof church relic The 110. hisfor cu center was anactive Syria fifthcentury from the starting that shows withname his affiliated ofabundancechurches The Jerash). Emesa,Bostra, Beirut, Baalbek, 182 can it However, space. sacred same the regarding groups different of associations similar to due w another to religion one from conversion of process the in stages the of one is space sacred or sanctuaries shared that spac sacred of usage the and definition the recognitionIslamization ofthesacred oftheintendedalso its past placeshows and wa which relics, his of discovery the and saint Byzantine Da Byzantine of landscape sacred the of part authority. political one‟s vindicating of sake the forexclusively saint Christian important an of relic a claiming in point turning a was mosque John. St. of relics the for place pilgrimage a became mosque the as cult, its of adaptation partial the and Baptist the John St. of church former 8). (Fig power their of expression Umayyad the of component one only was which Damascus, meaning2.5. The of hen the dominance of one of the groups is evident is groups the of one of dominance the hen eds. Guillaume Dye, Depret, Isabelle Ibid, 11. Ibid, Paul Khalek, the John Baptis ofSt. the for relic More Khalek, Syrin churches Several Cobb, “Virtual Sacrality: Making Muslim Syria Sacred Before theCrusades.” Before SyriaSacred MakingMuslim “Virtual Sacrality: Cobb, n h itouto t te book the to introduction the In self increasing The

Damascus after the Muslim Conquest the after Damascus Muslim Conquest the after Damascus Annales Islamologiques Annales

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 200 2002), University Press, Oxford (Oxford: Th is demonstration was expressed also through the adaptation of the space of the the of space the of adaptation the through also expressed was demonstration is 187

. Religious tolerance in the shared sacred space was possible only in case in only possible was space sacred shared the in tolerance Religious . the s ia claimed to possess the relic of St. John or were dedicated to him (Aleppo, Gaza, Gaza, him(Aleppo, to were dedicated or John ofSt. relic the possess to claimed ia

hared : E. M. E., 2012), 8. E., M. 2012), E. : - confidence was expressed in the construction of the mosque of of mosque the of construction the in expressed was confidence

See

27 (1993): 245 (1993): 27

Partage du Sacré du Partage sacred : Jean t see: Josef Meri Meri Josef t see: - Michel Mouton, “De quelques reli “De quelques Mouton, Michel e as a part of a political agenda. First, it has been argued been has it First, agenda. political a of part a as e

, 93 , 86. , space atg d Sacré du Partage

95. 182 - 183 46.

Transferts, dévotions mixtes, rivalités rivalités mixtes, Transferts,dévotions lt, see: Khalek, see: Khalek, lt, The fact of installing the rel the installing of fact The

The veneration of St. John St. of veneration The mascus.

The Cult of Saints Among Muslims and Jews in Jews in Muslims and Among Saints of Cult The - 201. Mouton discusses other relics kept in the mosque in kept the relics other discusses Mouton 201. 188 . The shared spaces space can be shaped be can space spaces shared The . 185 s later attributed to al to attributed later s

, I. Depret and G. Dye present the the present Dye G. and Depret I. , h aatto o te ut f this of cult the of adaptation The Damascus after the Muslim Conquest the after Damascus ques conservées à Damas au au Damas à conservées ques Medieval Encounters Medieval 184 ics in the Umayyad the in ics

- was a significant a was Walīd, manifests manifests Walīd, world 186 .

8, no.1 no.1 8, - ruling ,

CEU eTD Collection 190 189 weremotivated initiatives These notonly Damascus. mosque of ofthe construction the well as in centralizingIslamic state the and creating a world al „Abd Umayyads the of policies the with end in John St. of church former the of enclosure the in space sacred shared the is point in case A caliphate. early the in practices religious historyof the Arab when caliphate, Islamic the of By history monetary the to only applied been has term shoul space shared of phenomenon ex the adapting and continuing or place, sacred a sharing of occurrences further that chapter show the Jerusalem) and in (Mamre mentioned cases other The agenda. Umayyad an of part were cases both that the onlycase of not of was twocults. This Muslim Damascene former the the in space the years, after seventy For conquest. decades first the in society Syrian of nature diverse the with concurrently legitimization and promotionofUmayyad power. the to and Islam to converting Christians to both led Christians and Muslims both by frequented space sacred the to pilgrims/visitors the and supernatural and sacred the between mediators as regarded authori the for legitimization of means a as regarded be could space shared authoriti religious or political the by invested and promoted be also

Ibid. 15. Ibid, zantine and Arab and zantine 190

hs oiy hne a b wtesd n diitaie a administrative in witnessed be can change policy This Um the by endorsed spaces sacred shared of phenomenon The . This hypothesis can be applied be can hypothesis This .

- Sassanid coins were still in circulation. I propose to apply this notion also to to also notion this apply to I propose circulation. in still were coins Sassanid

isting cult, was common in Syria even before the arrival of Islam. The The Islam. of arrival the before even Syria in common was cult, isting

d be considered belonging to a transitional period transitional a to belonging considered be d to the sacred space of Damascus. The sacred enclosure, sacred The Damascus. of space sacred the to a shared sacred place; the case of Rusafacase sacredof demonstrates a place; the shared 56 - Malik and al and Malik -

dominant power. Da mascus. The transitional period transitional The mascus. - Walīd; they promoted a policy of of policy a promoted they Walīd; temenos temenos d uimtc noain as innovations numismatic nd

ayyads expresses and goes and expresses ayyads s Te arng o the of patronage The es. became a shared place shared a became ty 189 . They would be would They . . So far this this far So .

came to to came - CEU eTD Collection Malik. above the with started empire centralized of consolidation The program. this of culmination al by mosque Umayyad the of construction external The and enemies. internal their considering caliphate, the centralize and strengthen to steps took innovation. and reforms to led Umayyads, the of policy ideological new the with along sharing, and adaptation of policy A Islamization. towards shift ideological resu have might which population, Muslim the of growth the systemby or taxation or monetary the in changesfiscal for need bythe

lted from mass conversions, but they were motivated by an an by motivated were they but conversions, mass from lted - mentioned reforms and buildi and reforms mentioned 57

h clpae n is rnfrain into transformation its and caliphate the - aī sol b cniee the considered be should Walīd „Abd al „Abd ng activities of „Abd al „Abd of activities ng - Malik and al and Malik - Walīd - CEU eTD Collection coinage”, 192 Karl Kothe, ʿ 191 remained mostly silver while empire, Islamic the of territories Byzantine former the in reckoned g traditions: these kept Empire Sassanid former Arab The Persia. Sassanid in preferred was coinage silver while tradition, imperial Byzantine a was coins gold of minting the centuries For political agenda. same the of products were and direction and purpose overall their in similar are cases two these that argued be can it Nevertheless, Damascus. of mosque the of construction the to prior years coinage the simultaneously; occur not did initiatives these that mind authority and hegemony its demonstrate and administration al the and reform coinage The Umayyads. the carried initiatives political important were Damascus of of mosque the of construction policy the in shift a by inaugurated was transitio Arab mixed the of Arab usage and adaptive Byzantine the to compared be can Baptist the John St. of church 3.1. Abd al Abd -

The catalogues an The Art Some Empire Mammon: and God, “For Hillenbrand, Robert ai ad i sn al son his and Malik

The monetaryThe under circulation the Umayyads - Malik.” in Malik.” Surely, monetary ref monetary Surely, previou The nal stage. nal Ars Orientalis Ars - Heinz Golzio, and Joachim Gierlichs, ( Joachim Gierlichs, and Golzio, Heinz

Al d types of Islamic coins are discussed by George George by discussed coinsare ofIslamic types d

- Andalus und Europa. ZwischenOr Europa. und Andalus Furthermore, in the previous chapter it was shown that the end of this stage this of end the that shown was it chapter previous the in Furthermore, catr rud ht h cs o sae sce sae n h Damascene the in space sacred shared of case the that argued chapter s , 3 (1959), 207 (1959), 3 , -

3. 3. The Imperial Projection the of Umayyads asnd ong. oh hnmn rpeet h pltcl pro political the represent phenomena Both coinage. Sassanid - aī ta wr itne t cnrlz ad temie h caliphal the streamline and centralize to intended were that Walīd orm was one of the of one was orm

- 213.

Petersberg: Michael Imhof Verlag, 2004), 34. 2004), Verlag, Imhof Michael Petersberg: - conquered territories of the Byzantine as well as the as well as Byzantine the of territories conquered i

ent und Okzident und ent 58 major achievements of the Marw the of achievements major old coins continued to be minted and the taxes taxes the and minted be to continued coins old

- Historical A Historical Miles “The iconography of Umayyad Umayyad iconographyof “The Miles 191 , ed. Martina Müller ed.Martina , . However, one needs to bear in bear to needs one However, . spects of the Reformed Dīnārs of ReformedDīnārs ofthe spects reform occurred several several occurred reform

- Wiener, Christiane Christiane Wiener,

ā nid dynasty nid

out by out rm f a of gram „Abd „Abd 192 - . CEU eTD Collection Drachm,” 196 195 194 193 Islamic ( 3.1.1. the by and 692, to 680 about from lasted consequences events. ofthese which Fitna, Second the War, Civil Islamic occurr had that events by stimulated part, in least at was, reform monetary appeared carry to gold the were them Arab silver among Also, type. Caliph” coins; “Standing the and solidus of “Shahada” types new several produce to started Damascus, of faith, the of profession Muslim the of appearance first the including character, religious a of inscriptions religion conspicuously polity a create to attempted territories Iranian former the and Arabia of control al drachma provinces Eastern the in metal precious preferred the F -

ig Luke Clive Hawting, al of„Abd Reforms Monetary “The Grierson Philip Zubayr.All „Abd .

9) Arab Treadwell, The first type of the coin issued by „Abd al „Abd by issued coin the of type first The al reform after„Abd The Umayyad monetary began Foss, “The Coinage of the First Century of Islam,” ofIslam,” Century First ofthe Coinage “The Foss,

n cit yt a te ae ie te sil otne t ue h Bznie utm of custom Byzantine the use to continued still they time, same the at yet, script, in the motif of the “S the of motif the Muqarnas arig h frua of formula the carrying

and copper Shahada which will be discussed in some detail below. Thus, one can argue that „Abd al argue can below. that„Abd detail Thus,one insome be will discussed which The First Dynasty of Islam, Islam, of First Dynasty The - Byzantine Byzantine mixed coinage

“

22 (2005): 1 (2005): 22 Mi 195 ḥ ā

rāb follies h Ibn al Ibn h . In aft the

and and

tanding Caliph.” Furthermore, Caliph.” tanding were changed tothe Arab . Anaza

- Zubayr was proclaimed caliph in Mecca in 683Meccain in caliph proclaimed Zubayrwas

ermath of this civil war, civil centralermath ofthis caliphate, the ofthe mint the mint ” or “Sacrum and Spear”? A Reconsideration of an Early Marwanid Silver Silver Marwanid an Early A of Reconsideration or“Sacrum Spear”? ” and Shahada 65.

(Islamic profession of faith). These coins were thus thus were coins These faith). of profession (Islamic - Malik”, Malik”, 59

JRS JESHO -

16 (2003): (2003): 16 solidus golden the was AD) (691/2 Malik dīnār, dirham dīnār, 193

- ni hs eet n dah n 9. He 692. in death and defeat his until based, which is why his coins bore bore coins his why is which based, . The pre The .

so - , 3, (1960): 242. 242. (1960): 3, , Malik had defeated his opp Malik hadhis defeated - called 759.

- gold conquest and Mi - Sassanid Sassanid ḥ fils rāb

ed during the Second Second the during ed 194

- and „Anaz and 684 and maintained and 684 .

drachma solidus onent, Ibn onent, a -

Malik‟s Malik‟s coins

, silver , started started 196

CEU eTD Collection 201 the History and “Archaeology more,see: Johns, reign.For 360 ofMu„āwiyah?” Coinage “Syrian Foss, Clive see: coinage, taxationemploying 418 200 2010), Brill, (Leiden, Michael Marx and Sinai Nicolai Neuwirth, Imagery,”in 199 20 (2009): 165, 198 197 a ofrepresentation a is it that suggested Miles established. fully been the leaderIslamic thepolity of faithful”/ the of “commander the mentioning Pahlawi coinage on time first the for appeared, name Muslim mutilated cross. a Heit “de toconsider proposes a as regarded was stick the time this at already probably that suggests Heidemann a with replaced was reverse the on cross the of depiction of years last the in existed imitations and “branded” mint caliphal a in struck be to them allow to necessary extent minimal the to altered were which step a and crowns their of top on crosses the that asserts Treadwell Steps”. Cross The power. of symbols universal as understood be could figures these that was model this choosing for reason likely of figures standing depicting “ Heidemann, Stephan Heidemann, “ Heidemann, the and History “Archaeology JeremyJohns, al “„Abd LukeTreadwell, Coinage”, Gold Arab Earliest “The Miles, George - - 364. However, Johns argues that he failed to prove the sophisticated and bureaucratic nature of bureaucratic and sophisticated the prove to failed he that However,Johnsargues 364. state highlyorganized a had Mu„āwiya AccordingFoss, to 19. The cross on top of a pole a of top on cross The durin minted coins first these on that suggested has Foss C. “cross the bearing coins Imitation The Qurʼānic in Context Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʼānic Milieu Qurʼānic the into LiteraryInvestigations and Historical Context in Qurʼānic The

The Evolving Representation”, Representation”, Evolving The

with the The Evolving Representation of the Early Islamic Empire and its Religion on Coin Coin on Religion its and Empire Islamic Early ofthe Representation Evolving The

shahada - Malik‟s Coinage Reforms: The Role ofth Role The Reforms: Coinage Malik‟s

rulers 201 - . on 198 .

shahada has provoked discussions among scholars. Its meaning has not has meaning Its scholars. among discussions provoked has -

, such as the coin of Heraclius of coin the as such , tp o te ees ws hne it so into changed was reverse the on steps - Byzantinized” cross

of Early Islam: The First Seventy Years,” Years,” First Seventy The ofIslam: Early 160 uāias reign. Mu„āwiya‟s - - on - ty pole were coins that imitated Late Antique models, models, Antique Late imitated that coins were pole 165. ANSMN pe of coin with the images of three rulers with tiny tiny with rulers three of images the with coin of pe - tp” xse ee bfr „b al „Abd before even existed steps” 60

of Early Islam”, 417 ofIslam”, Early

, 13 (1967). (1967). 210. 13 ,

160. amīr al amīr 200 with a sophisticated system of administration and and administration of system withsophisticated a . Mu„āwiya‟s coins bear inscriptions in inscriptions bear coins Mu„āwiya‟s .

“stick” with a small pellet on the top. the on pellet small a with “stick” 199 e Damascus Mint,” Mint,” Damascus e n hs erir ye o ci the coin of types earlier these On . - muʾminīn,

- Revue Numismatique Revue 421.

with his sons his with qa

te eg o Mu of reign the g ḍ

īb emphasizing his role as role his emphasizing , a ceremonial staff of of staff ceremoniala , JESHO Revue Numismatique Revue - ald Pl on “Pole called .

197 46, 4 (2003): 4 (2003): 46,

- Mu„āwiya‟s Mu„āwiya‟s ai. These Malik.

( 158 (2002): (2002): 158 F

ed. Angelika ed. ig. 10 „āwiya )

One

CEU eTD Collection 207 206 mentionthe first to “ time,see: Heidemann, 205 204 East Near Century Seventh 203 comm a and civic pride ofurbanand were symbols columns/capitals on suchpoles value; as sign of merelywas recognizable a but implications, religious no had have could the pole that asserts He mosaic. Madaba theon famous depicted Column ofthe Amūd/Gate 202 and was tomakeIslamic prerogative thus it his clearuphold and spreadfaith. that to the th put al provinces, eastern the of governor the bydefeated caliphate the of provinces eastern the by supported was and caliphate After Islam. of role the the stressed ruler pious a as himself al of profession the with inscription Empire Umayyad the for status al „Abd to and emperor thus was, Damascus in coins gold of production The Antiquity. Late in rulers imperial of privilege the was coins gold minting that remember coin at couldhint Jerusalem Byzantine the on depicted Golgotha of cross of representation was it that suggests Jamil N. insignia. royal Umayyad‟s the of part became which prophet, the -

al Heidemann,“ “Mu legend Arabic the governors his ofone by coin Ona Treadwe “ StephanHeidemann, the pole that suggests also Heidemann uar n h scn cvl a. s al As war. civil second the in Zubayr -

e abarī, abarī, Establishing a mint in Damascus also had political implications. First of all, one needs to to needs one all, of First implications. political had also Damascus in mint a Establishing shahada ll, “„Abd al “„Abd ll, Tārīkh religious character of the caliphate, and wanted to establish a state that emphasized that state a establish to wanted and caliphate, the of character religious The Evolving Representation”, Representation”, Evolving The Shahada

inscription on his golden coins in order to signify his triumph in the civil war civil the in triumph his signify to order in coins golden his on inscription al qu - - rusul wal rusul Malik‟s Coinage Reforms”, 9. Reforms”, Coinage Malik‟s The Evolving Representation”, Representation”, Evolving The ṭ

b The Standing Caliph Standing The

, vol. 2, ed. Andrew Oddy (Cambridge, 2009): 30. 30. 2009): (Cambridge, ed.Andrew Oddy 2, vol. , or , see: , 205 - ai‟ on ujcs Wt i „b al „Abd it With subjects. own Malik‟s omphalos Mu„ . -

202 mulūk, mulūk, Foss, “The Coinage of the First Century of Islam,” ofIslam,” First Century ofthe Coinage “The Foss, ( Fig. 11 Fig.

on on , “as the aplaceimperial of cult wyhs et, h death, āwiyah‟s topos 204 174. - the Islamic faith. It demonstrates the Umayyad triumph over triumph Umayyad the demonstrates It faith. Islamic the step on the coin may be related to a column in front of the Bab al the of Bab a front to column related in be may coin the on step , the navel of the world, which signified a parallel with the with parallel a signified which world, the of navel the , Mroe, h slds f Ad al „Abd of solidus the Moreover, . )

in the representation of Late Antique cities. Ibid, Antiquecities. Late of inthe representation - Ibn al Ibn Type 166. - -

The Object of the Reverse”, ofthe Reverse”, Object The professes, coinage Zubayr‟s -

Zubayr was a member of the clan of the Prophet, the of clan the of member a was Zubayr 167. As mentioned above, Ibn al Ibn above, mentioned As 167. solidus 61 opsd h cam f h S the of claim the opposed e

ḥ a esg sn bt t te ia Byzantine rival the to both sent message a , ammad is the messenger of God” appears for thefor first appears ofGod” messenger is the ammad - Ḥ . Heidemann suggests that the pole on the on pole the that suggests Heidemann . ajjāj, in 692 in ajjāj, under „Abdunder al

- 207 ai ws liig imperial claiming was Malik Coinage and History in the the in History and Coinage . As a result, „Abd al„Abd result, a As . 752. 206 - - Zubayr‟s coinage was the coinage Zubayr‟s e was he ai as crid an carried also Malik

Utmtl, e was he Ultimately, . - Malik”

179 ufyānī - eager to style style to eager 180. 203

. d

t the to s

- - Malik

a CEU eTD Collection the History and “Archaeology of an image represents it Plausibly, “Caliph orans”. isofcoin called type hands.withThis and raised larger isdepicted one middle 213 212 211 210 209 al “'Abd Hinds term ofthe discussion an elaborate For 205. 2010), (Leiden: Brill, Cobb, in Umayyads” ofthe Heritage al „Abd by taken step and believers) theinscription bore caliph standing oftheissue silver firealtar.The traditional ( the Sassanid depicted niche a depicted that reserve the 208 on image the from derived was name Its called is type transitional This introduced. was model epigraphic yearsthe last of hisreign al „Abd standing a of model the that possible is it that assumes He figure. imperial an of depiction the of prototype Byzantine a of depiction scabbard a in sword long a of hilt the onto holding posture the first ruler Islamic the of portrait the illustrate to coin metal precious copper and silver, gold, al „Abd of policy Islam.precedentsin no had that innovation the terms, monetary in office; caliphal the of primacy the proclaims motif caliph”“standing The 694/695. in struck coins the be to considered Two images of a ruler were portrayed on the coin theon coin were portrayed ruler a Twoimages of

One more type of coins moreoftypecoins One al “'Abd Treadwell, Heidemann,“ al Idem.,“'Abd “ Idem., copper The God‟s Caliph Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam of First Centuries the in Authority Religious Caliph God‟s - Another type of coin was issued after the “standing caliph” type and before the purely purely the before and type caliph” “standing the after issued was coin of type Another al „Abd pictured coin caliph” “standing The first the of issue the of spite In Malik‟s Coinage Reforms,”14. Coinage Malik‟s

and onlyregaliancoingold by issued truly the Umayyads Mi ḥ khalīfat Allāh khalīfat fils rāb The Evolving Representation”, Representation”, Evolving The - step

Malik‟s Coinage Reforms,”13. Coinage Malik‟s

depicting the “standing caliph” was similar to the golden issue. The silver type of the coin oftypethe coin silver The the issue. golden to similar was “standingcaliph” thedepicting and „ and - shāhānshāh Malik for establishing legitimacy. establishing legitimacy. for Malik - - kha Malik‟s Coinage Reforms,” 13. Reforms,” Coinage Malik‟s pole. Treadwell states that the origins of the “standing caliph” go back to a a to back go caliph” “standing the of origins the that states Treadwell pole. Anaza

ṭ provokes discussions in the scholarly milieu. It represents three standing figures. The The figures. standing three milieu. represents It scholarly in the discussions provokes īb , (deputy of God). Donner argues that the usage of of usage that the argues Donner (deputy , ofGod). 208 , either „Abd al „Abd either ,

212 ,” 21. ,” Umayyad Legacies: Medieval Memories from Syria to Spain to Syria from Memories Medieval Legacies: Umayyad of Early Islam”, 430. 430. ofIslam”, Early . The image of the “standing caliph” is the first and only image on a on image only and first the is caliph” “standing the of image The . .

- on the obverse side theon obverse Malik was taken from the model of Justinian I Justinian of model the from taken was Malik

- Malik or hi or Malik solidus 175.

( the bust of bust the Fig

and the “standing caliph” on the reverse, replacing the the replacing reverse, the on “standingcaliph” the and

s brother Bishr, delivering the Friday Friday the delivering Bishr, sbrother Fred Donner “Umayyad Efforts at Legitimation: The Silent The Legitimation: at Efforts “Umayyad Donner Fred 62 coins, the first truly regalian truly first the coins, . 12 .

)

These coins were minted in all threemetals: all in minted were coinsThese shāhānshāh shāhānshāh - ai o te bes sd i a standing a in side obverse the on Malik , (Cambridge University Press, 2003), 4 2003), Press, University (Cambridge , 211 khalīfat Allāh Allāh khalīfat . On the reverse of the coin is the is coin the of reverse the On . 209 and „Abd and al amīr al amīr Mi 210 this term in the coins was simplest was simplest thecoins in termthis

and, as Treadwell argues, it is it argues, Treadwell as and, . ḥ

rāb and „Anaza and rāb - ai ws n ambitious an was Malik - muʾminīn muʾminīn see Patricia Crone, Martin Crone, Patricia see - Malik,see

eds Antoine Borrut, P Antoine Borrut, eds

issue of a solidus is solidus a of issue I that was issued in issued was that I khu (commander ofthe (commander ṭ ba mi : Treadwell, : Treadwell, , see: Johns, see: Johns, , ḥ 213 rāb . ( ) 13 Fig.

and a a and - 23. 23. aul )

CEU eTD Collection 216 215 al „Abd 214 of initiative an to back going Jerusalem in construction arch/ the that suggests also Treadwell territories. its of appropriation the and Empire Byzantine the over „ a of introduction The Christianity. for contention of bones central the of one and resurrection the of symbol the is type that of images of pattern image analogous an bore next issued coinagethe Thus, lost. been have would referred it which to prototype the and shape betweenthe Mi cross the of depiction the to prior issued motif, caliph” “standing al „Abd the integrate to served also cross of use the that argues Treadwell imagery. Persian and Byzantine becomes reveals clear that also it al thepolitical of„Abd program Arab the to belongs coin the form the mi of introduction the for date secure earliest the Thus, provides case. coin the that Treadwell, in to onlyaccording user the for comprehensible be would it as structure, architectural the that suggested the of columns the between “structure Anaza an Anaza

Ibid,. 21. Ibid,. ḥ Ibid. Treadwell,“ ḥ rāb. rāb and „Ana and rāb

The 215 - ai, rcdn ise o tastoa coinage transitional of issues preceding Malik, mi

d On its obv its On ḥ Mi Mi coinage was designed to reiterate the triumphal declaration of the Muslim victory Muslim the of declaration triumphal the reiterate to designed was coinage rāb ḥ ḥ rāb rāb a rāb

a b udrto a a eeec t te oe f h Rc, t Rock, the of Dome the to reference a as understood be can za

mi and „ and

the Muslim designers could not fully abandon this pattern, as the visual link link visual the as pattern, this abandon fully not could designers Muslim the

ḥ nd erse side the coin bears the depiction of the of depiction the bears coin the side erse - rāb rāb on Anaza „ - Anaza steps although without the horizontal bar bar horizontal the without although steps appeared on the coin the on appeared ,” 1. ,”

coinage was the first silver coinage which tried to include both include to tried which coinage silver first the was coinage Mi - asnd ye bt hn u it is itrcl otx it context historical its into put when but type, Sassanid ḥ the , mi rāb ḥ rāb

and spear Mi as the prophet‟s „ prophet‟s the as 63 ḥ „

Ntrly te rs peet n h Byzantine the in present cross the Naturally, . Anaza only after the introduction of the of introduction the after only rāb

mi and ḥ on it te cngahc progr iconographic the into coins rāb „Anaza 216

A sae aoe cis ih the with coins above, stated As . nta o a rs on cross a of instead anaza - , employed the Byzantine the employed , Malik.

„ shāhānshāh anaza - of the Christian cross. For cross. Christian the of , or spear. or , ai ta ws en to meant was that Malik

referring to the absent the to referring . Judging from its from Judging . 214 he monumental monumental he

Scholars have Scholars mi Mi ḥ rāb ḥ rāb am of of am as an as -

type type and CEU eTD Collection 220 219 218 217 Arab Iran. and Iraq of territories 3.1.2. circulation introduction. aftertheir soon however populatio the This to iconography. Byzantine incomprehensible familiar was the iconography to due populations local the to understandable was that ideology Umayyad an promoting while territories Byzantine former across distributed original The obsolete. became a models Byzantine on based were that coins imagery circulate to was intention imperial of forms other the all caliph,” “standing the of image the of adaptation the With types. Sassanid the and Byzantine antiqu the namely, coinage, late of traditions iconographic the of two integrating of challenge the faced coinage Ikhsh the of of sponsor the that suggests she Furthermore, period.later much characteristic are they that asserts inscription, Dome‟s the in letters Kufic the of style the (700/7001 Creswell by mentioned (694/694 earlier is coin the of issue the mi the that authority. superior Umayyad demonstrative

ḥ Ibid., 22 Ibid., ”The EvaBaer, Creswell, Ibid. rāb īdī or the Fā ortheīdī Arab

h Arab The the of production the with Treadwell, to According on the coin could still not be the representation of the Dome of the Rock, as the date of of date the as Rock, the of Dome the of representation the be not still could coin the on mi 220

ḥ Early Ti ws rbby h rao wy h “tnig aih cis ee ae ot of out taken were coins caliph” “standing the why reason the probably was This . - rāb Sassanid Sassanid mixed coinage

Mi Islamic Architecture, Islamic on the southern wall of the cavern in the rock i rock the in cavern the of wall southern the on ṭ - imid family. Baer dates the ornaments to tenthtotwelfth to family.centuriesimid Baer the dates ornaments ḥ asnd ong cnitd f ivr coin silver of consisted coinage Sassanid rāb

in the Cav inthe

e of the Dome of the Rock.” the of Dome ofthe e - mid the from produced was coinage Sassanid 100.

) 218

. Moreover, Eva Baer, considering the ornaments and ornaments the considering Baer, Eva Moreover, . AD 217 ta te ae f h isalto o the of installation the of date the than )

64 vn f n are wt Cewl‟ assumption Creswell‟s with agrees one if Even

Muqarnas n of the former Sassanid territories, territories, Sassanid former the of n s struck in the former Sassanid Sassanid former the in struck s Mi

3 (1985): 16 (1985): 3 s the earliest extant extant earliest the s ḥ ā ad „Anaza and rāb mi ḥ nd, thus, could have been have could thus, nd, rāb - 18.

was a member of the ofmember awas

- seventh until the until seventh 219 Umayyad , mi .

ḥ rāb mi ḥ , the , rāb e CEU eTD Collection 224 223 222 221 step the replaces quotation this that circumstance the considers one him”. to equal 1 (112. step the of image the and epigraph 696/697 until occur 3.1.3. the former the and motif caliph” “standing the incorporated Arab the above, noted As phrases. religiousIslamic with as well as 670 years the in governor single a under Empire Sassanid former the of reunification final the until rulers phrase the governo the and conqueror the of name the mark would inscription Arabic short The margin. the in expressions religious Arabic short cease the namesgovernors ofand caliphs inwrittenscript inPahlavi ab information bears always almost Arab the in difference main The century. eighth late

Treadwell, “'Abd al “'Abd Treadwell, El Heidemann,“ Foss, 2

222 see Monetary “The Coinage of the First Century of Islam,” Centuryof First ofthe Coinage “The - Although these new types of coins started to be produced, a major coinage reform did not not reformdid coinage major a produced, be to started coins of types new these Although not did coins local of circulation the cities Iranian of conquest Arab the after Even . The earliest drachms drachms earliest The . 4): “God is one, God is eternal, he was not born and did not did and born not was he eternal, is God one, is “God 4): ic coins, which constituted a break with the past. The portrait of the caliph disappeared caliph the of portrait The past. the with break a constituted which coins, ic Arab -

675. Then any Sassanid name Sassanid any Then 675. Bism All Bism Iraniancaliphate ofthe provinces - The Evolving Representation”, Evolving The Sassanian Coins Sassanian 224 reform

- Surely, these words were opposed to the divinity of Christ. Furthermore, if Furthermore, Christ. of divinity the to opposed were words these Surely, ā Malik‟s coinage ref coinage Malik‟s .

( Fig. 15 Fig. (in the name of God). However, the coins still bore the names of Sassanid Sassanid of names the bore still coins the However, God). of name the (in

- cross was replaced with Qurʼānic quotations taken from taken quotations Qurʼānic with replaced was cross , G. Bates. Bates. G. , )

This reform marked the beginning of imageless, an imageless, of beginning the marked reform This a oemr fteAa uhrte de otecis with coins the to added authorities Arab the of mark some had orms,”17. even 660s, the of beginning the from and, date, mint, the out

r of the Iranian provinces Iranian the of r 161. was replaced with the name of the caliph and governor and caliph the of name the with replaced was

223 748. . 65

shahada

- yatn cis s ht h first the that is coins Byzantine

confession. These coins were struck in in struck were coins These confession. 221 .

„Abdall ( Fig. 15 - - Sassanid mixed coinage also also coinage mixed Sassanid cross motif symbolizing the the symbolizing motif cross give birth, nor is there an an there is nor birth, give ā ) h Ibn h

„Āmir - sūra al sūra iconic, purely purely iconic, as well as well as - groups Ikhlā ṣ

CEU eTD Collection 231 230 Mesopotamia,” Northern and Syria Byzantine Former in theon Circulation 229 228 227 226 225 a in was that motivated reform monetary Byzantium with strife Umayyad the contrast, In Empire. Sassanid the defeated already had they as hegemony, Umayyad the demonstrate would which coinage new with them because the and Arabsobliterated Sassanid Empire laidclaim their the to heritage and legacy. officials. Persian local by time long a for retained was production monetary period Abbasid the of hoards in found even was struck. Iranian werestill coins to virtually coins identical Empire, rema Sassanid traditional the coinage, epigraphic new, needsemergent ofan state d deliberate of series a of outcome an were they that becomesbear, clear it inscriptions they and images and the period transitional Arabic coinsthe in earth on God‟s deputy as defined was ruler asserted thatthe icono new the notions; theocratic with image caliph‟s the of figure the replacing coinage, sovereignty religious stands theprofession the of faith, the of edge polemic the resurrection,

Ibid., 752. Ibid., Foss, Impact Sassanian and Byzantine The inZonesIslam. Early ofTwo Currency Merger “The StephanHeidemann, “Mi Treadwell, Ibid. “ Heidemann, Ibid. ined in circulation. In fact, for more than sixty years after the obliteration of the Sassanid the of obliteration the after years sixty than more for fact, In circulation. in ined

“The Coinage of the Firs ofthe Coinage “The Thus, there was no need for the U the for need no was there Thus, by replaced gradually was circulation in coins Byzantine the of stock existing the While The Qur The

The Evolving Representation”, Representation”, Evolving The ḥ rāb and „Anaza,” and rāb ʼā nic words on this new coinage were a clear expression of political as well as as well as political of expression clear a were coinage new this on words nic

226 Wa i mr, Ad al „Abd more, is What . 228 t Century of Islam”, 749. Islam”, t Centuryof . tended to replace the use of the rival Byzantine rival the of use the replace to tended

21.

shahada

eom eoe apparent becomes reform 186. .

mayyads to change the Sassanid coins and to replace to and coins Sassanid the change to mayyads

230

- . One likely rea likely One . ai rmvd i on otat rm the from portrait own his removed Malik ecisions that were that ecisions drachms 227 . Surveying the development of the development. Surveying the of Iran

– 225 229

36 (1998): 96, 105. (1998): 96, 36 ih io modifications minor with son for this was the fact that fact the was this for son O te ees o te coin the of reverse the On .

Such ArabSuch

made in order to meet the meet to order in made 231 solidus

- This was possiblewas This Sassanid coinageSassanid

in order to order in graphy graphy

–

CEU eTD Collection 233 Koth al „Abd 232 is construction its for reason the about opinion held commonly most The location. particular as well as mosaics its in portrayed and inscriptions its in contained message the construction, its for reason the about speculations numerous are There monument. t and Islam of proclamation detailed Mu and clear first the carry inscriptions its Islam. of buildings religious earliest the of one considered today is Rock the conside were places Both Muslims. and Christians both for Jerusalem in places holiest the of one is it Olives Jerusalem to leading roads of network a and complex, palace al the included it mount; temple 691 in constructed was Rock the Dom the of construction the of discussion a without fully understand to impossible are Umayyads 3 3.2. stead. Byzantine the al „Abd Thus, superiority. caliphate‟s the demonstrate .2.1 Art Mammon:Some and Empire, “ForGod, Hillenbrand Robert Johns, “Archaeology and the History”, 416. History”, the and “Archaeology Johns, ḥ e, Karl e, The The ammad e of the Rock, its mission, and its symbolic visual and architectural solutions. The Dome of of Dome The solutions. architectural and visual symbolic its and mission, its Rock, the of e .

The Umayyad Dome ofthe Rock The UmayyadDome - Malik” in Al in Malik” The Dome of the Rock is probably the most widely discussed and investigated Islamic investigated and discussed widely most the probably is Rock the of Dome The the of agenda political the and century seventh late the of context historical The Dome - Heinz Golzio (Petersberg: Micgael Imhof Verlag, 2004), 34. 34. 2004), Verlag, Imhof Micgael (Petersberg: Golzio Heinz 233 red as sacred and had and sacred as red - . type coins in circulation and introducing religiously sound an sound religiously introducing and circulation in coins type

of the Rockof - Andalus und Europa. Zwischen Orient und Okzident, ed. Martina Muller Martina ed. und Okzident, Orient Zwischen und Andalus Europa.

- - Aq 692 and was part of an ambitious building program on the the on program building ambitious an of part was and 692 martyria ṣ msu, h wls gts svrl io bidns the buildings, minor several gates, walls, the mosque, ā

constructed around and above them. The Dome of of Dome The them. above and around constructed 67

- - Malik initiated a process of melting down down melting of process a initiated Malik Historical Aspects of the Reformed Reformed Aspects ofthe Historical

232 Tgte wt te on of Mount the with Together .

the reason for choosing this this choosing for reason the -

iconic coinag iconic (Fig. 16) (Fig. - Wiener, Christiane Christiane Wiener, Dīnārs e oe of role he

Moreover, Moreover, e in its its in e of of CEU eTD Collection 238 237 36. ofthe Rock”, 236 Ox (Oxford: Raby, Julian Johns, A Re theRock? al „Abd “Why did AmikamElad, see: opponents, political his contestagainst ideological seen a be Rockshould the oftheof Dome whoconstruction that the argues Elad, Amikan by presented result ofanti 235 319. 2008), Brill, (Leiden/Boston: ed. Jayyusi Salma, world thecity Islamic in in The Rule” underMuslim Jerusalem Jerusalem” Rockin ofthe Dome Umayyad 234 a as, Christian, only also but space, sacred not Jewish previous of adaptation an was Rock the of Dome the of construction the hypothesis, Peters‟ space. sacred a as site the regarded which religions, “preceding” the over triumph signifimonumental structure that a topresent designed was constructionThus, this religions monotheistic three all for important person a Abraham, with associated was that signific political al „Abd by Rock the of Dome the of construction the that argued well been has It location. chosen the of significance the and context historical the stresses building thesame washost ritual planned feature to times of requirements al the resembles Rock the of plan ground the that Ibn notes Creswell account, this supporting argument namely, war, civil second the during opponent main his by occupied pi divert to order in Rock the of Dome al by report the on based

Grabar, “The Umayyad Dome of the Rock”, 44. ofthe Rock”, Dome Umayyad “The Grabar, Creswell, al to due criticized been theoryhas This al about „Abd idea The al -

Yaʿqūbī Yaʿqūbī 236 Another theory that attempts to explain the explain to attempts that theory Another To muaois rud h Dm isl sget acrig o rsel ta the that Creswell, to according suggest, itself Dome the around ambulatories Two . - Islamic Architecture Islamic Umayyad propaganda. Discussed in Johns, “Archaeology and the History”, 425. The opposite idea is idea opposite The 425. the History”, and “Archaeology in Johns, Discussed propaganda. Umayyad T ā - examination of the Muslim Sources,” in Sources,” ofthe Muslim examination rīkh al rīkh

ance directed against Jews and Christians, as the mosque was built on a location a on built was mosque the as Christians, and Jews against directed ance ṭ awāf - Yaʿqūbī

- Malik changing the place of the ofthe place changing the Malik ,

according to which believers should circumambulate the Ka„ the circumambulate should believers which to according - Yaʿqūbī. ford University Press, 1992), 33 1992), University Press, ford , ed. M. T. Houtsma, vol 2 (Leiden, 1883), 311, cited in Oleg Grabar, “The in Oleg Grabar, cited 311, 1883), (Leiden, Houtsma, vol 2 M. ,T. ed. , 69. ,

234 - , Yaʿqūbī‟s ArsOrientalis

He brings in the notion that „Abd al „Abd that notion the in brings He gis rm ec t Jerusalem to Mecca from lgrims

anti 68 Bayt al Bayt -

Umayyad sentiments, see: Grabar, “The Umayyad Dome Umayyad “The Grabar, see: sentiments, Umayyad 3 (1959): 35. Oleg Grabar, “Islamic Jerusalem or “Islamicor Jerusalem Oleg Grabar, 35. (1959): 3 ḥ

ajj 237

motivation behind the Dome‟s construction Dome‟s the behind motivation isrejected - . - 58. 58. ccording to him, Emperor Heraclius (610 Heraclius Emperor him, to ccording

Maqdis. „Abd „Abd al Maqdis.

- Malik had, first of all, polemic and polemic all, of first had, Malik

by Goitein; he argues that this report isa report this that heargues by Goitein; - Malik‟sJerusalem - Malik Build the Dome ofDome the Build Malik - Malik constructed the constructed Malik 235 a the as , - Zubayr. As an an As Zubayr. ed the Muslim theMuslim ed

According to According ,

ed. James ed. s an san

Ḥ aba seven aba jz was ijāz 238 - .

CEU eTD Collection the choice that Sheasserts Rock. ofthe ofthe Dome features the descriptive to corresponds thedescription common: these “ to referred often are structures pre several includes which type architectural general a of context in shownthe be should theRock of theher Dome to According 244 243 ofStoryMu the in “Jerusalem 242 al „Abd 241 240 Studies Arabic and 239 h and Solomon of legacy the to in themselves Rock the of Dome the of construction the with Mu inJerusalem Mount) Islamic place tradition identifiedwiththe were this tohim. revealed mosque distant most the to Mecca of mosque Mu Mu as Qurʼān t claim al „Abd of time the 3 the former district, today‟s Temple into entry as was which Jerusalem, of Gate Golden The renovated emperor the why was Mount. Temple the on church octagonal an build to intended 641AD) .2.2

Khoury links the Dome of the Rock to the imagery descriptions of Solomon‟s ofSolomon‟s descriptions the imagery Rockto ofthe Dome Khourythe links Mekeel Carolynne ofMu Night Journey the Bussediscusses 127. 122, Ibid., Pe Joseph Van Ess, “'Abd al “'Abd VanEss,Joseph ḥ ḥ ters Francis, “Who Built the Dome of the Rock?,” in Rock?,” oftheDome the Built Francis,“Who ters ammad with the sacred space of Jerusalem, not also with the Garden of Eden. Moreover, Moreover, Eden. of Garden the with also not Jerusalem, of space sacred the with ammad the from night one made prophet the which journey miraculous a about tells ammad mi .

- The Dome ofthenight the journey RockThe Dome and of ḥ Malik‟s Jerusalem Malik‟s te epe on. hs ard pc i Jrslm s eivd o e etoe in mentioned be to believed is Jerusalem in space sacred This Mount. Temple the o h Dm o te ok a cntutd on constructed was Rock the of Dome The Mu of journey night miraculous the Although rāb s was based on the pre the onwas sbased ḥ

ammad‟s Night Journey ( Journey Night ammad‟s

2 2 (1983) - Dome structures sit structures Dome - Matteson, “The Meaning of the Dome of the Rock,” of Dome ofthe Meaning “The Matteson, - Malik 243

. ed. James Johns, Julian Raby (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 90 1992), Press, University Oxford Raby(Oxford: Julian James Johns, ed. ,128 - Malik and the Dome of the Rock: An Analysis of Some Texts,” in SomeTexts,” Analysisof An Rock: the of Dome the and Malik

ḥ ammad‟s Night Journey and Ascension.” Ascension.” and Journey Night ammad‟s 241 mi

, for the later traditionalists it served as a legitimating cause to lay to cause legitimating a as served it traditionalists later the for , ḥ -

history of the Dome of the Rock. T Rock. ofthe the Dome history of rāb Ḥ ”, which has given semi whichgiven has ”, uated not only in the the in not only uated aram ḥ ammad in the context of apocalyptic literature. See Heribert Busse Heribert See literature. apocalyptic of the context in ammad . 240

‟isrā‟

is temple. is 69 ) and Ascension ( Ascension and ) ( Graeco al

- Ḥ masjid al masjid aram al aram - 244 mythical character. She argues that the idea about about theidea that She argues mythicalcharacter. ḥ -

Mu ammad had not reached its final form at form final its reached not had ammad Arabica: First International Congress on Greek on Congress First International Arabica:

Ḥ Later traditions present that present traditions Later associate They site. mythological this rm al aram - ḥ Sharīf, but also in South Arabia. These These Arabia. South in but also Sharīf, he idea ofthe he idea ammad - JSAI Aq The Islamic Quarterly Islamic The ṣ , (1991): 1 (1991): , ā - mi„rāj hrf te myas linked Umayyads the Sharīf, ) mi 242

Ḥ ḥ aram al aram . Here, God‟s signs ( signs God‟s Here, . rāb rāb mi 239 ). The night journey of of journey night The ). ḥ

- rāb rāb and his Temple. hisTemple. and 40. Peters argues that that that argues Peters

- ofwasSolomon Sharīf Bayt al Bayt

43 (1999) 43

- (the Temple Mu 91. - Maqdis. Maqdis.

ḥ : 158. ammad āyāt holy holy

) CEU eTD Collection 249 Quarterly 248 247 246 54 1996), (Louvain,Peeters: spirituels itinéraires célestes et Ascensions terre d‟Islam. en initiatique voyage enIslam,” théologique spéculations premières visionDieula dansles el de Idem.“Le 56; Mi„raj 1(1999): no. 245 Monuments,” Umayyad MythsAraband Ghumdan: and Ka„aba, the Rock, ofthe Dome the of Domeonly the the of cultural ispart mi ofQurʼānic ideas with the associated be the Rockcould of the Dome of of the location community‟s the to due were Rock emerging self the of Dome the to Journey Night the of associations times Worship” of end the at mankind all of judgment the in assist to return J with identified was exegesis Islamic traditional later in located be could God of throne terrestrial the location where Mu t by Refuge” of “Garden the Mu of events the combine to possible also is it that Mu journey night his during that promoted Qurʼānic of exegesis on a throne, in the shape Mu Here temple. Solomon‟s of vicinity the in held, commonly people as or, walls Herodian the of middle the in Mount Temple ancient the on garden a in God met

ḥ Peters Francis, “Who Built the Dome of the Rock?,” Rock?,” oftheDome the Built Francis,“Who Peters Zaidal Anwarul Islam, 48. Ibid, Ibid. Joseph Van Ess, „Vision and Ascension: Süratal Ascension: and VanEss,„Vision Joseph rābs rābs ḥ ammad would have seen God on the higher horizon and then again, or at the same time, in time, same the at or again, then and horizon higher the on God seen have would ammad erusalem

associated with prophet kings, David and Solomon. The description ofSolomon‟s description The Solomon. and David kings, withprophet associated Mu of journey night The

139 (2007): 118. (2007): 139

/al - ajd al masjid - confidence andconfidence probably polemicalreasons. also for 246 would he where and world the created had God which from throne the is This . koine Rock, but also the Ka‟ba and Ghumdan Palace in Sana. For more see: Nuha Khoury, “The Khoury, Nuha moresee: in Sana.For Palace Ghumdan and Ka‟ba the butRock, also ḥ ammad made( ammad hisjourney

Hamad “The Dome of the Rock: Origin of its Octagonal Plan”, Plan”, its Octagonal of Rock: Origin oftheDome “The Hamad

of early Islam. Such descriptions and identifications of specific locations included not included locations ofspecific identifications and descriptions Such earlyIslam. of - sūras - Aq

56. of a youthof of a light wearing a crown ṣ

ā H age cnicnl ta i ltr xgss h nto was notion the exegeses later in that convincingly argues He .

a b ietfe wt te oqe f al of mosque the with identified be can e Lote he ḥ ma or ammad - Tree of the Boundary”. God Van Ess argues that the the that argues Ess Van God Boundary”. the of Tree

- Najm and itsRel and Najm ḥ ammad Ḥ 13 ‟isrā‟ 70 aram al aram 2.

sūra

is discussed by J. Van Ess based on the the on based Ess Van J. by discussed is saw God sitting on His throne. He asserts asserts He throne. His on sitting God saw

- 3 with 53 Sharīf andSharīf ationship with Muhammad's Mi„raj, withMuhammad's ationship 245 .

, ed. Mohammad Ali Mohammad ed. , hs o 8 i a simple a in 81 of those 249 al

masjid al masjid 247 ḥ mi ammad saw God sitting sitting God saw ammad S “ute Pae of Places “further So . Muqarnas - ḥ Aq Palestine Exploration Exploration Palestine rāb mi ḥ ṣ s, partic s, rābs a - 248 Aq

10 (1993): 59. 59. (1993): 10 The . ṣ and the Temple the and Temple Amir

ā) ularly

and where - ‟ JQS ‟ Moezzi , , Moezzi created

Le event. , , 1,

CEU eTD Collection 253 Islamic Jerusalem Holy.Early the of Shape pal sacred a around or over hanging jewellery crowns and for art antique in late examples 252 251 see: Mekeel implications, apocalyptic and eschatological have imagery, from Byzantine motifs,adapted these that She argues tree. Christianity: in practice liturgical 250 of typical response “formulaic a with ends It construction. sections the mosaic namely, building, the the about of information historical One contains Prophet. the on blessings angels‟ his and God‟s assert God, of anti and monotheistic include al caliph, Abbasid the of name the with replaced was al „Abd name the for except completely,preserved is text The text. Qurʼānic the of octagon the of blue in inscriptions The interest. Umayyad more mosque iseven evident. sanctuar Byzantine a from transformation gradual the the of case mosque the Damascus in Yet, power. Umayyad of demonstration the and adaptation the to respect with Damascus of that to similar is Rock the of Dome the of example the that argued be can empire rival over defeats of trophies are mosaic the on representations the that argues also rulers Persian and Byzantine of ornaments imperial or royalas interpreted or forms arched or wings by surmounted oval, diadems triangular, with topped cases many in stones, precious encrusted motifs Byzantine clearly by inspired were which inscriptions, 3 .2.3. The mosaics and and ofthethe.2.3. The mosaics ofthe Rock inscriptions Dome many similar are there besides century, earlytenth the until suchfor wereofferings used Mecca and Ka„ba The Johns, “Archaeology and the History the and “Archaeology Johns, 48. Ibid, Mekeel Besides the mosaics of the Dome of the Rock, its inscriptions have also provoked great provoked also have inscriptions its Rock, the of Dome the of mosaics the Besides examini in issue preeminent A - Matteson discusses three figures depicted on the mosaics of the Dome of the Rock: the vine, crown, and and crown, vine, the Rock: ofthe Dome mosaics the of theon depicted figures three discusses Matteson

a l arcade on the Dome of the Rock may be primary witnesses for the early version version early the for witnesses primary be may Rock the of Dome the on arcade l

- Matteson, “ Matteson,

Trinitarian verses from the Qurʼān the from verses Trinitarian and a crescent. It has been suggested that these ornaments can be be can ornaments these that suggested been has It crescent. a and The Meaning of the Dome of the Rock”, 161. Rock”, the of Dome Meaningofthe The -

of Early Islam”, 429. ofIslam”, Early and

(Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1996),73. 1996),73. Press, University Princeton (Princeton, - gold glass mosaics running in the inner and outer facades outer and inner the in running mosaics glass gold g h Dm o te ok s uey t msis and mosaics its surely is Rock the of Dome the ng

- amn (813 Ma‟mūn founder‟s name and the date of date the and name founder‟s 250

253 daes ih agn and hanging with diadems : . They proclaim the oneness the proclaim They .

- 251 3) Te insc The 833). ace, see: Oleg Grabar, ace,see: OlegGrabar, . y to an exclusively exclusively an to y (Fig. 17) (Fig.

- Malik, which Malik, O. GrabarO. riptions s 252 . It. CEU eTD Collection Damascus.” and Jerusalem Rosen M. and moreR.Grafman see mosque.For Damascus tr mosqueofDamascus ofthe with style the correspondence 260 259 258 257 256 255 254 to was it for legitimacy Christian rival to designed was Dome the Furthermore, community. regarded was which Mount, Temple building the of style the and location its asserts wouldhave thatthese included attempts e She power. Islamic new the announce to meant was and policy this of part a was monuments al of reign the Mu of rule the from started practice religious Muslim of aspects later even or reign his during place took which al „Abd of times the in passages of arrangement coherent and selection the that unlikely is it that is proposition main contain. inscriptions the references the understood have would which audience an sermon.” single a of parts or rathersermons theyare text: Qurʼānic the of form‟ „literary the from deviation precise of evidence as viewed be not “should v now are what theinscription in text is similar t God” to praise worlds, the of Lord “Amen, Ibid. R. Grafman and M. Rosen M. R.Grafmanand 14. Ibid, Ibid. f Evidence “Witness: Wellan, Ester Ibid. Grabar,

Besides the visual representations of the Dome of the Rock, it is also important to discuss to important also is it Rock, the of Dome the of representations visual Besidesthe from passages of series a with combined God of invocations include inscriptions The The Shape of Holy, Holy, of The Shape

- arious parts of the Qurʼān. E. Whelan argues that the inscriptions of the Dome Dome the of inscriptions the that argues Whelan E. Qurʼān. the of parts arious aī. Ad al „Abd Walīd.

- ai wud ae nlecd th influenced have would Malik Muqarnas Muqarnas - Ayalon discuss the plan and the structure of the Dome of the Rock with its Rock ofthe ofthe Dome structure the and the plan Ayalondiscuss 67.

16 (1999):1 16 or the Early Codification of the Qurʾān”, Qurʾān”, ofthe Codification the Early or - o theliturgy mass Christian the of Malik‟s usage of of usage Malik‟s –

s no as 260 - 15. . „Abd al „Abd . 254

e above ted . O. Grabar argues that the sequence of themes of themes of sequence the that argues Grabar O. . 72 258 fforts to codifyfforts to thetext.

- . Wellan argues that this attempt to codify the codify to attempt this that argues Wellan . Ayalon ying to argue about the influence of Dome on the on ofDome theinfluence about yingargue to Qurʼānic Qurʼānic - Malik initiated a building campaign on the on campaign building a initiated Malik . “The Two Great Syrian Umayyad Mosques: Mosques: Umayyad Syrian TwoGreat “The . “aoia” ragmn o te text, the of arrangement “canonical” e – 256 s f ra iprac fr h Jewish the for importance great of as

These would have bee have would These uttos n ong ad public and coinage on quotations 255 JAOS „ āwiya and continued through through continued and āwiya .

118, no. 1 (1998): 9. (1998): 1 no. 118, 259

n addressed toaddressed n 257

Whelan‟s

CEU eTD Collection Holy, the of Shape see: Grabar, Palestine, in both Maritima, Caesarea and the Kathisma, of church the octagonal Ravenna, inVitale Ascension, ofthe church octagonal the HolySepulcher, the around therotunda are examples most prominent The churches. ofcommemorative case 264 40 (2011): ArchitecturalIconography.” and Architecture in Jerusalem: Martyria Concentric of Development see: Avner Rinabearer”, “God as a Mary St. of the veneration ofChrist and anti an transmitted monument that a construct to intentions their wasby elucidated period inMary of Umayyad cult that the idea bringsthe in by salvation her to and Qurʼān) in itisdescribed (as ofMary the birth to ofthe church phase fromthe Umayyad palm mosaicofa a she Also connects ninth to centuries. seventh Islamic withan indentified canbe the in excavations archeological the during she that argues example, for vague; are arguments Her Mary. St. of thecult of “adaptation” Umayyadsan the to ascribes She also Rock. ofthe the of Dome that resembles ofthe church plan The ofKathisma. church 263 262 Glosses,” 261 the Rockcontain polemicmessages faith. maintenets the oftheChristian thatnegate archetypes. Byzantine by inspired been The supremacy. political also but artistic of claims Umayyad of support in used were that models Byzantine of appropriations are which th of Dome the from mosaics the as such examples, of number a from out brought be can agenda This Byzantines. rival the opposing to oriented was which projection, imperial Umayyad chang while and forms motifs Byzantine utilized structure its and Rock the of Dome the of mosaics the shown, already As caliphate. Umayyad later the of agenda political the articulate to order in adapted elementsexample, theshape for are, of classical and antique various its Among Iranian. and Mediterranean antique, late was repertory bu elements, Sassanid and Sepulcher Holy of church the eclipse Mekeel „ as Palimpsest: ofthe Rock Dome “The GulruNecipoglu, Grabar argues that similar octagonal plans of baptisteries were common in the Christian world, especially in the the especiallyin world, Christian commonthe in were ofbaptisteries plans octagonal similar argues that Grabar cultwith of the Rock ofthe the Dome of construction the connected Avner Rina The Dome of the Rock is a g a is Rock the of Dome The - Muqarnas - Matteson, “The Meaning of the Dome of the Rock”, 159. Rock”, ofthe the Dome of Meaning “The Matteson, 44.

107

25 (2008):36. (2008):36. 25 ing their meaning. In essence, the creation of the Dome was an expression of of expression an was Dome the of creation the essence, In meaning. their ing - 108.

church of Kathisma, on the layer of the eighth century, a structure was found which found was structure a century, of layerthe eighth the on Kathisma, ofchurch t the meaning it wanted to express was generic. The source of the the of source The generic. was express to wanted it meaning the t - mi Christian statement. It meant to reject the basic Christian ideol Christian thebasic reject to meant It statement. Christian

the so the

ḥ rāb - . In her opinion, the Christian presence in the church continued from the continued church in the Christian presence the Inopinion, her . called Tomb of the Virgin in the Kedreon valley, also the church of San theof church also valley, Kedreon Virginthe in ofthe Tomb called ood example of how Byzantine models were adopted and adopted were models Byzantine how of example ood 261 264 . The style of the building bore Persian, Greco Persian, bore building the of style The .

toloi octagonal (Fig. 18) (Fig. 73 262

Abd al Abd God, who provided the miraculous palm tree. She miraculouspalmtree. the whoprovided God, and and

Moreover; structure of the building, too, might have have might too, building, the of structure Martyroin -

Malik‟s Grand Narrative and Sultan Suleyman‟s SultanSuleyman‟s and Narrative Malik‟sGrand . “ the inscriptions of the Dome of Dome the of inscriptions the The 263 .

Dome of the Rock the of Dome martyroin martyroin of St. Mary,ofSt. the ogy of the divinity divinity ogy ofthe Muqarnas

in Light the of in

- Roman, e Rock, Rock, e

CEU eTD Collection 269 , 267 “Mosaics Berchem, van Margaritte see: similar, ringsare golden han ofpearls motif the Especially ofRavenna. mosaic in the those resemble 266 16. 265 empires Persian were motifs these Umayyads, and Byzantine the of art “official the in sovereignty rulers” Persian and Byzantine which stones, precious encrusted and hanging “mother the gemof the mentioned, These verses. Qurʼānic the represent mosaics the on depicted villas rural and structures the that argued been has It gardens. in and river a near standing houses and palaces of depictions are tradition imagery Byzantine the in used often was motif This so the is Rock the of Dome Byzantine the and Damascus of reflects mosque the both instance, of ornamentation the for in feature common mosaics, One influence. the of iconography general The well. as models 3.3.1 3.3. 268 Flood, Ibid. ofDamascus mosque mosaics ofthe theon depicted thatbuildings certain the idea in brings vanBerchem ofthe Ro Dome Umayyad “The Idem.,

Oleg Grabar, “The Umayyad Dome of the Rock,” 48. Rock,” oftheDome Umayyad “The OlegGrabar, T

Adapted Byzantine motifs in ByzantineAdapted in motifs mosaics he policy of adaptation of he policy the Byzantine of motifs

It is certain that many features in the in features many that certain is It The Great Mosque of of Damascus, Mosque Great The

ecitos r smlr o h iae o te mosaics. the of images the to similar are descriptions - calle

268 used to uphold Umayyad royal sovereignty. Other representations Other sovereignty. royal Umayyad uphold to used . All these ornaments were intended to demonstrate power and power demonstrate to intended were ornaments these All . d “mother of pearl” that is depicted on the mosaics the on depicted is that pearl” of “mother d ck”, 78. Discussed in detail in Flood, detail in Discussed 78. ck”, -

of 16. 16. - pearl” in the Dome of the Rock is placedwith “diademsis Rock in the of Dome the in pearl”

mosque of Damascus were modeled on Byzantine on modeled were Damascus of mosque

74 probably express royal or imperial ornaments of ornaments imperial or royal express probably

,” ,”

in Creswell, Creswell, in 266 ding from the edges of curtains with ofcurtains edges from the ding . Moreover, in both places there places both in Moreover, .

Early Muslim Architecture Muslim Early The Great Mosque of Damascus of Mosque Great The qu ṣ ū r 269

described in various in described . dpe b the by Adopted ”. 267

(Fig. 20) 20) (Fig. 265 .

, 358. , (Fig. 19) (Fig.

,15 As -

CEU eTD Collection 277 276 275 274 273 272 271 manpower. marble and with along emperor, Byzantine g 466. The 1996), Sādr, Dār (Beirut, Countries] ʿAbdallāhal Ibn see: Yāqūt wereused, chains gold hundred 270 parallelsa and vinefriezeatchurch oftheusagePolyeuktos‟ of HagiatheSt. Sophia iconographic are there example, For ornamentation. Byzantine in used commonly was motif Qa „Anjar, at found also were decorations Such Syria. in also later and Egypt and Palestine, Syria, antique late of monuments architectural pomegranates. of also but architectural the around or in used construction its on dinars the above located was until existed and Damascus of mosque the of part southern the in located was It decoration. carved 3.3. byFlood, be ofthe to representations heavenlyrealm chains golden of images like

Ibid., 76 Ibid., Ibid., 61. Ibid., 268 Ibid., 57 Ibid., 33. Ibid., Flood, Gol 2.

the fire of 1892. Photographs show that the the that show Photographs 1892. of fire the den chains were used also in the interior of the mosque. Yāqūt tells that during the construction seven the construction during tellsthat Yāqūt mosque. ofthe in also the interior wereused chains den al

69 Among decora the - The Great Mosque of Mosque Damascus Great The Karma decorationKarma - - -

59. 79. 72. - 9.

solutions of the mosque of Damascus it consists of a composition not only of grapes onlycompositiongrapes aofnot ofconsists Damascusit of mosque of the solutions

mi qibla ḥ tive ornaments adopted by the Umayyads bytheso the adopted was ornaments tive 274 rāb.

275 hc s ueya xgeae u. Psil the Possibly sum. exaggerated an surely is which ,

270

wall

Al cnhs col wt vns n pmgaae apa i the in appear pomegranates and vines with scrolls Acanthus

with handing pearl handing with - 273 Karma : 15 Ib . - 16, 20. 16, old chains are also mentioned among the material sent the by material mentioned the among also chains are old „skr eot ta al that reports „Asākir n

is usually translated as vine, but in the context of the of context the in but vine, as translated usually is

- Ḥ al - amawī, amawī, like lamps like - 272 karma ṣ .

r al r Kitāb Muʿjam al Muʿjam Kitāb -

Hayr al Hayr consisted of vegetal ornaments and and ornaments vegetal of consisted 271

- have been argued, for instance for argued, been have aī set eet thousand seventy spent Walīd - Gharbī, and Rusafa and Gharbī, - Buldān Buldān - called called [Dictionary of [Dictionary al 277 - al karma

. Umayyad -

karma 276 . This .

was ,

a CEU eTD Collection 280 Dimashq r and calamity against the place a and soldiers armyand Damascus the of part upper thecalling ambassador Byzantine remark ofa a storyabout is a There timber. and bricks ofbaked was constructed palace that the reported was ofSyria. It governor the became waswhenMu„āwīya built it evidence other to According waspre built in conquest and theIslamic predates Mu„āwīya of palace that the „Asākirtells 279 s Mediterranean, in the eastern popular ofclock, kind sucha Dimashq Madīnat whistl thebird out, cameserpent the Every it. hour on wereinstalled raven serpent,a a and bird, A there. copper located clock automata from the 278 o complex the in other component The landscape. urban the on sovereignty Umayyad of demonstration a and hegemony Muslim of proclamation the for vehicle public spectacular a provided itself, mosque the than less c monarchy, medieval between links ideological Kha al of reign the during constructed probably al Bāb in built through colonnade other a side. onthe automa the (with side one the on palace location the regarding Constantinople with similarities its and Damascus of layout the of elaboration Flood‟s on based is observation This market. the with mosque the of position and connection the including Damascus, of layout urban the in seen is style, Constantinopolitan, specifically more Byzantine, of usage Such 3.3.

Flood, Flood, ofKha palace Umayyad ofthe ofconstruction the and date nature the about isknown great deal a Not I b 3 ḍ n „Asākir transmits reports about the clock [ theclock about reports n„Asākirtransmits ra‟. Similar oftheSimilar layouts capitals Theconnection ofthe first elementclock, mosque withthe intheautomata layout was The visual Umayyads modelsin representations, Byzantine alsocity but in used planning. ,

The Great Mosque of Damascus, of Mosque Damascus, Great The 257. 257. , 147 Inthe Kha 147 , 279

The location of the clock next to the palace, as Flood suggests, shows conceptualand shows suggests, Floodpalace,as the to next clock the of location The

280. Ibn „Asākir‟s description of the automata clock in Damascus is the earliest description of description earliest the is Damascus in clock the automata of description „Asākir‟s 280. Ibn - iāa Bb al (Bāb Ziyāda

ḍ

ra the prison, the mint “and a place of punishment and executing people and a place of place a and people executing and ofpunishment place a “and mint the theprison, ra palace suitable for birds and the lower part for rats, see: Flood, see: Flood, rats, for the and lowerpart birds for suitable palace ed, the crow squawked and a stone felt down into a basin, see: Ibn „Asākir, „Asākir, see: Ibn basin, intoa down stonefelt a and squawked the crow ed,

te oqe n te ery aae a te oond. This colonnade. the was palace nearby the and mosque the f - Sā‟at),

138. 138.

278 barqār

ta clock next to it) and the market square connected connected square market the and it) to next clock ta

n h i te oten al f th of wall southern the in the in - Walīd and was situated next to the royal palace, al palace, royal the to next situated was and Walīd evolt” were also located, see: werelocated, also evolt” ] situated in the Bāb al in the Bāb situated ] 76 osmology, and horology and osmology,

ee: Flood, Flood, ee:

of the main religious building with the the with building religious main the of The Great Mosque Damascus, of Mosque Great The - Sā‟at. The gate derived its name derived gate The Sā‟at. Ibn „Asākir, Ibn 280

the imperial palace and and palace imperial the . The Bāb al Bāb The . - The Great Mosque of of Mosque Great The Islamic e temenos. Tārīkh Madīnat Madīnat Tārīkh

times. times. 119. ḍ - ra. Ibn Ibn ra. Sā‟at, no Sā‟at, Tārīkh Tārīkh

t was It - CEU eTD Collection 285 284 Possibly „Asākir, see: Ibn column, a on standing statue mysterious ofa description givesa called the church) of vicinity in the (presumably 283 282 281 andto Constantinople, possiblyalso take over to it Damascus Umayyad relate to attempt an making was citations visual and patronage architectural th of layout the with Damascus of planning the keep to Umayyads the of attempts the shows Constantinople of those to corresponding locations in clock water the and palace the of addition the however, on modeled was Damascus Damascus Surely are striking. of planning urban withthe The parallels Horologion. known as the Chalke preceded route Another palace. imperial the of entrance the street, colonnaded building program. ancient the around and in undertaken work building extensive the and capital the of residence imperial main the as the to palace the connected at Diocletian of the place and Antioch the to least at back went residences royal in approaches colonnaded century nineteenth the until survived palace, royal the to leading colonnade,

Ibid., 172. Ibid., Flood, the city,al of conquest the Talkingabout Flood, Jubayr Ibn This layout was used in many Mediterranean cities, including Constantinople, where the the where Constantinople, including cities, Mediterranean many in used was layout This al

The Great Mosque of Mosque Great The of Mosque Damascus, Great The - muqasallā

Ri cptl f h Bznie Empire Byzantine the of capital e ḥ l a

Jubayr,

ra plc o te yatn eprr i Constantinople in emperors Byzantine the of palace great 283 before ṭ

temenos was the name of the colonnaded street or was a part of it. of was part a or street wasthe namecolonnaded the of .

269. Mesē

entering the church through a gateway at the southwestern corner, corner, southwestern the at gateway a through church the entering Damascus

, it is more than likely that al that likely than more is it , sūq ,

e truh h mtooi al h wy o the to way the all metropolis the through led oa/yatn mdl ee bfr te ulm conquest; Muslim the before even models Roman/Byzantine /market. Flood suggests that taking into account the palace‟s role role palace‟s the account into taking that suggests Flood /market. ,

158 146. - Balādhurī menti Balādhurī -

159. 159. al - muqasallā

serving for ceremonies led from the from led ceremonies for serving 77

285 ons that the forces met in the center ofthe city themet center in forces that the ons 284 ṭ , see: al , . Fod ugss ht al that suggests Flood .

- Walīd rebuilt al rebuilt Walīd - Balādhurī, Balādhurī,

Tārīk Futūh h Madīnat Dimashq Madīnat h

al al Buldān, - Kha 282 ḍ Chalk ra‟ as par as ra‟ - .

281 Wal h colonnade The

122. Ibn „Asākir Ibn 122. Te s of use The . Mesē ī ē , through d,

Gate, the the Gate, , 280. 280. , , which which , t of his his of t CEU eTD Collection Flood, withsee: craftsmen, local working mosaicists Byzantine of number small ofa product a are mosaics the that possibility the considering worth it is and by artisans local Grabar, see: ones, the Byzantine mosaics resemble why the reason main the that and is fromConstantinople been originally Damas,” à Omayyades des Mosquée mosaïques Lorey,“Les de see: Eustache mosaics, makingthe in manpower local used have rather would six Greco with the ofthe origins craftsmen Elisseeff see:. Greek, not and Christians wereMelkite 286 Walīd i his weaken to and construction the from him dissuade to wanted emperor The [al Emperor Byzantine the between correspondence was there reports, some to According relations. those Umayyad of issue from the Byzantine Empire come had who workers were they (3) and prototypes, Byzantine by influenced craftsmen local l were artisans the (1) groups: main three in classified be can craftsmen the of origin the concerning opinions about the origins ofthecraftsmen,mosaics. Scholarly particularlycraftsmen who the ofthe made c 3.4. The

th century. He assumes that similar schools could also have been found in Damascus and Jerusalem and al and Jerusalem and Damascus in found been have also could schools similar that assumes He century. th Ibid., 20, n. 29. N. Elisseeff suggests that the that Elisseeff N. suggests n. 29. 20, Ibid., - āghiya]: is said to haveis said to replied: Shape of the Holy, the of Shape oqe h wud o nget t s i i dsrc uo hm Ad f you if And him. upon disgrace is it so it, neglect not would he mosque] the of construction the of importance [the understand would father your if god By the Greek [ of rest the and (Edessa) Ruha of church the Jerusalem, of church the them among attack will will I you send, If it. not after alike have not will and capital any in before built never was [ Greek hundred two me Send scholarship recent in held widely more is opinion last The Byzant of use and adoption clear The Justinian Justinian orrespondence ocal craftsmen and had no connection with the Byzantine Empire, (2) they were were they (2) Empire, Byzantine the with connection no had and craftsmen ocal

- r Byzantine relations or rather with the notion of how the Umayyads perceived perceived Umayyads the how of notion the with rather or relations Byzantine II and Caliph al Caliph and II ū mī

72. Flood assertspre that in Flood 72. ] monuments] my in country. between al 286 .

Syria

o wt m fre; il un h cuc o m country my of church the ruin will forces; my with you - Syrian school of mosaic production in Antioch which developed afterthe developed which Antioch in mosaicproduction of school Syrian

- 12 Wa -

(1931): 344. Oleg Grabar suggests that the craftsmen could have have could craftsmen the suggests that 344. OlegGrabar (1931): r Walīd and Walīd ū l rūmī mī īd . This correspondence was addressed to the “Tyrant” “Tyrant” the to addressed was correspondence This . ] workers as I want to build a mosque, which mosque, a build to want I as workers ]

, La description de Damas Damas de description La , ta having as mentioned workers - Islamic Syria imperia Islamic ine motifs by the Umayyads opened a discussion discussion a opened Umayyads the by motifs ine 78

Justinian II Justinian

The Great Mosque Damascus of Mosque Great The

l commissions were generally executed wereexecuted generally l commissions , as it is directly related to the the to related directly is it as , 40 n. 3; n. 3; the de Lorey40 connects ken part in the construction inthe construction part ken ,

24 ntention, so al so ntention,

la - Walīd Walīd -

CEU eTD Collection Arabic of thefor History Institute amMain: in Explanation,” Suggested 292 291 290 289 Times Islamic “Arab Gibb,. Hamilton 000 80 cubes, mosaic of sent loads emperor The mosaic cubes. and workers withsending assistance asking and ofthe Prophet tellsthatIt al Samhūdī. in al preserved are which extractsof thecorrespondence, about passage presentsa events, the actual after century AD) (in814 Medina historya of 288 Dimashq it i father,if and against our going you are construction] wrongwas[the it left, if and saw yourfather which church a destroying wrote:“Youare 287 he emperor: Byzantine the to Abraha army, Yemeni the his After Abraha. general, Abyssinian the to relates story This motif. same the with Walīd construction inMedina of themosque mithqāl 000 100 of consisting aid, required the sent who emperor Byzantine the was it that mentions al of account the In Egypt. craf Coptic and Greek eighty has he Also him. to sent been had which marble and mosaics, money, has he that writes He it. reconstruct and mosque al Al Damascus. and Medina in mosques -

Keppel Creswell “The Legend that al Legend Creswell “The Keppel Yāqūt One al composed Zabāla, Ibn from Medina, scholar Acertain subject. addressingthis source earlypresentsanother Gibb There „Azīz - Balādhurī , , Balādhurī mithqā and Justinian II, as Creswell pe Creswell as II, Justinian and

ht s oe oe ol as dut h rlaiiy f h crepnec bten al between correspondence the of reliability the doubt also could one more, is What the of construction the concerning happened have to reported is correspondence Similar you. isadisgraceit I Neverthelessyou upon am asked. sendingwhat it and construction] the [of necessity the understand , 257 , 290 is another version, in which the Byzantine emperor wrote to al wroteto emperor whichByzantine the isversion,another in Muʿjam al Muʿjam 288

f od oe ude wo hundred one gold, of , ed. Michael Bonner (London: Ashgate Variorium, 2005), 228 2005), Variorium, Ashgate (London: Michael Bonner ed. , - dinars l 259.

wo t ht ie a te oenr f eia odrn hm o ul on the down pull to him ordering Medina) of governor the was time that at (who equals one golden dinar, approx 5 gramm. 5 approx dinar, golden oneequals Kitāb Futūh al Futūh Kitāb

- , Buldān

and twenty or ten workmen, adding that he had sent ten who were equal to a to were whoequal ten sent he had that adding workmen, twenty tenand or - - Byzantine Relations under the Umayyad Caliphate,” in Caliphate,” the Umayyad under Relations Byzantine Walīd wrote to the king of the Greeks su Greeks wrote ofthe the king to Walīd

s right [the construction] than your father was wrong.”was yourfather than construction] [the sright Islamic Architecture: The Umayyad Mosque of Damascus: of Mosque Umayyad The Architecture: Islamic , 466. ,

decided to construct a church in Sana. In order to do so he sent a lett a sent he so do to order In Sana. in church a construct to decided -

Buldān, which is known only from surviving fragments. This work, composed only a work,composed This fragments. surviving fromwhich only known is

- aāhr tee s o eto o te ore f hs aid this of source the of mention no is there Balādhurī

supported -

Walīd Asked for and Obtained Help from the Byzantine Emperor. A Emperor. Byzantine from the Help Obtained and Askedfor Walīd 13 - Islamic Science, 2008), 142 2008), Science, Islamic 291 rsuasively did. He draws attention to another similar story similar another to attention draws He did. rsuasively ke, n fry od o msi t al to mosaic of loads forty and rkmen, - Balādhurī reports a letter of al of letter a reports Balādhurī . Thisinformationsurely is exaggerated. al - Walīd Walīd 79

ggesting that they would restore the Great Mosque Mosque theGreat restore would they ggestingthat ih oke, oac, n marble. and mosaics, workmen, with tsmen who were inhabitants of Syria and Syria of inhabitants were who tsmen -

- Walīd first. It is reported that the emperor that the emperor first. isreported It Walīd escaped from your father, so so father, your from escaped 143. Lindsey argues that the fact that the thatthe fact thatthe Lindsey argues 143. - 229.

Arab

See: Ibn „Asākir, Ibn See: - - Byzantine Relations in Early Early in Relations Byzantine Walīd to „Umar Ibn „Abd „Abd Ibn „Umar to Walīd

Text and Studies and Text 287

- hundred, see: hundred, aī fr the for Walīd Tārīkh Madīnat Madīnat Tārīkh

victory over over victory

(Frankfurt 289 Yāqūt . - 292 er er -

CEU eTD Collection 297 296 295 294 293 Lindsey,see: James debated, al to assistance sent the and “submissivelyobeyed” have to is said emperor Medina and Damascus to assistance Byzantine of accounts situate wider a provides rivals, military and political between even exchange, artistic by objectives diplomatic furthering of tradition The exchanged. were material and men where exchanges diplomatic of accounts analogous numerous ignores Creswell by in brought al an Ibn i.e., of source, account earlier an transmit reports later the contrary, the on Creswell; by presented tradition i century ninth the as early al between exchange diplomatic existing the that argues programs MedinaDamascus and in al to applied and changed gradually was Sana in church the of story the that mosque. a of construction the supported have would latter the that moreover, and, Creswell sources the in confusion caused have might names similar the that proposes Creswell II. Justinian was emperor e Byzantine the times Abraha‟s in Also, marble. and mosaics, workmen, namely, same, the absolutely is emperor Byzantine the by sent material the that noting stories two these of similarities the emphasizes Creswell

Ibid., 24. Ibid., Flood, 145. Ibid., Ibid. that al Legend “The Creswell

Flood challenged Creswell‟s theory and defended the veracity of the correspondence. He He correspondence. the of veracity the defended and theory Creswell‟s challenged Flood The Great Mosque of Mosque Damascus Great The

argues that it is not likely that al that likely not is it that argues

293 . Accordingly, he connects the monument in Sana with the mosque in Medina. in mosque the with Sana in monument the connects he Accordingly, .

Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World Islamic Medieval the Lifein Daily - ual, utd y b „Asākir. Ibn by quoted Mu„allā, - Walīd”, 144. Walīd”, dcts ht ae rprs ee o atrd melsmns f the of embellishments altered not were reports later that ndicates mperor was Justinian I, while during the reign of al of reign the during while I, Justinian was mperor 295 , 22. , .

- aī ol aedmne i fo Jsiin II Justinian from aid demanded have would Walīd 80

Walīd and the Byzantine emperor as as emperor Byzantine the and Walīd (Indianapolis, Hackett: 2008), 94. 94. 2008), Hackett: (Indianapolis, 296 -

Walīd and also other details are hi are details other also and Walīd lo asrs ht h hypothesis the that asserts Flood 297 . It has been argued that the that argued been has It . context within which to which within context - W alīd‟s building alīd‟s

294 - Walīd the Walīd

He holds He ghly

CEU eTD Collection 298 and lands Turkic the Finally, Arabia. caliph the al and India embodies Negus empires, schola damaged, Chosroes/Kisrā persons: portrayed is panel the Although kings”. of “family or kings” of castle Qu desert Umayyad the in fresco famous The sovereignty. Umayyad of proclamation Family3.5. The Kings of had presumably Muslims, the including knowledgemodels. Byzantine of workers, local The Empire. Byzantine the from fo need no was there assume I Umayyads. the of power world and nature imperial the of projection and expression of policy the al account to assistance give would emperor the that probable not is it authentic, al of part if even Finally, constructions. other for assistance such are of there reports that fact the and relations diplomatic the of continuity the by confirmed be cannot corr the of trustworthiness The construction. the for material needed the sending and obeying latter the and threats with emperor Byzantine the to writing caliphate Umayyad ceased therival despite sentiments never societies Arab and Byzantine the between relations diplomatic and commercial, social,

Marius Canard, “Les MariusCanard, ṣ ayr al ayr wud ie o ae nte cmaio wt te cngahc euirte a peculiarities iconographic the with comparison another make to like would I aut The - „Amra built by built „Amra henticity of the correspondence is surely debatable; it is difficult to imagine the the imagine to difficult is it debatable; surely is correspondence the of henticity relations Politique et Social entre Byzance et les Arabes,” Arabes,” les et Byzance entre Social et Politique relations

al - Walīd Walīd

298

and Caesar/Qay and presents the portrait of six standing figures, known as “six “six as known figures, standing six of portrait the presents .

- Sudan, Roderic represents North Africa and Spain, and and Spain, and Africa North represents Roderic Sudan, 81

China are represented by a ruler whose image whose ruler a by represented are China ṣ ar represent the Byzantine and the Sassanid Sassanid the and Byzantine the represent ar r al r - Walīd Walīd DOP to invite/demand craftsmen craftsmen invite/demand to

18 (1964): 35. (1964): 18 rs have identified the the identified have rs - Walīd - Walīd tkn into taking , -

espondence dominating dominating ‟s

etr is letter nd the the nd CEU eTD Collection 305 304 303 302 301 300 214 2004), Press, 299 rival existing the over triumphant be would which phenomenon hybrid new a creating of aim and values Sassanid and Byzantine of adaptation Umayyad yet an of is example another fresco The media. visual and monuments mentioned above the with argument of line Byzantine thecharacter, overallimpression while is, artistic standingposture a in sons two his with Heraclius of coins the as well as Thessalonica, and Ravenna in mosaics sixth are in brings Fowden similarities the of Some vocabulary. visual Byzantine i.e., Roman, East the with Kis the of depiction the on Arab on representations panel al equalsfirstgive among to homage gather to of sovereigns who international an of notion the promotes It tradition. literary Iranian the of part is kings wings clo a and robe long wears he person; young beardless a as presented is Kisrā while circles, small of pattern a with panel the from disappeared has

Ibid., 219. 219. Ibid., Ibid., 333. Ibid., Fowden, OlegGr 215. Ibid., 200 Ibid., Fowden, Garth 300 It has been assumed that the panel of the six kings in Qu in kings six the of panel the that assumed been has It royal the with portraits royal Persian to kings the of image the relates Fowden G. of family the of subject The ruler. Umayyad the to homage paying shown are kings The - . Walīd

abar “Islamic Art and Byzantium.” Art and “Islamic abar Qu -

203.

- ṣ etr Cntniooia ios ht ae en rsre o Mut ia, the Sinai, Mount on preserved been have that icons Constantinopolitan century ayr „Amra ayr -

215. “celebrated his accession his “celebrated power.” touniversal Qu 304 ṣ

ayr „Amra Art and the Umayyad elite in late Antique Syria Antique in elite late the Umayyad Art and „Amra ayr . He states that the individual elements and decorations are of either Iranianor either of are decorations and elements individual the that states He . k Hs rw rsmls h uul rw o te asnd wt crescent with Sassanids the of crown usual the resembles crown His ak.

218. - Sassanid mixed coinage mixed Sassanid

rā. Moreover, it has been argued that panel has striking similarities similarities striking has panel that argued been has it Moreover, rā.

299 . The figure of Qay of figure The .

DOP

18 (1964), 83. 83. (1964), 18 82 303

. Fowden also argues for Sassanid influence Sassanid for argues also Fowden . ṣ ar is presented in imperial dress, decorated dress, imperial in presented is ar

generally Roman speaking, 302 301

ṣ

. O. Grabar proposes that on theproposes thaton . O.Grabar ayr al ayr

(Berkley: University of California California of University (Berkley: - „Amra can be used in the in used be can „Amra furthers the furthers 305 hierarchy .

CEU eTD Collection of theRock of Jerusalem. to Dome the in and Damascus of adaptationsmosque the of case the in Empire Byzantine the ultimatelyoppose artistic their directed Umayyads the how fashion paradigmatic more even an proclaimed which introduced was Othe faith. Christian coinage the of dogmas religious opposed and innovative sovereignty Umayyad new a and changed was coins the of imagery the before changes minor only with circulation in continued was coinage Byzantine t First, reform: monetary the with case the is this instance, For visible. clearly is innovation to adaptation the from shift the cases some In motifs. and space the to both applied adaptations Sassanid models. and Byzantine appropriate and adapt to Umayyads the permitted triumph of claim The empires. Byzantine and Sassanid over triumph of perception Umayyad the to related be design and motifs Sassanid and Byzantine both adapting of Qu in panel The regimes.political This chapter has aimed t aimed has chapter This

o represent examples of the Umayyad policy of adaptations. The adaptations. of policy Umayyad the of examples represent o ṣ ayr al ayr - „Amra is one further expression of the Umayyad policy Umayyad the of expression further one is „Amra 83

****

s. This adaptation of these motifs can can motifs these of adaptation This s. r cases show in show cases r he he CEU eTD Collection and frequently how remarkable is it Yet, period. Umayyad the to restricted not is space sacred shared of phenomenon the certainly Most Jerusalem. and Mamre including space, cultic shared cult.existing the of adaptation an through space sacred the of acquisition the see we Rusafa, of case the in of case The Islam. to Christians local of conversion for means a promote to as well as legitimacy establish to attempts their reflects Umayyads the by space sacred Christian the of appropriation gradual t Muslims the and enclosure the of part shared a northwestern the on Baptist through the John St. of church the to enteredturned Christians the gate, monumental having after that practice in meant This Muslims. and Christians encl sacred the Damascus, of conquest the after years seventy former the of space sacred shared the of case the First, Arab of use the spac sacred the of sharing the as such phase, this with associated phenomena The phase. is theemblematic of policy this Umayyads. ofthe transfor The Empire. Byzantine the) of claims legitimacy(the rival the oppose to intended also were that power imperial Umayyad of expressions innovative new create to order in models Sassanid and Byzantine existing adapting of policy a out carried al „Abd caliph of reign the under is that peak its at Dynasty Umayyad the of agenda political the of context the The establishment of entirely new models of expression was preceded by a transitional a by preceded was expression of models new entirely of establishment The t seeks thesis The

Rusafa proves that proves Rusafa

- In addition to the cases of Damascus and Rusafa, I also mentione also I Rusafa, and Damascus of cases the to addition In Malik and his son al son his and Malik - Byzantine and Arab and Byzantine o discuss the transformation of the Great Mosque of Damascus within Damascus of Mosque Great the of transformation the discuss o both of these of both - Walīd - Sassanid mixed coinage, has been discussed in the thesis. the in discussed been has coinage, mixed Sassanid o southeastern . As it has been discussed in the thesis, the Uma the thesis, the in discussed been has it As . CONCLUSION

aims aims 84

were part of an Umayyad agenda. Umayyad an of part were part to part temenos

mation of the mosque of Damascus Damascus of mosque the of mation maq osure of Damascus served both both served Damascus of osure

of Damascus is presented. For presented. is Damascus of ṣ ura / mi ḥ rāb . The subsequent subsequent The . d other cases of cases other d Moreover, e, and and e, yyads CEU eTD Collection example Another caliphate. Umayyad the of agenda political the demonstrate to order in adapted were models These policies. Umayyad in models these of realization the and Umayyads cases showthe Damascus: of Mosque compa is reform coinage the thesis, this In past. the with break significant a signified reform coinage The coins. epigraphic Arabic purely aniconic, of al „Abd with ended system st mixed The II. Justinian standi the carried well most The Byzantine models. Arab The used. was coinage Sassanid th define to order in thesis this in used and creatinga world the of policies the with end to Umay came period transitional The conquest. Muslim the after diverse the expresses it caliphate; the of period the century, seventh the of spatial and elements context historical the cultic into Put Islam. of rise the before already Syria of in common was dimensions appropriation and adaptation of policy the that shown have the promoted dynasty Muslim first this widespread ill being artistically modeled modeled artistically being ill yads „Abd al „Abd yads h thesis The also was phase transitional term the sanctuary, shared the of phenomenon the from Apart Umayyad ng portrait of „Abd al „Abd of portrait ng - rvds further provides Malik and al and Malik - dominant power. dominant - b type of coins carried the the carried coins of type oth innovations emerged as a result of result a as emerged innovations oth policyadaptation of - Malik‟s coinage reform in 696 and 697. This marked the beginning beginning the marked This 697. and 696 in reform coinage Malik‟s dpain oiy f h Uayd dmntae te transitional the demonstrates Umayyads the of policy adaptation n yatn pten. The patterns. Byzantine on - - Walīd known of these was referred to as “standing caliph” coinage. It It coinage.caliph” “standing as to referredwas these of known

xmls f h aatto o By of adaptation the of examples - Byzantine coins were produced in gold and were based on on based were and gold in produced were coins Byzantine

- , who , Malik, which closely resembled the Byzantine model of model Byzantine the resembled closely which Malik, pro drn wih h Arab the which during period e

promoted and appropriationand 85 nature of the Syrian society in the first decades first the in society Syrian the of nature Shadaha

sh ari a

ng the sacred place. Further examples Further place. sacred the ng , the Muslim profession of faith, while while faith, of profession Muslim the , policy of centralizing the Islamic state state Islamic the centralizing of policy red rniinl phase transitional with the construction of the Great the of construction the with .

the

transitional atn models zantine - yatn ad Arab and Byzantine

in period and b and period the monetary monetary the by

oth the the - CEU eTD Collection artist spaces, sacred of appropriation gradual and adaptation addressing of means by all, above realized, al and Malik mode adapted these power, power. Umayyad and reforms to led , sharing, and the Byzantine Empire and as well t that suggested been has it Furthermore, M the B discusses thesis The faith. Christian the of tenets main the negate that messages polemical contain Rock the of Dome the building suprem political also but artistic of claims Umayyad are which Rock, the of Dome which was p imperial Umayyad of expression an was Dome the of creation the essence, In meaning. utilized structure its and Jerusale in Rock the of Dome the is thesis in discussed prototypes by the Umayyads was later implemented implemented later was Umayyads the by prototypes su o Dmsu, uh s h msis n te avd decoration carved the and mosaics the as such Damascus, of osque

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APPENDIX 88

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- re er ya Al ya Mi „Ilmiya, 1999. Ghassānī .

13 (1996): 27

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Beirut: Dār alBeirut: Dār rāb ol. 3 ol. “ ḥ -

M Balādhurī ammad Ibn ʿAbdūll Ibn ammad al -

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. al U

Kitāb Futū Kitāb Kitāb Muʿjam al Muʿjam Kitāb - ḥ mayyad - Fikr, 1995. Nūrīyah, 1994. ammad Abu Fa Abu ammad nentoa Junl of Journal International . -

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(1998): 95

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in Context in n Mmo. oe Art Some Mammon. and . rd University Press, 2000. Byzantine Syria and Northern Mesopotamia.” Mesopotamia.” Northern and Syria Byzantine “ In Th 98

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