In Memoriam

William Warntz, 1922–1988

Donald G. Janelle

Department of , University of Western Ontario

illiam Warntz was a pioneer in mathe- geographers were aware that it was occurring, he matical approaches to spatial analysis. had already published some of the classic papers WHe attempted to bridge the divide be- of the quantitative revolution. He also was an tween mathematics and the spatial repre- avid scholar on the history of geographic thought sentation of phenomena, leading to significant and devoted the later part of his career to identi- contributions in theoretical geography. An untir- fying the origins of spatial analysis, including ar- ing advocate of the systems view of geography, he chival studies on the possible contributions of Sir sought to identify principles of spatial organiza- Isaac Newton to the development of geography tion that were common to phenomena in both (1989). physical and . He saw geogra- phy as a general science of locations, with descrip- tive geography describing locations, regional Origins of a Spatial Scientist geography classifying them, and theoretical geog- raphy predicting them. Mathematics was the key William Warntzwas born on October 10,1922, to Bill’s early contributions. Indeed, before most in Berwick, Pennsylvania, in a coal mining area, eighty miles up-river from Harrisburg, on the Susquehanna. His father,Sterling Adrian Warntz, was a superintendent in a local industry that manufactured railway passenger cars, and his mother, Lilian Grey Warntz, was a teacher. Bill spent much of his boyhood playing baseball, prac- ticing on the trombone, and reading, passions that he nurtured throughout his life. At the din- ner table, he would entertain his two sisters, brother, and parents, asking question after ques- tion about geography and history, or posing geo- metrical puzzles for solution. Education in liberal arts at Berwick School (1936–1940) prepared him for undergraduate work in economics. His education was inter- rupted, however,by six years in the U.S. Army Air Force (1943–1948). In 1943, he entered the Avia- tion Cadet College Training Detachment at Al- bion College in Michigan, where he soloed in a Piper Cub and played on the football team. This was followed in 1943–1944 by a series of Air Force flight and navigation schools that took him across the country, studying cartography, meteorology, and radio. Service as a navigator with the heavy bombardment group in England earned him the Purple Heart, three battle stars, and several other Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 87(4), 1997, pp. 723–731 ©1997 by Association of American Geographers Published by Blackwell Publishers, 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, and 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF,UK. 724 Janelle decorations. Injured in a crash landing of a B-24 Economics at the University of Pennsylvania that limped back to England after incurring dam- (1949–1956). It was his appointment as research age from enemy fire, Warntz was stationed in associate and administrative assistant to the Di- Cambridge for recuperation. This allowed fre- rector (Charles B. Hitchcock) of the American quent visits to Cambridge University, where his Geographical Society in New York (1956–66), fascination with the papers of Sir Isaac Newton however, that opened the engagement between took his mind off the war and encouraged his the broader community of geographers and his pursuit of educational goals. imaginative mind. Among his published accom- Following the war, in 1946, Warntz was as- plishments while at AGS were Geography Now signed to the Newfoundland Base Command for and Then (1964), an insightful documentation of duty in sea search-and-rescue missions. Events in the changing geography curricula in American Newfoundland had lifelong personal and profes- colleges from colonial days to the 1950s, and sional significance for him. In 1947 he met and two innovative books—Toward a Geography of married A. Minerva Mosdell in Saint John’s. Price (1959), an extension of his dissertation, Soulmates in their love of music, art, and history, and Macrogeography and Income Fronts (1965). they had two children, Christopher and Pamela. These books draw seemingly disparate interdis- Interest in things geographical were heightened ciplinary connections (meteorology, econom- by a fortuitous discovery of a book by John Q. ics, and geography) and skillfully combine Stewart in the base library at Gander. In what cartography with mathematical constructs. appeared to be a strange deviation from the prin- The latter book explains and predicts with un- cipal theme of Coasts Waves and Weather, Stewart canny accuracy the geographical patterns of (1945) applied Newton’s gravitational concept to U.S. population and wealth through the last studying geographical patterns of population. decade of this century. This insight set the stage for a lifelong friendship, A less well-known achievement while at AGS mentorship, and collaboration with Stewart, who was a 200-hour spare-time construction of a was at Princeton. three-dimensional map showing population po- Warntz completed the B.S. in 1949, the A.M. tential of the U.S.—a special AGS exhibit on in 1951, and the Ph.D. in 1955, all three degrees “New York: An International City” for the in economics from the University of Pennsylva- 1964–1965 New York World’s Fair (AGS 1964). nia. Before the Ph.D., his curiosity for geographi- With patience and precision, he hammered more cal questions arose independently of much formal than 3,000 nails (one for each county) onto a contact with geography. Recognizing this, he in- board measuring 2 × 3.25 feet, in preparation for terrupted the Master’s program in economics (a a sculptor to cover with plaster. This outreach to minor in geography) to take part in McGill Uni- the public with geography was common in versity’s 1950 summer course in geography at Warntz’s career. He wrote articles for local news- Stanstead, Quebec. Discussions there, with Ken- papers, spoke before local geography societies, neth Hare, Trevor Lloyd, Dudley Stamp, Edward prepared television seminars on an “Introduction Ullman, and others stimulated questions about to Geography” (22 hours for WCAU in Philadel- the history of geography. phia in 1964) and on “Geography, Concepts and Although his Ph.D. was in economics, his the- Applications” (13 hours for WHDH in Boston in sis advisor was Lester E. Klimm, an economic and 1968), and assisted local school boards and teach- military geographer, who became President of the ers with geography curricula. Association of American Geographers in 1958. During his time with AGS, Warntz lived with Warntz’s thesis on The Geography of Price in- his family in Princeton, New Jersey. In 1957, he volved thousands of calculations to derive popu- joined Stewart’s Social Physics Project as a re- lation potential fields, all with a mechanical search associate in the Department of Astro- adding machine. Physical Sciences at Princeton. He was a frequent visiting lecturer in Geography at Hunter College and at Rutgers University, and in Regional Sci- An Engagement with Geography: ence at the University of Pennsylvania. In addi- AGS and Princeton, 1956–1966 tion, he supervised two Ph.D. dissertations at Columbia University (David Neft in Statistics Warntz’s first academic position was as an in- and Michael Woldenberg in Geography). The structor/assistant professor in Geography and daily commutes by train between New York and William Warntz 725

Princeton were opportunities for reflection and branching systems. Many of his younger associ- reading, and also time for drafting Geographers ates and students atHarvardare nowmajorcon- and What They Do (1964), an introduction to the tributors to developments in geographic discipline for school-age readers. information systems (GIS) (for example, Roger Jointly, Stewart and Warntz pioneered re- Dangermond). search on the population potential of the U.S. and Located in the basement of Memorial Hall, in on general concepts of what Warntz described as an area once occupied by B. F. Skinner’s behav- macrogeography. Their extensions of the gravity ioral-science pigeon coop, the Laboratory for model continue to serve the practical needs of Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis became marketing researchers. This collaboration with a center of innovation. Students had ready access Stewart, the opportunities to take part in the to his cardboard boxes, piled deep with the latest development of the regional science discipline, papers from Brian Berry, Leslie Curry, Michael and the experiences with the American Geo- Dacey, Bill Bunge, , Walter Isard, graphical Society were, for Warntz, possibly the Gunnar Olsson, and WaldoTobler,among others. most enjoyable period of his career. He com- Serendipitous insights flowed from frequent, in- mented frequently about the joy of working with, formal and, usually, enthusiastic rap sessions, and his great respect for, his AGS associ- punctuated by occasional musical jams, with Bill ates—Charlie Hitchcock, Wilma Fairchild, on the tuba, Lance Benson on dulcimer, Geoffrey David Lowenthal, and Mait Miller. Dutton on concertina, and Mike Woldenberg on guitar. Warntz introduced and edited the important The Harvard Years, 1966–1971 Harvard Papers in Theoretical Geography (1966–1971). He and his colleagues published In 1966 Warntz became professor of Theoreti- imaginative work in this series, including lengthy cal Geography and Regional Planning in Harvard monographs on map projections, and applica- University’s Graduate School of Design (GSD) tions of topological theorems and field quantity and joined the research team in the Laboratory theory. His trinity of “Geography, Geometry, and for Computer Graphics. The Lab was set up by Graphics” attained its most pronounced develop- Howard T. Fisher, the originator of SYMAP, one ments while at Harvard. True to his historical of the first general computer-mapping programs, interests, he drew inspiration from early Egyptian with support from the Ford Foundation. Warntz’s and Greek scholars, searching for precedents of appointment was intended to provide strong in- spatial order. The Harvard Papers in Theoretical tellectual grounding for the uses of SYMAP.He Geography highlight research on the properties of covered most of his salary with funding that he surfaces, including topological relations, mini- brought with him from New York—an Office of mum cost paths, spatial hierarchies, and map Naval Research grant for work on “Geography projections. Breakthroughs in Geography (1971a, and the Properties of Surfaces.” Warntzhelped to with Peter Wolff)provides a readable and popular define the lab’s mission by appending the phrase focus on these develpments, with related excerpts “and Spatial Analysis.” He was appointed Direc- from the writings of Ptolemy, Halley, Galton, von tor of LCG&SA in 1968. Though not disposed to Thünen, Horton and other contributors to the programming computers, his leadership there in- integration of geography, geometry, and graphics. fluenced some of the major developments in com- Warntz thoroughly enjoyed his time with stu- puterized cartography. With significant support dents at Harvard, but the politics of campus life from the National Science Foundation and from in the charged atomosphere of the late sixties had the Office of Naval Research, Warntz attracted a its toll. He attempted to rekindle geography range of young mathematicians, geographers, and within the university curricula, but with no posi- planners who held in common a certain fascina- tive outcome. In 1968 he was requested by Frank- tion for things spatial. His courses (Regional Re- lin Ford, Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, sources Planning, and Theory of the Region) were to form an ad hoc committee to review the posi- springboards for student research. He set them tion of geography in the curriculum for possible loose on a host of theoretical problems centered recommendations to the Committee on Educa- on the Sandwich Theorem, Thiessen polygons, tional Policy. minimum-path algorithms, topologies of sur- With prospects of establishing geography as a faces, map projections, and morphologies of full-status academic unit within Harvard College, 726 Janelle

Warntz anchored the intellectual foundations of hundred to three hundred undergraduates major- this initiative to the research underway in ing in geography. He expected to find a commu- LCG&SA. He envisioned a strong focus on theo- nity of nearly four hundred aficionados of retical geography as a science of locations, and theoretical geography. Indeed, an indisputable sought financial support from the National Sci- champion of theoretical geography, William ence Foundation and from the Carnegie Corpo- Bunge, was a visiting professor in the first year of ration of New York. These carefully argued bids Warntz’s tenure at Western. Allen Philbrick, were not successful, but a more serious obstacle noted for his work on areal functional organiza- was the changing state of Ford’s health and his tion and for creation of original map projections, resignation as Dean. This altered the dynamic, provided a critical but sympathetic comrade for but even more damaging was emerging turmoil in Warntz.And a number of young geographers with the financial and intellectual health of the Gradu- interest in spatial analysis were beginning their ate School of Design. Events quickly overshad- academic careers at Western(e.g., Michael Good- owed the prospects for a geography program; they child, Donald Janelle, Terence R. Smith, and even threatened sustained support for Roger White), offering Warntz an obliging audi- LCG&SA—what under the circumstances may ence for expansive thinking. But, as with most have been seen as an expensive luxury, and the departments across North America, theoretical significance of which to both geography and sci- geography and spatial analysis shared ground at ence was not yet fully appreciated. This was not Western with other important disciplinary view- so much an academic war over geography, as points. A diverse range of faculty interests paral- Smith (1987) described the elimination of geog- leled the discipline’s eclectic reality. To Warntz, raphy at Harvard in 1948. It was a war within this was symptomatic of a lack of disciplinary GSD, with prospects for geography’s renewed focus and offered a rationale for invoking a sys- presence diminished as a result. tems perspective—spatial systems theory. Even though he held the position of a full As is true for most academics, Warntzachieved professor and had achieved significant success as partial success in reaching his ideal, but mostly a teacher and researcher, Warntz’s appointments through students attracted to his research and at Harvard were contractual, and, as noted ear- academic style, particularly his Ph.D. advisees lier, he funded much of his salary from research William J. Coffey and James A. Pooler. At West- grants. With increasingly discouraging prospects ern, Warntz taught undergraduate courses on the for tenure status and little hope for introducing a Geography of the U.S., Maps—Their Makers and geography program, and before completing the Their Uses, Intermediate Theoretical Geogra- third of his three-year contracts, Warntz resigned phy, and the required Honors Seminar on Geo- his position at Harvard in June 1971. Nonethe- graphical Thought. At the graduate level, courses less, his dream of geography at Harvard persisted, on Spatial Concepts and Spatial Analysis and on and, even long after his departure, he continued Macrogeographic Systems and Environmental to petition Ford’s successor, John T.Dunlop, and Quality, were central to the programs of many President Derek C. Bok to bring the matter of students. geography before the Committee on Educational Hallmarks of academic life at Western, how- Policy. ever,were Warntz’sfrequent research seminars on his latest findings. Presentations usually lasted for two hours, at least, and always attracted more Life in a Real Geography students and faculty than the room could hold. With reams of overhead transparencies, dry wit, Department: Western Ontario, and total command of his subject, Warntz ex- 1971–1988 plored themes on cartographic solutions to prob- lems in location theory, cultural literacy and the Warntz accepted an invitation to chair the knowledge of place names, innovative and peace- Department of Geography at the University of ful spaces, multidimensional scaling of geogra- Western Ontario in 1971, a position he held to phy’s ivory tower, and others. His famous “peaks, 1976. Western’s Geography Department was pits, passes and pales, course lines and ridge lines, large by North American standards. It had more hills, and dales” approach to analyzing topog- than twenty-five full-time faculty, up to sixty raphical surfaces was not only applied to the graduate students in residence, and between two socioeconomic terrain of the U.S., Canada, and William Warntz 727 the world, but was also used to explore properties but ranks as a significant contribution to the of physical landscapes and meteorological pres- history of geographic thought. In preparing for sure patterns. Not surprisingly, Warntz reigned this project, he learned Latin in order to translate supreme in the Department’s annual Christmas Newton’s editions of Varenius. Orals (geographical trivia quiz)—dreaming up geographical questions that stumped most and drawing on a wealth of knowledge for quick re- Retrospective sponses to the most obscure questions that his colleagues and students could imagine. It didn’t Bill Warntz received many honors: President seem fair. of the International Regional Science Associa- In moving to London, Ontario, Bill and Min- tion (1965–1966), Fellow of the American Asso- erva kept “Wendling,” their lovely home in An- ciation for the Advancement of Science, Fellow dover, Massachusetts. It became a holiday refuge of the American Geographical Society, Fellow of from the mounting responsibilities of a depart- the Explorers Club of New York City, Life Asso- ment chair in periods of growing economic uncer- ciate of Clare Hall (Cambridge University), and tainty, and a place to pursue his writing. Asked Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. Unpub- where he lived, he described his “weighted mean lished books, research analyses, and correspon- residential location” as Syracuse, New York, ap- dence are in the Warntz Collection of the proximately midway between London and An- Regional Science Archives at Cornell University. dover. Wendling was also a vantage point on A book-length manuscript, “Distances in the continuing developments at Harvard, and, fol- Man-made Environment,” completed in 1971, lowing 1983, it gave him a base to participate as follows the geometric tradition of spatial analysis. a Research Scholar in Harvard’s Center for Popu- Another unpublished book, finished in his final lation Studies, where he was investigating popu- weeks at the hospital (with Jane Forsythe), “Place lation patterns in rural Europe in the thirteenth Names, Probabilities, and Priorities,” attempts to to eighteenth centuries. position geographical literacy in a broad intellec- At Western, Warntz developed the Macro- tual framework. These manuscripts join yet an- geographic Systems Research Workshop, devoted other unpublished book—“Geography: The to studying the growth of the North American Innocent Science.” Jointly authored with William economic system and global patterns in physical Bunge in the 1960s, this work explores the primi- geography. This workshop was also the spring- tive mathematical and geometrical base of physi- board for further developments in spatial analysis cal and human phenomena. Warntz had saved and computer cartography. Through the affili- much work for publication after retirement but ation and initiatives of Michael Goodchild, David died on 29 May 1988, less than six weeks before Mark, and many students, the workshop was retirement. Work in progress included original transformed from its exclusive focus on macro- documentation on the geographical spread of geography into a major contributor to the foun- printing and the origins of universities in Europe, dations of GIS. Macrogeography remained a urban and rural population distributions in dominant theme in Warntz’s work through 1978, Europe in 1200–1700 A.D., a series of essays on culminating with his presentation of “Canada: Its geographical puzzles and paradoxes, a philosophi- Geographical Unity and Diversity” to the prestig- cal history of ideas on the shape of the earth, and ious Royal Society of Canada. Afterwards, the studies on the contemporary role of universities history of geography and its contemporary role in in North America. society marked the foci of his research. He en- A festschrift from associates and students (Cof- joyed spending summers and sabbaticals at Cam- fey 1988) marks Warntz’s intellectual influence bridge University, researching the geographical on discourse in Geography. He had a knack for contributions of Isaac Newton and Bernhard unleashing the creativity of students; he regarded Varenius. His last published paper, based largely them as colleagues and delighted in exchanges on on archival work at Cambridge, appeared follow- almost any subject. For those of us who knew and ing his death. This paper shows his capacity to worked closely with Warntz, he had a formidable shed light on contemporary themes in geography intellectual presence. He was noted for his quick through studies of the past. “Newton, the New- mind and for his ability to call upon an astounding tonians, and the Geographia Generalis Varenii” range of theory and facts, but was also warm and (1989) is only a fragment of his intended project, generous. 728 Janelle

Though Warntz’s lasting contributions are in sophical grounding for geography was recognized scholarship, friends recall his accomplishments as by Warntz and may account, in part, for the a gifted musician and as a fierce competitor in reorientation of research objectives in the latter squash and tennis. Other diversions included an part of his career, and for the many unpublished encyclopedic knowledge of baseball and an insa- manuscripts found buried in boxes of computer tiable addiction to geographical puzzles, para- output, notes, and correspondence. As he turned doxes, and algorithms. He read widely in towards new intellectual challenges regarding the astronomy, cartography, mathematics, the his- history of the discipline before the nineteenth tory of exploration, and the history of education. century, and to questions about contemporary He combined a sense of history and social struc- education in geography, he never lost sight of ture with insights from mathematics, economics, his roots in spatial analysis, puzzles, music, and and meteorology to produce tantalizing research baseball. about geographical patterns. His curiosity and enthusiasm opened the minds of many students and colleagues. Classroom and conversation que- Acknowledgments ries, such as, “How wide is the Pacific Ocean from Panama City to Shanghai?” marked a constant This memorial essay is derived from the insights of engagement with ideas and challenges to anyone William Warntz’s close associates and friends. I bor- who ever spent more than a few minutes with rowed freely from correspondence and other materials that are now found in the Warntz Collection of the him. The rigor of a specialist and the breadth of Regional Science Archives, Department of Manu- a generalist mark William Warntz as one of geog- scripts and University Archives, Cornell University, raphy’s outstanding personalities in the twentieth Ithaca, NY 14853. Special appreciation is extended to century. Patricia Chalk, William Coffey, Geoffrey Dutton, Judy Warntz’s views on the discipline were seen as Bowley, Michael Goodchild, David Mark, Waldo unusual in the early days of the quantitative Tobler, and Michael Woldenberg. Warntz’s sister, Max- revolution. He departed from the established ine Smeltzer of Concord, New Hampshire, provided dogmas on geography but pursued his curiosity- details on his early childhood interests. I hold full driven questions in search of underlying truths responsibility for lateness in the appearance of this that might unite an approach to human and essay, approved by the Council of the Association of American Geographers in November 1988. physical phenomena. Although his papers ap- peared regularly in the prestigious Geographical Review, Warntz was seen by many as separated References from the discipline’s mainstream—educated in economics, never holding an academic post in a American Geographical Society. 1964. AGS at the Fair. major geography department until the last third Newsletter (Spring): 1–3. of his career, and never maintaining active mem- Coffey, W.J. 1988. Geographical Systems and Systems of bership in geography’s professional and scholarly Geography: Essays in Honour of William Warntz. associations. His loyalty was to geography and to London, Ontario: Department of Geography, a life of the mind; he found his intellectual home University of Western Ontario. in the realm of regional science, systems theory, Smith, N. 1987. ‘Academic War over the Field of Ge- computer graphics, and mathematical topology. ography’: The Elimination of Geography at Har- vard, 1947–1951. Annals of the Association of The interdisciplinary nature of his work won re- American Geographers 77:155–72. spect among mathematicians, physicists, and Stewart, J. Q. 1945. Coasts Waves and Weather. Boston: economists. Within geography, spatial analysts Ginn and Co. and economic geographers identified most readily with his approach, and current-day geographical information scientists appreciate his important Selected Bibliography role in meshing theory with often elegant empiri- cal demonstrations and in mentoring some of 1954 Pennsylvania and the World Land Use Survey. today’s leaders in GIS. 41st Annual Schoolmen’s Week Proceedings, By the 1970s, Warntz’swork was often cited for 97–104. its excesses of analogy between human and physi- 1955a A Proposal for Tables of Pre-computed Values cal systems, and he was frequently cast as the for Pressure Pattern Flight. Navigation, Journal archetypal scientific positivist. This shift in philo- of the Institute of Navigation 4(8):306–09. William Warntz 729

1955b A Methodological Consideration of Some 1959g Social Physics—A Macrogeographer Takes a Geographic Aspects of the 1955 Newfound- Hard Look at College Enrollments. Princeton land Confederation with Canada, 1949. The Alumni Weekly (1)40:8–13. Canadian Geographer 6:39–49. 1959h Kinds of Koinoergon [coauthored with J. Q. 1956a Measuring Spatial Association—with Special Stewart et al.]. Sixth Washington Conference on Consideration of Market Orientations of Pro- Social and Physical Variables as Determinants of duction. Journal of the American Statistical As- Mental Health. Rockville, MD: National Insti- sociation 51:597–604. tute of Mental Health. 1956b Richard Cantillon (1680–1734), Economist 1960 Contributions to a Statistical Methodology for and Economic Geographer. Revue Canadienne Areal Distributions [coauthored with D. Neft]. de Géographie 10:140–42. Journal of Regional Science 2:47–66. 1957a Geography of Prices and Spatial Interaction. 1961a Transatlantic Flights and Pressure Patterns. Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Geographical Review 51(2):187–212. Association 3:118–29. 1961b Center of Population [coauthored with D. 1957b An Historical Consideration of the Terms Neft]. The Professional Geographer 13(4):53. “Corn” and “Corn Belt” in the United States. Agricultural History 31:40–48. 1961c Statistical Geography. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 39:651–56. 1957c Transportation, Social Physics, and the Law of Refraction. The Professional Geographer 1961d The Geographical Drawing Power of Cape 9(4):2–7. May. Fifteenth Annual Bulletin, Cape May Geo- graphic Society, pp. 651–56. 1957d Statistics in Geography. The Professional Geog- rapher 9:23–24. 1963a Geography, Geometry and Graphics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1957e Contributions toward a Macroeconomic Geog- raphy. Geographical Review 27:420–24. 1963b World Population from 1650 A.D. until 2000. In Great World Atlas, pp. 150–51. New York: 1958a Macrogeography and Social Science Reader’s Digest Association. [coauthored with J. Q. Stewart]. Geographical Review 48:167–84. 1963c The Field Theory of Population Influence [coauthored with J. Q. Stewart]. Proceedings 1958b Macrogeography and the Census. The Profes- of the International Population Conference of sional Geographer 10(6):6–10. New York 2:62–70. London: Union Interna- 1958c Physics of Population Distribution [coauthored tionale pour L’Etude Scientifique de la Popu- with J. Q. Stewart]. Journal of Regional Science lation. 1:92–123. 1963d The Geography of College Students as It Re- 1959a Geography at Mid-Twentieth Century. World lates to Excellence. Journal of the Association of Politics 11:54–75. College Admissions Counselors 8(8):11. 1959b Some Parameters of the GeographicalDistribu- 1964a A New Map of the Surface of Population Po- tion of Population [coauthored with J. Q. Ste- tentials for the United States, 1960. Geographi- wart]. Geographical Review 49:270–72. cal Review 54:170–84. 1959c Macrogeography and Some Aspects of a 1964b Geography Now and Then. New York: Ameri- Demographic History of the United States, can Geographical Society. 1790–1950. Annals of the Association of Ameri- 1964c Geographers and What They Do.NewYork: can Geographers 49:217–18. Franklin Watts, Inc. 1959d Macrogeographic Evidence of Demographic 1965a World Population Potential Analysis and Inter- Unity and a Primary Continuing Pattern of national Crisis. World Peace Research Journal 4. Population Distribution in the United States. Population Index 25(3):206–07. 1965b Macrogeography and Income Fronts. Philadel- phia: Regional Science Research Institute. 1959e Toward a Geography of Price. Philadelphia and London: University of Pennsylvania Press and 1966 The Topology of a Socio-economic Terrain and Oxford University Press. Spatial Flows. Papers and Proceedings of the Re- gional Science Association 17:47–61. 1959f Progress in . In New Viewpoints in Geography—1958 Yearbook of the 1967a Global Science and the Tyranny of Space. Pa- National Council for Social Studies, ed. P. James, pers and Proceedings of the Regional Science As- pp. 54–75. Washington. sociation 19:7–19. 730 Janelle

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Correspondence: Department of Geography, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada N6A 5C2; email [email protected].