Ginger, the Genus Zingiber {P. N. Ravindran}
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Ginger The Genus Zingiber Ginger The Genus Zingiber Edited by P.N. Ravindran and K. Nirmal Babu Medicinal and Aromatic Plants — Industrial Profiles CRC PRESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ginger : the genus Zingiber / edited by P.N. Ravindran, K. Nirmal Babu. p. cm.—(Medicinal and aromatic plants—industrial profiles; v. 41) Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 0-415-32468-8 (alk. Paper) 1. Ginger. I. Ravindran, P.N. II. Nirmal Babu, K. III. Series. SB304.G56 2004 633.8'3—dc22 2004055370 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press, provided that $1.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 0-415-32468-8/05/$0.00+$1.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The consent of CRC Press does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2005 by CRC Press No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-415-32468-8 Library of Congress Card Number 2004055370 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper This volume is dedicated to Prof. V.L. Chopra, Member, Planning Commission, Government of India (formerly BP Pal National Chair, Indian Council of Agricultural Research [ICAR]; Director General, ICAR; Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Government of India); a distinguished scientist, humanist, and research manager; an individual of rare distinction and qualities; for his guidance, encouragement, and support. CONTENTS Preface to the Series ix Preface xi Acknowledgments xv List of contributors xvii 1. Introduction 1 P.N. RAVINDRAN AND K. NIRMAL BABU 2. Botany and Crop Improvement of Ginger 15 P.N. RAVINDRAN, K. NIRMAL BABU, AND K.N. SHIVA 3. Chemistry of Ginger 87 GASTON VERNIN AND CYRIL PARKANYI 4 . Tissue Culture and Biotechnology of Ginger 181 K. NIRMAL BABU, K. SAMSUDEEN, D. MINOO, S.P. GEETHA, AND P.N. RAVINDRAN 5. Ginger Production in India and Other South Asian Countries 211 E.V. NYBE AND N. MINI RAJ 6. Ginger Production in Southeast Asia 241 AI XIZHEN, SONG JINFENG, AND XU XIA 7 . Ginger in Africa and the Pacific Ocean Islands 279 P.A. OKWUOWULU 8 . Diseases of Ginger 305 N.P. DOHROO 9. Bacterial Diseases of Ginger and Their Control 341 A. KUMAR AND A.C. HAYWARD viii CONTENTS 10. Insect Pests of Ginger 367 S. DEVASAHAYAM AND K.M. ABDULLA KOYA 11. Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger 391 K.V. BALAKRISHNAN 12. Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger 435 M.S. MADAN 13. Pharmacology of Ginger 469 IKUKO KIMURA, LEONARA R. PANCHO, AND HIROSHI TSUNEKI 14. Properties and Medicinal Uses of Ginger 489 R. REMADEVI, E. SURENDRAN, AND P.N. RAVINDRAN 15. Ginger as a Spice and Flavorant 509 K.S. PREMAVALLI 16. Yield Gaps and Constraints in Ginger 527 K.V. PETER, E.V. NYBE, AND ALICE KURIEN 17. Other Economically Important Zingiber Species 533 M. SABU AND DAVE SKINNER Index 547 Preface to the Series There is increasing interest in industry, academia, and the health sciences in medicinal and aromatic plants. In passing from plant production to the eventual product used by the public, many sciences are involved. This series brings together information which is currently scattered through an ever-increasing number of journals. Each volume gives an in-depth look at one plant genus, about which an area specialist has assembled information ranging from the production of the plant to market trends and quality control. Many industries are involved, such as forestry, agriculture, chemicals, food, flavor, beverage, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and fragrance. The plant raw materials are roots, rhizomes, bulbs, leaves, stems, barks, wood, flowers, fruits, and seeds. These yield gums, resins, essential (volatile) oils, fixed oils, waxes, juices, extracts, and spices for medicinal and aromatic purposes. All these commodities are traded worldwide. A dealer’s market report for an item may say “drought in the country of origin has forced up prices.” Natural products do not mean safe products, and account of this has to be taken by the above industries, which are subject to regulation. For example, a number of plants which are approved for use in medicine must not be used in cosmetic products. The assessment of “safe to use” starts with the harvested plant material, which has to comply with an official monograph. This may require absence of, or prescribed limits of, radioactive material, heavy metals, aflatoxin, pesticide residue, as well as the required level of active principle. This analytical control is costly and tends to exclude small batches of plant material. Large-scale, contracted, mechanized cultivation with designated seed or plantlets is now preferable. Today, plant selection is not only for the yield of active principle, but for the plant’s ability to overcome disease, climatic stress, and the hazards caused by mankind. Such methods as in vitro fertilization, meristem cultures, and somatic embryogenesis are used. The transfer of sections of DNA is giving rise to controversy in the case of some end uses of the plant material. Some suppliers of plant raw material are now able to certify that they are supplying organically farmed medicinal plants, herbs, and spices. The Economic Union directive CVO/EU No. 2092/91 details the specifications for the obligatory quality controls to be carried out at all stages of production and processing of organic products. Fascinating plant folklore and ethnopharmacology leads to medicinal potential. Exam- ples are the muscle relaxants based on the arrow poison, curare, from species of Chondro- dendron, and the antimalarials derived from species of Cinchona and Artemisia. The methods of detection of pharmacological activity have become increasingly reliable and specific, x Preface to the Series frequently involving enzymes in bioassays and avoiding the use of laboratory animals. By using bioassay-linked fractionation of crude plant juices or extracts, compounds can be specifically targeted which, for example, inhibit blood platelet aggregation, or have antitumor, or antiviral, or any other required activity. With the assistance of robotic devices, all the members of a genus may be readily screened. However, the plant material must be fully authenticated by a specialist. The medicinal traditions of ancient civilizations such as those of China and India have a large armamentarium of plants in their pharmacopoeias which are used throughout Southeast Asia. A similar situation exists in Africa and South America. Thus, a very high percentage of the world’s population relies on medicinal and aromatic plants for their medicine. Western medicine is also responding. Already in Germany all medical practitioners have to pass an examination in phytotherapy before being allowed to practice. It is noticeable that medical, pharmacy, and health-related schools throughout Europe and the United States are increasingly offering training in phytotherapy. Multinational pharmaceutical companies have become less enamored of the single compound, magic-bullet cure. The high costs of such ventures and the endless compe- tition from “me-too” compounds from rival companies often discourage the attempt. Independent phytomedicine companies have been very strong in Germany. However, by the end of 1995, 11 (almost all) had been acquired by the multinational pharmaceutical firms, acknowledging the lay public’s growing demand for phytomedicines in the West- ern world. The business of dietary supplements in the Western world has expanded from the health store to the pharmacy. Alternative medicine includes plant-based products. Appropriate measures to ensure their quality, safety, and efficacy either already exist or are being answered by greater legislative control by such bodies as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the recently created European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products based in London. In the United States, the Dietary Supplement and Health Education Act of 1994 recognized the class of phytotherapeutic agents derived from medicinal and aromatic plants. Furthermore, under public pressure, the U.S. Congress set up an Office of Alternative Medicine, which in 1994 assisted the filing of several Investigational New Drug (IND) applications, required for clinical trials of some Chinese herbal preparations. The significance of these applications was that each Chinese preparation involved several plants and yet was handled as a single IND. A demonstration of the contribution to efficacy of each ingredient of each plant was not required.