Sport participation in the

Trends and differences

Commissioned by Nike Operations Netherlands BV

Maarten van Bottenburg Bas Rijnen Jacco van Sterkenburg

© W.J.H. Mulier Instituut ’s-Hertogenbosch, april 2005 wjh mulier institute - centre for research on in society 2 i www.mulierinstituut.nl e [email protected] f 073-6126413 t 073-6126401 5201 AD’s-Hertogenbosch Postbus 188 Centrum voorsociaal-wetenschappelijksportonderzoek W.J.H. Mulier Instituut JoSwabe by Translated from theDutch © VanBottenburg, Rijnen andVanSterkenburg 2005

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

3 124 general trends 21 Greece128 131 Cyprus 133 136 141 Denmark 57 Denmark Republic of United Kingdom The Netherlands 82 Belgium 90 Luxembourg France93 98 106 112 Portugal 118 Spain 64 68 76 Sport in the European Union: levels, trends and differentiation Sport in the European Union: levels, Overall levels and Sport-specific differences and trends Organisational context Social differentiation 43 Conclusions 21 EU member state Sport participation in each 47 Finland 52 Sweden 30 45 33 37 Introduction 9 Introduction European Union Sport and the sport of promotion Challenges for the Research questions and aims Defining sport Research methods book Structure of the 11 9 13 16 20 14

3.17 3.18 3.19 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 1.5 1.6 2. 2.1 1. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Inhoudsopgave Inhoudsopgave Acknowledgements5 wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 4 201 203 About theW.J.H.MulierInstitute About theauthors Bibliography 183 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 5. 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.1 4. 3.25 3.24 3.23 3.22 3.21 3.20

eerhgp 181 168 177 167 164 166 173 163 148 gaps Research driversandpolicy interventionsKey Patterns anddifferencesin Level andtrendsin Conclusions andrecommendations Societal factors Environmental factors Interpersonal factors Personal factors of sportparticipation Key drivers Estonia 161 Latvia 159 156 153 The CzechRepublic 145 pr atcpto 173 sport participation sotpriiain 174 sportparticipation

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

5 nd supply of data and nd supply Academy of Physical Education, Poland Institute for Physical Education & Sport, Institute for Physical Education & Sport, e, Tourism and Sports Research and e, Tourism support, references, a support, references, tion, Youth and Sports, tion, Youth and s of many people across Europe. The work could s of many people Children, Youth and Sports, Hungary Sports, Children, Youth and University of Valencia, Spain University College Dublin, Ireland Development, Cyprus Development, Mr. Ziga Kmetic, Nike, Slovenia Finland of Turku, Dr. Pasi Koski, University Poland Mr. Pawel Kotnowski, GfK, Mr. Nelli Kovisto, Finland Nike, Poland Mr. Witold Kowalski, Mr. Jean Krantz, Département Ministériel des Sports, Luxembourg and Civil Society,Denmark ResearchSport, Culture Mr. Knud Larsen, Institute for Estonia Committee, Estonian Olympic Mr. Peeter Lusmägi, Dr. Nicos Kartakoullis, Center for Leisur Mr. Kostantinos Agriodimos, Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, Affairs, and Religious of Education Ministry Mr. Kostantinos Agriodimos, Alexandris, AristotelianDr. Konstantinos Universityof Thessaloniki, Greece Mrs. Meta Arh, GfK, Gral-Ite, Slovenia UK Sport, UK Mr. JerryBingham, University Dr. Ann Bourke, Mrs. Alenka Burica, Media Publikum, Slovenia Mrs. Alenka Burica, Media Publikum, Camy, UniversityProf. dr. Jean of Lyon‘Claude Bernard’, Dr. Sasa Cecic Erpic, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia of Educa Mr. Petr Chvojka, Ministry Cicmanec, SlovakianMr. Vladimir Statistical Office, Slovakia Mr. David Cisar, Nike Czech/Slovakia France of sport employment, Dr. Leo Clijssen, EOSE European observatoire Mrs. Veerle De Bosscher, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium Mr. Andrew Decelis, University of Malta, Malta Mr. Fabrice Ducceschi, Nike, Spain UK Mrs. Beth Fowler, Sport , García Ferrando, Prof. dr. Manuel Malta University, Gratton, Sheffield Hallam Prof. dr. Chris UK UK Mrs. Louise Hammerton, Sport England, und Tourismusforschung, Austria Mag. Beatrix Haslinger, Institut für Freizeit- Finland Sports Federation, Mrs. Terhi Heinilä, Finnish Prof. dr. Lech Jaczynowski, Jozef Pilsudski Mr. Petr Janousek, Nike, Czech/Slovakia. Haye, Spain Mr. Tilbert La France Ministère desMrs. Estelle Statistique, Sports/Mission Liverneaux, Dr. Koen Breedveld, the Netherlands Dr. Koen Breedveld, the Netherlands Mrs. Zsuzsanna Bukta, Ministry of Mrs. Rose Ann Gatt, University of Malta,

• • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • This research report is the result of the effort This research report is the advice, the not have been accomplished without information received from a network of experts in all 25 EU member received from states. our We express a network of information following people: special thanks to the Acknowledgements Acknowledgements wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society Macmillan andMinna-MarieRosti. Hannah Jones,DuncanMills, AnnaMariaRuga thank Jim Allaker,Johnvan den Berg, Mari (Europe, Middle EastandAfrica)NikeEur Neither couldthisstudy be done without the 6

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • •

Mr. OlaStadler,SwedishSportsConfederation,Sweden Dr. Dirk Steinbach, German Sport Dr. DirkSteinbach,German Mr. Branislav Strecansky, National SportMr. BranislavStrecansky, Center,CzechRepublic Dr. Evelyn Ternes, German Sport University Cologne, Germany Cologne,Germany SportUniversity Dr. EvelynTernes,German Mr. Ján Tokár, Ministry ofMr. JánTokár,Ministry Education,Slovakia Management Centre, Belgium EuropeanSport Mr. LucVandeputte,UniversitéLibredeBruxelles/Brussels Mrs. Anit Van Eynde, Nike,BelgiumMrs. AnitVanEynde, Prof. dr.NúriaPuigBarata,INEF-Institu Mrs. Kamieke van de Riet, GfK, the Netherlands vandeRiet,GfK,theNetherlands Mrs. Kamieke Mr. Bruno Rossi Mori, CONI, Italy Mr. BrunoRossi Mori,CONI,Italy Mr. NickRowe,SportEngland, UK Prof. dr.Antonin of Prague,Republic CharlesUniversity Rychtecký, Czech Belgium Mrs. KarinSchank,Département Mi Dr. BorisSilva,UniversityofLjubljana,Slovenia Universite Dr. JeroenScheerder,Katholieke Mrs. IngaSmalinkskaite,Department of Mr. Paulino Moraleda, Nike,Spain Prof. dr.Antonio Mussino, of University ‘LaSapienza’,Italy Mrs. Agnes Nagy, Nike, Hungary Mrs. AgnesNagy, Mr. Göran Nordström, Statistics Sweden, Sweden Mr. GöranNordström, Sweden, Statistics Dr. PekkaOja,Finland Dr. Laila Ottesen, University of Copenhagen, Denmark UniversityofCopenhagen,Denmark Dr. LailaOttesen, Mr. Rimantas Pacenka, Lithuanian academy of Physical Education,Lithuania ofPhysical Mr. Rimantas Pacenka,Lithuanianacademy Dr. Dimitra Papadimitrou, University of University Dr. Dimitra Papadimitrou, Patras, Greece Dr. Karen Petry, German Sport University Cologne, Germany UniversityCologne,Germany German Sport Dr. KarenPetry, Dr. JanPrerovský,Ministry ofEduca Prof. dr. Salomé Marivoet, University Prof. dr.Saloméof Marivoet,University Coimbra, Portugal Mrs. Renáta Mašánová, Tambor,Mrs. Renáta Slovakia Dr. Gert Mensink, Robert Koch Institute,Dr. GertMensink, Germany Mr. PatrickMignon,l’Institut National du Sp Prof. dr. Otmar Weiss, University of Vienna,Austria Prof. dr.OtmarWeiss,University Mr. PeterWillems, GfK,theNetherlands Prof. Mag.Peter Zellmann, Institutfür Dr. Jolanta Zysko, Academy of Physical Education, AcademyPoland ofPhysical Dr. JolantaZysko, University Cologne, Germany Cologne,Germany University a Bobenrieth,ThomasDuester, ColinGraham, nistériel des Sports, Luxembourg nistériel desSports,Luxembourg support of Nike GovernmentAffairs–EMEA tion, Youthand Sports, CzechRepublic Freizeit- undTourismusforschung, Austria ope Operations Netherlands BV. We especially BV.Weespecially ope Operations Netherlands rli, Stefanie Teichman, andaboverli, StefanieTeichman, allRory physical educationandsports,physical Lithuania t Nacional d'Educacio de Catalunya, t Nacionald'EducacioSpain de Catalunya, it Leuven/MinistryofFlemish Government, ort etde l’Éducation FrancePhysique, Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 8

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

9 h organise competitionsh organise Since sport has sports organisations sports organisations 3 is a tradition that emerged during the 1950s a tradition that emerged during is When applying such rules, the EU has When applying such rules, y branch sport y of sport has a European 4 ken towards on a political integration European ken towards om 1974 in the form of the ruling of the ECJ: C- ved itself with this sport movement to any movement itself with this sport ved See European Commission 1998a. 1998a. Commission European See inate elite sports. At the end of the inate elite sports. At the end of the Athens and professionalisation of sport throughout of sport throughout professionalisation and me 286 medals, which is indeed more medals medals which is indeed more 286 medals, me cerns. On the one hand, sports organisations sports organisations cerns. On the one hand, authority in the field of sport might threaten of sport the field authority in istics is the fact that it is of European sport ropean citizens participate citizens ropean in sport or are seen as an autonomous field in which the EU seen as an autonomous ubject to the rules of the European Union Union of the European ubject to the rules national legislation and European treaties. national legislation and European treaties. atus that they have demanded and had been demanded have atus that they ention of the EU in the area of sport has ever of the EU ention e Bosman ruling is the most well-known example the most ruling is e Bosman ce. Sports organisations have had the authority to the authority organisations have had ce. Sports ubs and federations, whic ubs and federations, be taken into account, but be taken into account, ean Union found themselves in the top 20 of 20 in the top themselves found ean Union legacy. The origins of sport and the Olympic Olympic sport and the legacy. origins of The e issues of broadcasting rights, access toe issues of broadcasting rights, access sporting through systems of promotion and relegation. and relegation. of promotion systems through EU involvement in its development. EU involvement the sport sector has fallen within the realm of EU has fallensector realm general the sport within the

3674 Walraeve v UCI [1974] ECR I-1405. v UCI [1974] ECR 3674 Walraeve federation and . This championship. European federation and the first steps that being ta were alongside level at that time. 2 European Commission 1998a. Virtually ever Virtually 1998a. Commission European 2004. Tokarski et al. of this nature dates fr The first involvement 2004. Tokarski et al. 1 2 3 4 It has been the host of more than and World Cup Games Olympic half of all of the of more host been the It has 1

declared that the specific nature of sport will declared that the specific nature of sport have no longer been afforded the exceptional st point. area up until this this given in This development raised considerable con feared that the expansion of EU involvement and EU involvement feared that the expansion of

Introduction largely embedded within a network of sport cl network of sport within a largely embedded physically character active. One of the distinctive movement lie in Europe. Large proportions of Eu proportions lie in Europe. Large movement another to one linked at all levels and are sport’. of world it, ‘the powerhouse puts as the European Commission Europe is, moreover, Sport is an important part of the European of the European part Sport is an important However, the increasing commercialisation the past decades has led to greater great degree. The world of sport has alwaysgreat degree. The world of been Olympic winners. Collectivelymedal so won they and the combined. , of than all those its direct influen not exert principle, should, in has not invol European Union In the past, the Football Championships. European nations also dom European nations Football Championships. of the Europ states nine member Olympics, manage their own affairs within the confines of no legal basis for the direct interv Furthermore, been established. developed as an economic been s activity, it has developed as an economic Treaty, just like any other economic sector. Th economic Treaty, other any just like policy. anti-doping events on television and a common of this influence. In addition, for instance, th regulations with regard to,

1. 1.1 Union Sport and the European wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society characteristics ofamateur sport. characteristics important questions affectingsportwereatissue, onthebodiesofEuropean declaration called significance ofsport,particularitsrolein fo ofAmsterdamTreaty in1997.In this declar EU paidheedtothisfor th the firsttime in recognise theimportance of the EUtoexplicitly Although thismandate gavetheEUnospecial beregardedasachangeinexistingtrends. of may Amsterdam the Treaty As a consequence, variousnationalgovern Asaconsequence, strengthening andfostering the educa implementation ofaCommunity sports policy. offerednoroomTreaty interv forlarge-scale Accordingto the European th Commission, order toadvance thepromotion of sport in new partnershipbetweentheEuropeaninstitutions while at the same time assimilating a while atthesame assimilating time thecurrentstruct sport intheEU“andtherefore sport forEuropean identity andgaveits support member states.Inthekey publications that towards sport-relatedissuesatthelevelof adoptedanewapproach of Amsterdam,relations. AftertheTreaty theEuropeanCommission had focusedits attentionon sportsolely asan 10 model.to thepyramid alsoand thereby the traditional organisationalstru developmentcould damage the theclosedcompetitions might bereplacedby existing open sportcompetitions inEurope with so greatthatthe media organisations,wouldbecome inparticular enterprises, commercial gainedsurvive ifsport the asaneconomicactivity their autonomy. Ontheother,many wereconcer theeducational dimensions. In this way, EU also not only found theeconomicdimensionsofs Amongst other things,this commitmentgave wastodemonstrat One ofthechiefaims thereof European Council’s decision to 2004 the declare

9 8 7 6 5 European Commission 1999a. Seealso Europ European Commission. 1999a. etal2004. Tokarski European Commission 1997. European Commission 1998a; European Commission 1999a. 5

relationship between professional and amateur sport inEurope relationship betweenprofessionalandamateur sport 6

tional andsocialfunctionsof sport. changing economic andlegalenvironment. e Declaration on Sport, which was added tothe onSport, which wasadded e Declaration the European Unionaswellthatofindividual Europe. The Commission indicatedthattheEU Europe. TheCommission followed, the EUacknowledgedimportance of ation, theConferenceemphasised thesocial rging identity andbringing people together. The ention or support programmes, oreventhe port of importance, butalsoitssocialand that characterisetheAm economic factorandaninstrument ofpublic However, itdidemphasisecommitment to its ures oftheorganisationsport in Europe”, e tothecitizensofEuropethatCommunity their systems ofpromotion their systems and relegation to the preservation ofthesocialfunction toof thepreservation ned that the European modelned thattheEuropean ofsportwould not sport as a socio-cultural factorinEurope.The sport asasocio-cultural wanted to make Europeans aware oftheneed tomake aware wanted Europeans Union tolistensports when associations with special consideration fortheparticular withspecialconsideration European YearofEducationthrough Sport. cture of sport in the member states according according states cture ofsportinthemember , member states and sportsorganisations, member in states ments andsportsorga upper hand.They fearedthattheinfluenceof is approach demanded the establishment ofa is approachdemandedtheestablishment risetotheEuropean Parliament and to actively and directlypromote toactively sport, ean Council 2000. e.a.2004. Cf.Tokarski erican system. This erican system. nisations haveurged 9 7

Previously theEU Previously 8

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

11 =.04) and α

14 cial and educational cial and educational

the EU appears to be significantly related to to be significantly the EU appears per capita (Spearman’s rho: -.413, per capita (Spearman’s

10 tions that preceded it, it is clear thattions that preceded the 13 tion for Europe recapitulates this EU tion for Europe recapitulates upport for an interventional role for the EU in upport for an interventional role It is here stipulated that the Union shall here stipulated that It is er more extensively with sports organisations extensively with sports er more sport made in Nice in 2000, the European made in Nice in 2000, the sport t of sport participation and physical activity and physical t of sport participation nisations and other stakeholders. This is even nisations and other I-17 gives the European Union the authority to authority to Union the I-17 gives the European habits of students in Europe. The EU thus EU Europe. The students in habits of a sedentary and social isolation life way of accessible to every man and woman, with due accessible to every man and woman, The belief that social and educational values population is of the opinion that the EU should the EU should that opinion is of the population ntary action in the field of sport. This ntary of sport. in the field action their GNP per capita and the extent to which a their GNP e inclusion of sport in the European constitution the European constitution e inclusion of sport in oping within Europe presents great challenges oping to ions that never exercises or participates in sport in sport or participates exercises ions that never on of the European Union with ten new member ten Union with of the European on throughout the whole gamut of organised or gamut the whole throughout 12 usion can be advanced and a sedentary lifestyle untaryand its so activity =.001). α European issues regarding sport. However, these views vary the GDP on a purchasing power parity basis parity power the GDP on a purchasing (Spearman’s rho: .627, rho: (Spearman’s with with the percentage of the populat European Commission 2001. Commission European 2004. Council. European 2000. Council European 2001. Commission European role for The support for a more interventional 10 11 12 13 14

11

entitlement is further elucidated in Article III-282. is further elucidated in Article entitlement function. Article limitations. its in sport and involvement or complime coordinating carry supporting, out proposed Treaty The establishing a Constitu the specific taking account of issues, while sporting of European the promotion contribute to structures based on vol nature of sport, its can be transmitted, social integration and incl can be transmitted, social integration root of this. at the sport lay may through be combated to improve the physical condition and the social the physical and the condition to improve technologies. of new the increasing use stemming from conveyed its broader concern about the risks of about the broader concern its conveyed percent consider th majority than sixty of more citizens of Europe. A the new approach among this There is a broad base of support for useful and believe that the EU should work togeth work that the EU should useful and believe of the over half Just governments. and national intervene more with respectintervene more to considerablybetween member Indeed, the s states. participates in sport. regularly population of the greater proportion the member the member states decreases in relation to both The perspectivethat is currently devel on sport European institutions, member states, sportsEuropean institutions, member orga the casemore in the light of the recent expansi

individual competitive or recreational sports”. competitive individual the citizens of Europe. In a declaration on among the Constitution and the various publica From be activity should Council stated that “sporting aspirations and abilities, regard for individual EU recognises the importance of the advancemen of EU recognises the importance 1.2 of sport promotion Challenges for the wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 12 Athoroughknowledge of all ofthesestruct isn relationship tobroadersocietalprocesses 4). the declineincompetitiveand clubsport (seechapter andasharpriseintheaging informalisation popul have beendiminished. Culturaland demogra which theaverageworking hours havebeen exertion reducedandphysical during work time Thedevelopmentsinsportdescribedabove things beenblamed ontheprogressivegrowthin instead interwovenwithbroader societaldeve 2). related tothedegreeofaffluenceincountry concerned(seechapter determined thatthepercentageofpopulation sportparticipationbetween differences in whichis cultural diversity, distinctive to Eur Fourthly, these structuresanddevelopments tradition, sportpolicy and sporting identity. On countries tothe samedegree.Thesituationineach studiesinavariety patterns of countries differentresearch suggestthatthereare Firstly, democratisation, sport continu participationin of inequality with respect to developments insport partic this shouldyet not blinker onetotheexiste and levelofsportparticipation in Europemay throughout theincreased significantly secondhalf According to the dataavailable,sportpartic othercountriesnowalso knoc states andseveral elderly, but alsoelderly, young people. Moreover, whatisevenmorealarming isthat thatischaracterised lifestyle speak ofasedentary research hasindicatedthatagrow Thirdly, in theUnited States andCanada.Asfarascerta enough exercise this tobeableremainhealthy; ofsportsclubs,associations system setti practicedinacommercial which arepartly diversity insport isincreasing. Newsports toberatherone-sided,especia associations seems on the thatfocusesprimarily under pressure.Apolicy practice ofsportintheframework of sport withinthe contextof sports clubs,to whic This appliestotheorganised andcompetitive bran thereSecondly, aresignsofsportparticipationin participation in sportwithin of p avariety

16 15 Brettschneider & Naul 2004. Scheerder2003; Marivoet2001; Wagner1997. ipation both within andbetween individual memberstates. es to be socially structured. es tobesocially 16

opulation groups, such as the elderly, women,opulation groups, suchastheelderly, countries. Forexample, thepresentstudyhas and sportfederations(s nce ofimbalanced structuresandproblematic and sportingactivitiesarecontinuallyemerging, ipation throughout the entireEuropeancommunity sport. In spite ofitspopularisation and ope. Ontheother,ithas structural created phic developments, suchasindividualisation, ecessary tobeable to promote in ecessary participation lopments. Lackofexercise hasamongstother this patternisnotonly tobefound among the well beviewedfromsuch aglobal perspective, ng orelsewhere,outsideoftheinternational h the EU attaches great social importance, is greatsocialimportance, h theEUattaches in social groups are concerned, one may even in socialgroupsareconcerned,onemay the onehand,thishasledtoafascinating king at doorhopingto Brussels’ be letin. technologyandcomputerisation, as aresultof that never participatesinsportissignificantly variouscountries stagnating or even declining. by a structuralpatternofphysicalinactivity. isatrendthathad previously been identified lly giventhatthefitnessbranchisthriving and lly ation, have been presented as explanations ation, havebeenpresentedas for ches of sport in particular. Participation in ches ofsportin particular. Participation of the twentieth century. The of current degree the twentiethcentury. member istheproductofitsownsport state ing number ofpeoplein havenot occurred inavacuum, butare ures anddevelopments insportandtheir in sport participation do notoccurin all 15 See alsothereferencesinchapter 3. There is a lower degree of Thereisalowerdegree ee chapter2and3). ee Europe donotget Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

13 national governments in governments national to the Union in its supporting, its supporting, to the Union in the realisation of this book has shown, this shown, this has the realisation of this book obtain a complete picture of the level of development within the European Union. within the European development the trends and motivations related to this? the trends and motivations rences between the various member states in attach great importance to the intensification attach great importance physically The present study active. hopes to Yet this is exactly where the rub lies. Despite the rub lies. Despite is exactly where this Yet ffer insight into the available empirical data on ation in the member the member statesation in of the European is is not possible due to the lack of data, a on and non-sports participation at a European participation non-sports on and escribe the nature and extent of the practice of ited extentkey on theoretical insights into the on both a European level and a country-by- European level a on both ial organisations and public institutions institutions ial organisations and public the European Union collected data on sports the European Union collected data and effectively promoted so that increasingly so that increasingly and effectivelypromoted involved in the debate about a coordinated and a coordinated about in the debate involved ports organisations and and ports organisations ation within the European Union, the following the European ation within nd health in the European Union. The initiative for The initiative for Union. in the European nd health the basis of the results, wishes to establish a European Union, the nature of these trends, the Union, the European ned and measured in this regard? measured ned and nd non-participation in the European Union. This means that it Union. This is the European in non-participation nd sations and national governments sations and national governments this insight (see chapter this insight (see chapter 4).

To what extent have the member statesTo what extent have the member of defi how is sport and participation country basis? What are the keydrivers of sports participati states? member individual level and in the countries concerned in the andorganisations sporting governments To what extent do the attune themselves to these keydrivers? To what extent is further research necessary to What is the scale and nature of sport particip trends mayUnion and which be identified and European Union in the sport participation

many research studies on sport, there is still no uniform view with respect to the precise respect to the precise view with uniform still no manythere is on sport, research studies the trends in participation direction of sport sport and physical exercisesport and in Europe effectively. identified and the diffe the problems magnitude of of s the sport policy this regard. Furthermore, In order to improve insight into sport particip sport into insight In order to improve questions set the parameters for the present study. • drivers for sport participation a drivers for sport participation unclear in which way sport can be efficiently the various member statesthe various member is only based to a lim and remain become people enjoymore and sports contribute to the deepening of contribute to sports organi institutions, from are a concern to manyEuropean above that have been outlined The problems stretches further. Commerc much involvement also education concerned with welfare, health and inclusion a social thereby also to of sport and on this study who, partly was taken by Nike for the stakeholders who want to be platform community sport and for well-underpinned policy coordinating and complementary role. However, as and complementary role. However, coordinating sport in the various memberwhere th statessport in the – or, sport participation in the European Union. We d of several geographical example member states – and investigate whether it is possible to • • • to o aims In answering these questions, this book • 1.3 questions and aims Research wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 1.4 Defining sport

commercialisation ofthesupplycommercialisation of at improving the quality of life andphysical fitnessamongthe population andthe demanding work to factory inactiveofficework,th ma anincreaseinleisuretimeandincome by early 1970s. early of ways beha the spreadofmore ‘permissive’ athome orinthegyms. fitnessandaerobics followed by fashion, likejogging in the streets, badmint began topracticeincreasingly mo sportsina from Apart py changed considerablyincharacter. 1998 asthe‘EuropeanModel ofSport’. and under dispute invariouscountries,itwass system ofpromotions andrelegations.Although th organised onthebasisofperformance andastrictly configurations inwhichselectionismade to aninternationalsportsfederationalso. 14 or othersporting organisations thatareaffiliated sport inEurope. Asignificantproportion oftheEuropean population aremembers ofsportclubs international network ofsports clubs madeitpossiblefororganisedsporting fortheprac had accesstosportfacilitiesnecessary in thecontext ofsportclubs. sport Many clubs sportinUntil themid-twentieth century, most intended tostimulate sportparticipation. sport participation andnon-par addition tothis,wealsodiscussthetheoreticalstat on size ofthecurrent‘informationgap’ sports possible. is member states between the comparison trendsidentify onanational andEuropean levelonth sporting culture penetrated society atlarge. sporting culturepenetratedsociety more peoplestartedtoparticipateoutsidethesportsclubstructures. Atthesame the time,

This development was part of a wider process of what has been called ‘informalisation’: ‘informalisation’: hasbeencalled ofawiderprocesswhat This developmentwaspart Throughout the secondhalfofthetwentieth Today, organised competitive sportremainsanimportant cornerstoneforthepractice organisedcompetitive Today, of The worldof sports underwent significante 17 Inthefieldof sports, thisprocessof 19 18 17 Dietrich & Heinemann 1989. Rader1991. Wouters1986. associations andfederations. associations ticipation and the lessons that may be learnedforpolicymakingticipation andthelessonsthatmay sporting goods and exerciseproducts. A pyramid structure has arisen withinthese hasarisen structure A pyramid 19 on in theparks andvolleyball on the beach;later re informal,spontaneousandindividualised By the late seventies, sportswear and fashionwas and Bythelateseventies,sportswear competitions tobe held asapartofan ving, which gatheredmomentum inthe1960s and European countries took place almost exclusively European countriestook exclusively place almost participation levelsand till referred to by the EuropeanCommissionin till referredtoby were establishedforthispurpose. Theyusually ny western societies, ashiftfrom physically western societies, ny to anationalsports fede ramid structuredsportsorganisations, people informalisation was pushed and accelerated waspushedand informalisation accelerated tice ofoneormore typesofsport.These e of affairs with respect to the key drivers of respect tothekey e ofaffairswith is pyramid structureisvulnerabletoerosion e realisation of a social welfare policy aimed policy e realisationofasocialwelfare Moreover, this data isusedtodetermine the xpansion anddiversification. Moreand century, century, however, thepracticeofsporthas e basisofthisdataandtheextenttowhich trends in Europe. In ration andthrough this 18

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

15 Consequently, the Consequently, 20 past few decades. One did not even exist or were did not even exist y. Here we understand sport as a ion surveys and sport association membership membership and sport association ion surveys Only in few countries, like Italy and in few Spain, Only countries, like Italy also related to this. More than ever before, ey are now part of the extensive package of extensive are now part of the ey cation and differentiation, there is a greater cation and differentiation, ‘sport’. byfurthered This is the fact that hunting and angling have been left out in all hunting and angling have define sport very broadly; indeed much more more indeed much define sport very broadly; pean Sports Charter as “all forms of physical as “all forms pean Sports Charter people (in contrast to fifty years ago) perceive years to fifty (in contrast people differentiated and diffuse phenomenon, which phenomenon, differentiated and diffuse fting, mountain biking, , freestyle snowboarding, freestyle biking, fting, mountain social relationships or obtaining results in socialresults relationships or obtaining just these sports themselves that just these sports themselves are new. Their sport science literature. In North America, sport sport science literature. In North America, manifestation of organised competitive sport, r things, which could formerly be seen only be seen which could formerly r things, on rdening actually a sport?), it expresses the broad rdening actually it expresses a sport?), rn in the streetsrn in the even by fashion, as normal non- activities from physicalactivities from recreation to exercise and tivity that is governed, structured and competitive. structured and competitive. tivity is governed, that also deviate from whatalso deviate from was usual in traditional ecades aerobics, step aerobics,ago. Fitness, power participation, aim at expressing or improving at expressing or improving participation, aim nd cultural sense during the applied to exercise exercise and physical applied to recreation (or the yearthe a broad spectrum with the 2004 encompasses verse ways and in divergent contexts and contexts verse ways and in divergent to occupational physical activity). to occupational while these and various other sports while these and various have also adopted in this stud have also adopted in this Although this definition mayAlthough this also be contested (are Olympic 21

22 statistics on sports participation in this book. participation statistics on sports figures. these activities are included in sport participat these activities Bouchard & Shephard 1994; Biddle & Mutrie 2001; Tammelin 2003. Tammelin & Mutrie 2001; 1994; Biddle Shephard Bouchard & 1999. See COMPASS however, For reasons of comparability, 20 21 22 As a consequence of diversifi of this process In this way, sport has become a strongly In this way, sport has become

the sports fields or in the gyms, were being wo were being gyms, fields or in the the sports merging and soon sports shoes, shirts, and othe shoes, soon sports and merging sports participants. collective term that embraces a broad scale of that collective term embraces competitive sport. shooting and not reallyshooting and sports, but is ga we interpretation of sport that

physical fitness and mental well-being, forming physical fitness and well-being, forming mental competition at all levels.” has defined ‘sport’ in the Euro in has defined ‘sport’ Council of Europe activity causal or organised through which, is a term generally used to refer to physicalac generallyused to refer is a term sport is also In contrast, in Europe the term sport has been ‘upgraded’ in both a social a in both sport has been ‘upgraded’ customary within the American is broadly than leisure-time physical activity as opposed practiced sports available. Furthermore, it is not Furthermore, practiced sports available. di is practiced for many ends, in different sport is How people experience organisational forms. label their activities as tendency to people have the as sporting behaviour. we historical development, In view of this unknown in Europe in the beginning of the 1970s, th the 1970s, of beginning Europe in the in unknown customs, rituals and ways they are practiced in of the consequences of this is that sport and at the other, all kinds of physical activity that , scuba diving, triathlons; skiing, scuba competitive sports. the ultimate as at one extreme, games Olympic variety on offer todayof sports d than a few ra skateboarding, tae bo, BMX biking, pumping, wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 1.5 Research methods member stat Unfortunately, therearefew sport participationandphysicalactivity are peri is basedondifferent definitionsandmethods. Tre canbecompar participation activity and physical characteristics oftherespondents.Th duration, context andmotives forsportpar theinformationare valuablewithrespectto th techniques for secondary analysis. techniques forsecondary various countries shouldbe Firs underestimated. method, thesample size,theperiodofreference, theuseofaprompt card in this:thedescription and definition of the notio 1 in therecordedfiguresforsport participation of up to forty percent. conductedinoneand research single thesam year, thecomparison of terms. Suchdisparitiesrender which canleadtodifferences inquestionnaires, Moreover, whereverpossiblesecondaryan level, andmembership figures ofsportsor data onsportcollected: survey participation a countriescouldbe different differences between European Unionandtoexploretheextent participation behaviour thatareav and exercise tobringtogethertheextensive, was precisely conducted into sportparticipation in the EU or theexistingdataonsport surveys This research intensity ofthe andsoforth. intensity activity, sports mentionedandtheir wording, the nature 6

Nevertheless, this does not necessarily meanth thisdoesnot necessarily Nevertheless, Surveys onsport developed aregenerally and 24 23 26 25 COMPASS 1999; Mussino2002.increase To Hartmann-Tews 1996. AsGrattonhasdoneinthecontextthe of ISI/CONI1994;COMPASS 1999; Mussino2002. 2001. for example,may . notconsidertobesport, likelyto beunderestimated,particularly t for research hasindicated that,ifapromptcardis listed), again creatingproblems ofvalidity in use differentpromptcards(with regards to be all-inclusive and thusneedtoincludeanopen of unquantifiable variationand likely under-repor allowed toself-definetheactivities they cons prompt cardsisconsideredgood practice whichfrom therespondents identifythose sports surveys, makeuse ofaprompt mostcountries 26 Secondly, Secondly, nationalhowever surveys, differentthey may be, 25 irdly, with the necessary caution, irdly, withthe necessary

es thatpossesssuchlongitudinaldata. ganisations from theindividualmember states. ticipation, in relationtothe background alyses were conductedonthedatabases. were alyses whichan overview ofthe trendswithand but highly fragmented research data on sport data buthighlyfragmentedresearch nd on anationalandphysical activity EU-wide at they provide about thenature,frequency, theindividual member states.Indeed,thegoal ofquestions aboutthe durationand frequency, ailable in the various member states ofthe states inthevariousmember ailable researchdesigns,methodology and definition of odically repeatedinanidenticalfashion. odically participation. No new primary research has been researchhasbeen participation. No new primary created.Twotypes ofexisting data were research results problematic. Even withina resultsproblematic.Even research tly, increasing use has been made ofrefined has been tly, increasinguse ns of sport andphysicalactivity, the interview ed with eachother,eveniftheunderlying data ed nds on reallybetracedwhensurveys can only e country canresultinsignificant differences : ifcardsarenotusedandrespondents are COMPASS-project; seebelow. Cf.Rüttenetal conducted independently of one another, both the number and the wordingboth thenumberand ofthesports hose recreational activitiesthatmany people at the value of the available data in the at thevalueofavailabledatain making cross-nationalmaking comparisons. Previous ider to be sports, then thismayider leadtoalevel tobesports, card. These cards These providealistofsports card. notused,thelevelofsportsparticipationis the objectivity andcomparability ofthe ting. However,these promptcardscannot inwhichhave participated. use they of The category. differentcountries Moreover, 23 Various factors play arole play Variousfactors trend directions 24 , thenumber of insport Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 1 tionally standardised taken part in the last twelve months, and last twelve months, taken part in the ation part of an organised competition? ation part of an organised competition? ken part in each over the last twelve part in each ken ch data on sport and physicalch data sport and on activity has malist approach to making comparisons approach comparisons to making malist have mentioned in 2 and 3 in the last four in the 2 and 3 mentioned in have ccasions have youtaken part in each over the ccasions have pplication of interna pplication sports participation: a quantitative component; component; sports participation: a quantitative the available research data. Amongst other data. Amongst other research the available s with the question of whether the sport was of whether the s with the question physical activities not listed on the card? If so, activities not listed on the card? physical rnational Physical Activity Questionnaires’ COMPASS recommends the adoption of five ve taken part in each activity. de a comparison participation for six of sport the fifteen countries that made up the European the fifteen countries e frequency of participation over a year. The over a participation e frequency of (organisational) component. The quantitative The component. (organisational) SportS) and the HETUS project (Harmonised the HETUS project (Harmonised and SportS) ompt card. However, COMPASSompt expects that rnational health promotion campaigns. campaigns. rnational health promotion in the framework of the COMPASS project (directed at the of the COMPASS project in the framework COMPASS 1999. 1999. COMPASS 27

27 Yes/No occasions was the participation part of the activities of a On any of these youor association of which are a member? Yes/No On any of these occasions was the particip On any of these

b. a. The COMPASS network has adopted a mini The COMPASS network has In order to measure these dimensions, In order to measure In addition to this, the comparability of resear to this, the comparability In addition Hallam University, (Sheffield COMPASS project, Chris Gratton In the context of the

last four weeks? Have you taken part in any of the activities on this card in the last twelve months? months? on this card in the last twelve of the activities part in any Have you taken you have in which all the activities have, list If you Have you you taken part in any of the activities o weeks? If so, which ones, and on how many the number of occasions (i.e. days) you ha you of occasions (i.e. days) the number or other sport(s) part in any Have you taken have you ta which ones, and how many occasions months? and 3 above: 2 in For all the activities you mentioned

between different countries, offering a framework for the analysis structure of the of a framework between different countries, offering basic components of on three based participation a qualitative component; and an institutional and an institutional a qualitative component; component of participation is measured by th is measured participation of component qualitative component relates to whether any of the occasions was competitive or not. was competitive relates any to whether of the occasions qualitative component deal organisational component the Furthermore, practiced as a of a member sports club or otherwise. increased overincreased and a due to the development time context of inte in the (IPAQ) developed a surveyof to produce 1998 in England UK) was commissioned Sport and Sport CONI, UK by for that were available the national databases Gratton ma time. Further to this, Union at that basis of a secondarycountries on the analysis of things, his research resulted in recommendations for the harmonisation of research into sport participation. questionnaires, such as those used questionnaires, such of Participation in CO-ordinated Monitoring Studies), and like the ‘Inte Use European Time to card, acknowledging it is not feasible that use of a prompt requires the This framework suggest that everyuses the same country pr core questions in sports participation surveys: core questions in sports participation 1. 2. 5. 3. 4. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society Slovakia, andSpaininthe near future. datawillalso beavailablefro time usesurvey the European guidelines and did not therefore produ for Denmark, ,the NetherlandsandPort research thatisbased Thetimeuse available during twodays attime werealso time usesurveys intervalsoftenminutes.Similar diaries through whichrespondentsprovide detailedinsightsinto spend how they their time ,Hungary, Slovenia, SwedenandtheUnited Kingdom) accordingto these guidelines. conducted in ten differentEuropeancountries (B inwhichEuropeansspendth statistics ontheway surveys participation and physical activity canon participation activity and physical countriesthereisalackofrepeatedresear most data co however,involveresearch comparisons, thisschemecannowbe COMPASS recommendations, institutesinanincreasingnumberthat research of 18 atleast10minuteslifting, heavy atatime.digging, aerobics,orfastcycling, Other much harder than breathe include normalmay makeyou and asactivitiesthat are illustrated involve did effortthatthey hard physical the WHO.UsingIPAQ,respondentsare requested the initiative of MichaelBooth(University of developed in the contextof international hea importance ofculturalvariation. not in the core listbutparticularly relevant card, andthateachcountry couldaddasupplementa countries couldagreeona core listofsportsth competition participation,impossible.competition into theCOMPASSgroups, frequency andth questionnaires. Thisoftenrenders boththe classi European research,suchasth guidelines accordingtotheCOMPASS comparisons <60), regular ( according to whichpeop sport frequency and participationincompetitions canbe made. ofthefrequency schememultidimensional and comparisons of participation, clubmembership

. In2004, theEuropean Commission published itsfirstcompendium ofEuropean The internationally standardisedThe internationally physicalquestionnaire activity IPAQhasbeen The HETUSprojecthasproduced With thehelpofthisframework,spor ≥ 60-<120) or intensive( 30 29 28 European Commission 2004b. European Commission 2004a. COMPASS 1999. http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/sportcompass.htm e Eurobarometers that will shortly be discussed,usesother thatwillshortly e Eurobarometers 28

30 ≥

120) participants insportca le are classified asincidental( le areclassified ly beidentifiedly toalimited extent. during theprevious week.Thesevigorousactivities Guidelines onharmonised European timeuse intheir owncountry. This wouldrecognisethe on theseguidelinesemploys questionnairesand lth concernsandhealth promotion campaigns, on eir correlation and withclubmembership t participationcanbesummarisedina m Bulgaria, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania,mBulgaria, Italy, Poland, New South , Australia) and supported by New SouthWales, Australia) and at allcountrieswould includeon their prompt Additionally, ontheAdditionally, basisofthis, the annual ch studies, whichmeansthattrendsinsport ch studies, llected from different periods.Moreover,in fromllected different fication of the population’s sporting ofthe population’s behaviour fication elgium, Estonia,Finland,France, Germany, ugal, methodsbut theirsurvey deviatedfrom eir time, based on time use surveys thatwere eir time, basedontimeusesurveys countrieshavestartedtomakeuseofthese to thinkaboutall thevigorous activities that ce comparable results. Itisexpectedthat ce comparable results. ry listofsports to this,comprisingry sports is also hampered by thefactthatpan- by is alsohampered appliedtonine European countries. The (accessed01/12/2004). n alsobedetermined. Given ≥ -<12), irregular( 29 Increasingthese ≥ - Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

19

32 use it to identify long term use it to identify long term on national population research on

. 31 EB47.2 (1997); EB50.1 (1998); EB52.1 EB50.1 (1998); EB47.2 (1997); EB62.0 (2004). (2003); EB60.0 (2003); consumer attitudes to physical activity, consumer cally been conducted, but until the end of but until the callybeen conducted, wing Eurobarometers (EB): EB19 (1983); EB28 EB28 EB19 (1983); (EB): Eurobarometers wing t providers have secured a larger market t providers have secured a larger market rmerly participated in the sport concerned or rmerly concerned participated in the sport nd Europe-wide level, we approached our level, we approached nd Europe-wide which European citizens spendwhich European their leisure involved in the production or analysis of sport or the production involved in contributors to this study). We asked them for them study). We asked this contributors to ever possible, were subdivided into frequency, frequency, into subdivided ever possible, were insight into the differences between the various www.ipaq.ki.se sation of sport and socio-demographic variables. sation of sport and rometers have alsorometers been used. The pan EU- e most frequently practiced sports in surveys. ented with information from secondaryented from literature with information such as walking, cycling and fitness. It is such as walking, cycling ity), the EUPASS network (European Physical EUPASS network (European ity), the e publications of various European research European e publications of various Use), the European Time earch Network on ontext. They provide no insight whatsoever into Theyprovide no insight whatsoever ontext. nt on the degree to which participation in sport in sport degree to which participation nt on the ons on the frequency, duration and intensity of intensity frequency,duration and ons on the ready been collected and published in various collected and published ready been me manner in which the extent dealt with, the me esting pan-European survey sport data on esting pan-European by clubs. As sport participation increasingly takes As sport by clubs. the HEPA network (European Network for the (European the HEPA network several decades, it possible to is haviour were only sporadically included. Although sport Although only sporadically included. haviour were tion and physical activity, based tion and and EB28.1 (1987); EB33 and EB34.2 (1990); EB34.2 (1990); (1987); EB33 and and EB28.1 and EB2003.1 (2001); EB58.2 (1999); EB55.1 For more information on IPAQ see For more information on IPAQ 2001. Van Bottenburg See also are posed in the follo Questions on sport 31 32 33

33 However, suchmembers of sports Firstly,not all has significant limitations. data also To obtain existing data on both a national a a national both data on To obtain existing This data was also compared figures of sports organisations. The with the membership Since 1973, the Eurobarometers have periodi the Since 1973, On a Europe-wide level, a ‘pan-EU survey on

trends in the development of the popularity of individual branches of sport. branches of individual of the popularity development trends in the clubs are active fo sport participants. Many of them statistics these are function of the club. Secondly, are primarilymembers due to the social c related to sport participation in a competitive or commerciallysports, the informal organised precisely these sports that come to the fore as th Thirdly, the use of this data is highly depende of this data is highly the use Thirdly, occurs within the context of sport organised occurs within the context of sport organised and as commercialplace in schools/universities spor share, these limited figures offer a more membership view of reality. contacts in all of the EU member states who were EU member contacts in all of the provides is that it information this advantage of often al branches of sport. Since this data has statesEuropean Union member for participation surveysparticipation (see the preface for a list of participa existing data on sport area, such as are active in this groups that Health-Enhancing Physical Activ of Promotion COMPASS network. Heart Network, and the conducted during the last ten years, which, wher years, which, last ten the conducted during organi of sport, the branches duration, intensity, th the countriesdata from from in question and Activity System), Surveillance the RNTU (Res The data provided by our contacts was supplem byThe data provided our contacts the 1990s questions on sport be on sport questions the 1990s and physicalactivityparticipation were to so

questionnaires of this kind also include questi also include of this kind questionnaires physical that activities than normal. one breathe harder make surveyon consumer attitudes concerned the wayin behaviour. body weight and health’ and the various Euroba and health’ and the various weight body time. The various Eurobarometers offer inter wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society . Structureofthebook 1.6 theories aboutthedeterminants ofsport be explore socialisationfactors.Inaddition,this motivation factor with respectto psychology sport participation andnon-par 20 discussed. andknowledge gaps inresearch ande activitycanbemost effectively physical to this,thefourth andthe concludingchapterd driver explorethekey perspective and a theoretical In thefourth chapter, wediscussexplanations information eachindividualmember withrespectto conducted at a pan-European level.Thethir regard. Inthe secondchapter,theoverview is participation within theEuropeanUnionand third chaptersprovideadescriptiveempirical This book is comprised ofempirical, theoreti in 2002 aEurobarometer washeldconcentrati behaviour and theimage sport,which used of wereheldamongsurveys thecitizensofEU the European Year ofEducationthrough Sport,in 2003 and2004 newmore (and extensive) the or are hardly not possible.Inrecentyears, thatco questions wereposedvariedsogreatly

An extensive literature study was also conducted An extensiveliteraturestudywasalsoconducted 34 The various The Eurobarometers onsportbehaviour ticipation. Thisfocusedonliterature from thefieldofsport aboutsportdevelopment intheEuropean Union are also haviour and thedropping out of sport. d chapter provides empirical depthto this s as well asstudiesfrom that well sportsociology s as cal and policy-related chapters. Thesecondand cal andpolicy-related overviewoflevels literature study focused onareviewofscientific literature study mparisons with respect to differences across time withrespecttodifferencesacross mparisons based on international comparative research based on ng on the physical activity of EU citizens. activity ng onthephysical questions Furthermore, suitablefor comparison. fficiently promoted. Inthisregard, the current improved.collection of data hasgreatly Dueto for the differences that havebeenidentifiedfromfor the differences that eal with the way in theway which sportparticipationand eal with member stateswithregardtotheir sport differences between the member states inthis states differences themember between s ofsportparticipation further. Asacorollary state on the basis of national research data. data. state onthebasisofnationalresearch for this research intothekeyfor this research drivers of are dealt with extensivelyare dealtwith 2. inchapter and trendsinsport 34

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

21 120 times a 120 times ≥ participation level. In the statesmember in this respect. Finland to ‘regular or intensive sport participation’ intensive sport to ‘regular or gular or intensive sport ). When one considers the percentage of the tal population regularly or intensively exercises once again Finland (4%) at both extremes (seeextremes once again Finland (4%) at both Union and sport, which was conducted in 2004 in 2004 was conducted and sport, which Union 60 times a year; see chapter 1), while 17% of all n: levels, trends and trends n: levels, the bottom of the league with only 22%. This is a 22%. This is league with only of the the bottom ≥ y ( participants in sport of intensive Europe has reached a special high levels. In Moreover, the percentage of the European population doing doing population Moreover, the percentage of the European that they exercise or play or sport three times more a week. In 35 The question asked “How often do you exercise or play sport.” often exercise or play do asked “How Theyou question 35 The downside is, of course, that 40% of the European population indicated that they indicated population the European of is, of course, that 40% The downside

Sport in the European Unio in the European Sport

Eurobarometer on the citizens of the European on the citizens of the European Eurobarometer states 25 EU member of the inhabitants of the 60% Commission, European on behalf of the every so often. in sport or exercise stated that they participate at all. sport never exercise or play It is clear that in sport in participation 2003, 38% of the total population of the fifteen member states participated in sport or exercised states participated in sport fifteen member the of the total population of 38% 2003, or less corresponds at least once a week, which more exercise or sport focuses on a re falls sharply if one according to the COMPASS General Model ( is the most active sporting nation: 76% of the to active sporting is the most at finds itself or participates in sport. Hungary figure 2.1. difference of 54 percentage points (see that never exercises or plays differences, population 62 namely there are even bigger sport, and (66%) percentage points, between Portugal figure 2.2.). European Union citizens revealed they the categor belong to COMPASS terms, year). There are alsodifferences between significant

differentiation 2. 2.1 and general trends Overall levels wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 22 Source: (2004). frequency byplay sport, exerciseor do over and who 15 aged states 15 in EU member population of 2.1Percentage Figure

100% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 0% Finland

Sweden 76 15 9

Den 18 72 m 9 ark 60 31 I 10 Ne reland the 40 53

rland 7

s 41 52 7 UK 45 10 Franc 45

Belgiume 46 43 Luxembourg 10 European Commission, Eurobarometer 62.0, 2004. 62.0, Eurobarometer Commission, European 49 343 43 9 Germany 52 6 39

Austr 53 8

ia 34 55 Spa 11

in 57 37 7 It al Gr y 67 27 eec 6 Po e 68 26 rtugal 6 22 73 EU25 5 38 53 11 tlatoc eek w a once least at timesmonth1-3 a often/never/dk less Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

23 40 4 7 17 24 28 31 31 34 34 35 sport participation within the fifteen sportthe participation within 36 to 9 percentage points). Only in Italyand to 9 percentage points). 36 be determined whether participation in the countries in the west find themselves in countries in the 36 ployed. Undoubtedly the availability of data ployed. the availability of Undoubtedly uce data that is suitable for comparison. uce data that is suitable for comparison. of the population regularly or intensively regularly of the population two Eurobarometers mark the beginning of a mark two Eurobarometers 40 participation can be derived from the above two from derived can be participation e last decades. There were indeed questions on an for 2003. The significant increase in most an for 2003. The significant increase in most candinavian countries and lowest in the southern and lowest in the southern countries candinavian nce between the countries lie behind this ates in sport and the GDP per capitaates in sport and the on a purchase are not appropriate for comparison. In 2003 and In 2003 comparison. are not appropriate for ub membership), target groups (primarily young (primarily target groups ub membership), significant correlation between the percentage of 40 in 1983, 1987, 1990 and annually since 1997, but but since 1997, annually and 1990 1987, in 1983, = .006). = .006). α 43 46 47 47 t than the European average. t than the 48 48 57 58 60 66 0 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

of sport A geographical structure in the degree figures. The levels of sport are highest in the S figures. The levels of sport are highest Union, while and eastern countries of the European years,member or states.original EU During these the percentage of people who exercised playedat least once a week increased sport Finland and 35% to 38%. Greece, Belgium, from 2003 and 2004 show an increase in The data from France bore witness to even greater increases (from 6 Figure 2.2: Percentage of population in 25 EU member states aged 15 and over whom never do whom never over and 15 aged states EU member 25 in of population Percentage 2.2: Figure exercisesport or play (2004). Source: European Commission, Eurobarometer 62.0, 2004. this structure: in Czech Republic, Slovakia, deviate from of countries A number the middle. a higher percentage Slovenia, Malta and Cyprus, prod approach, which should research longitudinal Austria were th the percentages for 2004 lower exercises in or participates spor Great differences in the level of afflue basis (Spearman’s rho: -.530; power parity it cannot On the basis of the Eurobarometers so greatly that the results people), or differed was or less identical questionnaire em 2004 a more on will improve greatlyif these geographical structure. There appears to be a the population that never exercises or particip sport has actually increased over th or declined Eurobarometers in (standard) sport included (particularlythese dealt with cl other subjects wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 24 (Kendall’s W:.878; sign. .000). studies,therankingordershavedispla research several othermethodological activityaswell physical differencesbetweenthevarious 2.1. and 2.2.). Inspiteofdivergent persp studiesaboutthelevel Whenthedata ofpan-Europeanresearch of sport from anumber cons extremely of themember stateshasremained ar member states participation intheindividual that theincreaseinsportparticipationsuggest the sameapproach andquestions should establish wh decline insport participationinsome countries. differentiated development between from theindividualmember chapter3for (see Thesedatapointtoamore states more details). distorted theresults. Thissuspicionisreinforced may have methodological countries suggeststhat differencesbetweenthesebarometers

the various member states and toastagnation,oreven thevariousmember statesand ectives onandquestionsabout exercise,sportand ed by the 2003and ed by 2004 datawillcontinue. e compared, itappearsthattheorderofranking e compared, yed a highly significantdegreeofconcordance ahighly yed The repeatoftheEurobarometers using exactly by the analysis of the researchdata supplementary analysis by tant throughout the past seven years (see table (seetable tant throughoutthepastsevenyears ether there is real evidence of atrend,i.e. ether thereisrealevidence Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

25 . Source: Martinez-Gonzalez tions of at least 30 minutes per per minutes 30 least at of tions demonstrates that demonstrates applies to the this not only onsistencyof a geographical structure, which activity inweek a typical of EuropeanFood Studies (IEFS). meet the physical activity recommenda the meet

This concurrence underscores the existence and c Sources: * Percentages that do not not do that Percentages * Sources: differences.is related to socio-economic The table day. Source: European Commission 1999b. N.B.:data Based on about recreationalphysical activity only. outResearch carriedby the Institute ** Percentage practicing any recreational physical UK 48 UK 77 France 23 Luxembourg 52 Belgium 49 Belgium 52 Luxembourg Sweden Finland 32 Finland 23 Sweden 92 Ireland Sweden 33 France 40 Sweden Finland 90 Austria Austria 35 52 17 Finland Netherlands 43 37 Finland Luxembourg Netherlands 85 28 Ireland 38 Luxembourg UK Denmark 87 52 UK 77 15 29 Denmark Denmark 18 Sweden Austria 87 W-Germany UK 78 Luxembourg 38 Denmark 46 Denmark 47 Luxembourg 23 18 31 24 Austria Netherlands 77 49 28 Ireland Netherlands 41 W-Germany UK 48 Germany71 50 UK 51 France 25 Netherlands 44 Ireland Germany 56 46 40 Greece 45 France France 62 Portugal 73 Spain Spain 63 Ireland 65 Portugal 70 Italy Portugal 15 22 France Italy 65 Italy 63 Belgium Portugal 40 56 Germany Belgium Greece 66 67 Portugal 83 53 Spain 62 21 E-Germany 57 Austria Belgium 62 E-Germany 62 18 Spain 20 Italy 55 21 Belgium Total EU 15 60 Greece 58 Spain 57 59 Italy 68 Total EU 15 57 31 Total EU 15 67 23 Total EU 15 54 Total EU 24 53 Greece 12 Greece 76 1997 % 1997 % 1999 % 2003 % 2004 % 2003 % Table 2.1: Percentage of populationEU member in 15 states aged 15 whoand over do exercise, 1999sport and physical% activity, rankedaccording of to the participation level according to various standardised pan-EU surveys, 1997-2004. 1997 % IEFS* IEFS** 1997% EB*** EB**** EB***** et.al. (2001). Research carried out by IEFS. carried out by et.al. (2001). Research ***Percentage that spendfree time on their sports most and physical activities. Source:European P1472), Archive, Steinmetz Amsterdam, file, (computer 1999 52.1, Eurobarometer Commission, Brussels. European Source: never. or a month once than less sport play or exercise that Percentage **** (2003). Commission European Source: never. or a month once than less sport play or exercise that Percentage ***** (2004c). Commission wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society

2 is lowestinFranceandhighestScandinavia. reason forthis liesintheamount ofleisuretimeav Slovenia surpasseseventheScandinaviancount to walkingand hiking. When timespentonsport is datashowsthatthisisprimar time useresearch ofthe and sport.Furtheranalysis morethe Slovenianpopulation exercise does comparatively the Eurobarometer 62.0from 2004(seefigure2.2), wh and so games, andfitnessexercise, gymnastics more specifica broadestsenseand exercise inits tosport active withregard (see table2.3.). this methodit seemsthatonceagaintheinhabita alsooffersdeeperinsightinto differences, but harmonisedresearch, ona The timeuse European 15 Sources: see table 2.1. 14 14 15 Portugal 15 14 13 Greece 10 12 8 15 15 Italy 13 10 12 13 9 12 Spain 14 11 9 11 7 14 Belgium 12 8 13 12 9 9 Germany 10 11 13 11 France 5 5 8 9 11 7 Luxembourg 6 6 7 UK10 2004 4 3 2003 Austria 4 7 4 1999 5 Netherlands 1 1997 4 3 1997 5 3 Ireland 2 3 8 2 10 6 Denmark 3 1 2 Finland 4 2 7 1 Sweden 1 1 2 8656 1997-2004 surveys, pan-EU the physical standardised various in activity and level the sport to of exercise, according ranked states, of 15 EUmember orders 2.2:Ranking Table activity). broader context(recreationalphysical more rest extent towhichsportispracticedina

6

37 36 European Commission 2004a. Seetheelucidation ofthevariousresearch studies used intable 2.1. They devote the most time per day tosportand most devotethe timeperday They sport participation andph 37 ily caused by agreat causedby dealoftimebeingdevotedily ricted sense (sport and exercise),butalsoinafar sense (sportand ricted 36 on). These data also corroboratethe findingsofon). These dataalso ries andisonly supersededby France. The lly to active sports(includinglly jogging, ball

nts of theScandinaviancountriesmost arethe

scale, not only results incomparable scale,notonly ailable, which,inallofthecountries studied, considered as a percentage of total free time, percentage oftotalfreetime, consideredasa Mean 14. 13. 12.2 12. 11. 9.2 9.2 7. 6. 5. 5. 5. 4.4 1, 1.4 ich suggestthat,inthe contextofEurope, 8 0 6 8 6 0 6 6 6 0 ysical activity. Using activity. ysical Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 2

9 12 10.5 46 5 in time spent per day and as per day in time spent 13 17 15 time on the activity, % per day time on the activity, % per day

Proportion of people spent any who Proportion of people spent any who

Active sports*** Active UK UK UK ection betweenection 1998-2002, country). per varies 0:39 Finland37 0:36 Sweden33 38 32 37.5 32.5 0:13 Finland 190:13 Germany 17 20 15 19.5 16 0:32 France9 0:31 Slovenia10 13 11 11 10.5 0:34 Slovenia 31 33 32 0:12 Norway14 16 15 0:30 Finland9 10 9.5 0:34 Germany 33 29 31 0:12 Sweden 11 16 13.5 0:29 Sweden 8 10 9 0:32 Norway31 30 30.5 0:09 Slovenia 100:09 Estonia 11 13 10 11.5 10.5 0:28 9 Germany 8 8.5 0:29 France 22 28 25 0:08 0:28 Norway 8 9 8.5 0:27 Belgium 17 230:20 Hungary 11 16 20 13.5 0:226 Estonia 9 7.5 0:07 Belgium 7 10 8.5 0:22 0:19 Estonia - - - 0:18 Belgium 5 7 6 0:05 France 6 10 8 0:17 Hungary 50:14 6 5.5 0:04 Hungary 3 5 4 among womenamong aged 20 to 74 and men Sports and exercise excludingwalking dog* Sports and exercisewalking including dog** 0:12 0:15 0:11 0:15 0:35 0:42 0:33 0:39 0:28 0:37 0:26 0:36 0:29 0:40 0:12 0:13 0:28 0:33 0:31 0:37 0:09 0:16 0:23 0:36 0:32 0:32 0:07 0:12 0:28 0:29 0:23 0:36 0:05 0:11 0:25 0:32 0:22 0:33 0:17 0:28 0:05 0:10 0:18 0:26 0:15 0:23 0:15 0:22 0:04 0:06 0:13 0:21 0:02 0:06 Hours and minutes per day Hours and minutes per day

Hours and minutes per day Percentage of total free time

0:07 0:12 0:17 0:24

percentage ofpercentage time (data coll total free Women Men Mean# Women Men Mean Norway Finland Women Men Mean# Women Men Mean Finland Sweden Women Men Mean# Women Men Mean Finland Slovenia Table 2.3: Sports and exercise Sports and exercise Table 2.3: Slovenia Germany Norway Norway Sweden France Germany Germany Slovenia Germany Germany France UK France Sweden Estonia Estonia Belgium Belgium UK Hungary Belgium Estonia

Hungary Hungary UK 0:11 0:18 wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 28 participation. motivstudies demonstrate thatthe Thetimeuse othe surveyormany means ofaEurobarometer experience, whichmay berootedinmore prof live(3%). where you sport’ (25%), ‘it istooexpensive’ (4%) and‘t respondents couldchoosefromand werelessfrequen of timeas themost important reasonfor not participating inany sport. Otherreasonsthat also corroborated this:34% ofnon-participants in respondents’ failure toparticipateinsport( researchstudiessuggestthata‘lackof Many Source: European Commission 2004a, pp. 84-87, 94-95. # This does not concern a weighted average. games, ball jogging, include sports Active *** here. included not domestic istherefore work.The in figure and care from pet separately not be distinguished could inthe thedog time walking research In use France, ** centre). but are not actual exercise, for example, assembling orchanging clothes at the sports and sports rela herbs), berries, mushrooms and picking * Includes walking, hiking, active sports (see below), productive exercise (covers hunting, fishing, and

gymnasticsand fitness exercise, and so on. see chapter4).TheEurobarometer 213heldin 2004 time’ reasonforthe isthemost important here arenosuitablesportsinfrastructurescloseto ound motivations that cannot berevealed by r research studiesintothemotivesr research behindsport ted activities (include activities that are related to thatarerelated activities (include activities ted sport intheEU member statespointto alack tly selected were: ‘you do not liketo tly selectedwere:‘you play e ‘a lack oftime’ isbasedonsubjective e ‘alack Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

29 physical least

% of total% population or that never exercises plays sport of people% give that never play lack sport who reason as main of time totalFree time of men totalFree time of women spent on televisionTime and videos by men spent on televisionTime and videos by women spent by men on sports and exercises Time spent by women on sports and exercises Time Hours and minutes per day per minutes and Hours 7:12 6:00 4:48 3:36 2:24 1:12 0:00 nded to include physical activities thatnded to include physical also level of sport participation is also relativelylevel of sport and in or around the house (individually and at ‘a lack of time’ is their most important important is their most at ‘a lack of time’

total free time and spent time on exercise and

of all countries spend four to twelve times the times to twelve of all countries spend four

land as a motivation ‘a lack of time’ and give time

n and Danes also had surprisingly low scores in e score with regard their total amount of e score with regard their total amount

Fi andthat the Scandinavians walk spend less more rk or around the house, then the previously then the previously the house, rk or around as main reason for non-participation in eight EU y other the not, however, apply to This does ty’. Nevertheless, proportionally speaking, both ty’. Nevertheless, proportionally speaking, ppear. This emerged from a Eurobarometer on from ppear. This emerged activity. The Germans spend the least amount of activity. Germans spend the least amount The ries with the highest percentage of non-sports the highest percentage ries with

ed Finland to be the country with the ed Finland to be the country with the

erman G

and videos than doing exercise or sport. This also applies to exercise or sport. This doing than videos and Estonia

UK

ce

n

r 62.0 (213) 2004; European Commission 2004a.

ra

F

y r

ga

Hun

gium l

Be a

eni

v

0 o

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Sl Percentage

together). Proportionally speaking, the Swedes the Swedes speaking, together). Proportionally this regard. However, this research did reveal activity at work, when moving from place to place, from activity at work, when moving countries. Moreover, it appears that the residents it appears countries. Moreover, of the greatest amount Estonia) devote the countries surveyed (Hungary and participants among averag time to watching and have an television available leisure time. wo sphere of leisure, such as at lie beyond the identified geographical patterns seem to disa If the definition of sport and exercise is expa this striking that It is most Commission conducted in 2002. physical activity that the European surveyof fifteen EU states revealmember may as a motive be more perhaps ‘lack of time’ that be concluded figure 2.3 it may From interpreted as ‘a different priori appropriately the Fins and the Germans have the leisure most in sport less frequently. for non-participation watching television time of amount state th people the countries where the of majority in such physical participating reason for not that the count notable it is addition, high. In time on watching television and videos, while their and videos, time on watching television Figure Sport 2.3: participation and time lack of member of states national (in % populations), 2004; sport, and television and video (in hours and minutes per day), 1998-2002. Sources: European European Sources: 1998-2002. day), per minutes and hours (in and video television and sport, Commission, Eurobaromete wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 2.2 Sport-specific differences and trends Sport-specificdifferencesand 2.2

30 here. through the media or otherwise?Giventhisam participating inthespecific branchofsport,or them. Itisunclear inte howtherespondents actually respondents weregivenalistofsports and askedwh asked aboutonly theirinterestcitizens were inparticularsports1990. In that year, scarce. are practice) ofactive exercise (interms Data onthedifferentialpopularizationof theva Commiss European Source: 2002. states, heavy things, digging, aerobics orfast cycling in percentage oftotal population in 15 EUmember Figure 2.4: Percentage ofpopulation participatewho in vigorous physical activities like lifting sport andphysicalactivity. activeinthisregard that aretheleastphysically The oppositeappliestothe Portuguese andGreeks inactiveatwork,inand around comparatively involved insporting activitiestoalargeex activity physical (cf. figure2.1)andrecreational thatwaspain states member differences between figure 2.4.), member whic state(see in each time sittingdown.Onbalance,thisresultsinan 100%

20% 40% 60% 80% 0%

F inl a n 51 29 d 20

Sweden 59 28 13

De n ma rk 56 24 20

Ir e land 63 18 Netherland 18 43 34 s 22

UK 59 25 16 ion, Eurobarometer 183-6, 58.2 2003. 58.2 2003. 183-6, Eurobarometer ion, F ra n tent, while(orpossibly are because) they c h significantly thepictureof deviates from h significantly 60 24 e 15 –andmore this is probable –following thesport

Belgium the houseorwhenmoving fromplace toplace. biguity, this data will not be further discussed biguity, thisdatawillnot be furtherdiscussed In the Eurobarometer surveys, European IntheEurobarometersurveys, , althoughthey dothe leastamount ofexercise, overview of the total vigorous physical activity overviewofthetotal vigorousphysical rious branches ofsportandthe nature of ted earlier with respect toexerciseandsport withrespect ted earlier (cf. table 2.1.). Apparently Scandinaviansare (cf. table 2.1.).Apparently 62 22 L 15 u xe who do not belong tothegroupofEuropeans rpreted thequestion:interested in werethey

ether or not they were interested in each of wereinterestedether ornotthey ineach mbourg 56 28 17

G e rmany 45 29 24

A u st ria 59 23 14

Spain 72 15 13

I taly 64 23 12

Greece 54 20 26

P o rtu ga 61 15 l 22 4-7 days4-7 days1-3 none

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

31 between the EU states.member Cyclingis enburg 1991, 2001; ISI/CONI 1996; Sports 1991, 2001; ISI/CONI 1996; Sports enburg restricted to sport played competitively in or restricted posed questions about participation in a participation posed questions about erage of 15% for all fifteen states. Inmember phical differences, hill-walking/climbing and phical differences, hill-walking/climbing the differences in popularity between sports between in popularity the differences d co-financed by the European Commission and Commission by European d co-financed the espectively. As far as (consecutively walking for eight and health, which was prepared byeight and the rms) is rms) played extensively Ireland most in ective can be found in the pan-EU surveyon ective can in the pan-EU be found y practiced in Finland, Austria and Sweden. the following ranking of the sporting activities and ranking the following centage of participation in Finland and Sweden centage of participation in Finland the Netherlands (53%), whereas only 2% and 3%

38 mmission (1999b). Information Bulletin 1997. European Commission 1999b; Van Bott 1999b; Commission European 38 Swimming 10 Swimming Keep fit 3 Athletics Team sports excl. football Hill-walking/climbing 2 Martial arts 3 10 3 2

3-4 7-9 10 seen within an international comparative persp an international seen within consumer attitudes to physical activity, body-w clubs. the context of about sources of information Alternative an Food Studies in Dublin Institute of European of sport the differential popularisation in studies on

the clustered winter sports are more commonl the clustered winter sports are more fo and unorganised organised both Football (in 30 minutes) is concerned, both Finland (68%) and Sweden (61%) are strides ahead, (61%) for in most and Sweden (68%) Finland is concerned, both 30 minutes) The same of the population. by states this activity done 30% member is only of the other EU applies to keep fit, which enjoys a higher per (20% and 22% respectively), as compared to an av in Austria and 18% 20% of swimming varies considerably: from popularity the this, addition to and Greece. in Portugal to 4% in Luxembourg of geogra basis As one expect on the may by far the most practiced physical activity in and Portugal r participate in the considerably The popularity of these activities varies Source: European Co Source: European 2 Cycling sports 5 Football 6 Racquet 5 17 6 Table 2.4 Most practiced (pre-coded) sporting in EU member activities in states, percentage of total populationaged 15 and over, 1999. activity Ranking Sporting 1 Walking (min. 30 min. consecutively) 31 variety physicalof activities. This resulted in survey The pan-EU attitudes on consumer ‘sport clusters’ that are found within the European Union (1999, 15 member states). member 15 (1999, European Union the within are found ‘sport clusters’ that wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 32 (12%), Participation insportthe chapter 3). better bediscussedwithrespecttoindividual from trends,thereha general these while otherslikegolf,equestriansports,anddive thepopularityofotherspor decade. Moreover, football andtennis.However,thegrowthofth increased inpopularity during the1970s and 1980s,mo the followingchapter.Thegeneraltrendthatcan dataavailableonapa Thereareinsufficient data derivedfromeach individualmember state;this trends inthe popularity of the variousbranches of the UnitedKingdom (4%). 1999, ofallEUmember inIrelandmost statesgolfattractedthe players (7%), Sweden(5%) and popular in Greece(probablybasketballinparticul around five million members). enormousstates, butenjoys popularity in Germany (where the member doesnotappearinthetop15of alltwelve than tennisandswimming. Gymnastics gy concerned.However, states member twelve list. Alongside football,both tennisandswimming befound inall can topfifteenlists ofthe Bearingtheselimitations inmind,may be it membership statisticsfor thefifteensportorganisations areknown,football isatthe topof the (club)sportplayed intheEuropean Union. taken intoaccount. refer onlytothesportsfoundintop fifteen European countries areunderrepresentedin this member Thisonlyprovidesanindi EU states. Onthebasisofexisting data,itispossible tomake anestimate ofthemostpopular of ofthe‘topfifteen’ theamalgamation reached by sports thatarepracticedinaclubcontextwithin following chapter. trends canonlybeidentified Thus member states. figuresforsportsorganisationsarenotavailableallEU membership

39 Portugal (10%), Spain (both andItaly 8%), 39 Itisunclearwhether thisfigurerelatesto native (andvery popular)Gaelic football. context ofsportsclubspresents on anationallevel.Thesetrends ve beendevelopments inthepopularityofsportsthatcan In nearly all member states forwhichthe states allmember In nearly member states than for the EU as a whole (see statesthanfortheEUasa member cation, since the East EuropeanandSouth cation, since theEast ese sports has stagnated throughoutthepast ese sportshasstagnated ts, suchastennisandvolleyball, has declined, mnastics isprobablymore practicedby people and sports classified lowerinthis are not scale and sportsclassified overview. Moreover,themembership figures the EU (see table 2.5). This estimate has been Thisestimatehasbeen theEU(seetable2.5). rse fitness sports have really takenoff.Aside rse fitnesssportshavereally be discerned from this data is that many sports this dataisthat be discernedfrom sport.Thisisonly possibleon the basisof ar) andFinland(most ice In likely hockey). the sports most practicedinclubstwelve thesports n-European leveltobe able toascertain while other team sports are especially sportsareespecially whileotherteam concluded thatfootball farthe is by most data will be dealt with more extensively in datawillbedealtwithmore extensively the globally played orthe st particularlywalking,cycling, running, anotherpicture.However, willalsobediscussedinthe Turnvereine have atotalof have Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

33 centre is nearlythe sport club. as popular as 16% did so mainly at a sports club, 15% at a club, 15% at a sports did so mainly 16% and that is a little over half of all participants and that is a little over half of Total of number members according to top 15 of 12 EU member states* rk (see figure 2.5.). The percentage of those 2004, schools or universities provided the setting 2004, schools or universities provided sport ‘elsewhere (spontaneous)’; in other words, other sport ‘elsewhere (spontaneous)’; in way increases significantlyhigher age for the EU member states* EU member states* European Commission, Eurobarometer 62.0 (213 ), 2004. Eurobarometer Commission, European 40 d Sweden. Source: reworkeddata of chapter three.

40

categories. fitness centre and 11% at a sports centre. In where 6% generallyplayed their sports. The rest, exercise their or did that they in sport, said outside of any structured organisational framewo a non-structured who participate in sport in Throughout the entire European Union, the fitness entire European the Throughout exercise, and Of all those who participated in sport * Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, England, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Netherlands, the Luxembourg, Italy, Germany, France, England, Denmark, Republic, Czech Austria, * an Poland, Spain, 1 Football 12 15,836,523 2 3 Swimming 4 Athletics 5 Golf 6 Gymnastics sports 7 Equestrian 8 9 Volleyball 10 Sailing 12 12 11 8 9 10 4,572,139 1,622,490 8 1,682,555 8 1,725,719 7,011,096 2,889,189 8 1,480,506 994,973 839,725 Tablewith Sports 2.5: members most in sport EU member12 clubsin states ranked according to in members most with the federations sports of top 15 in the appear which they with frequency the each member state. Sport Frequency in top 15 of 12

2.3 Organisational context 2.3 Organisational wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society Germany. the case intheNeth 2.6.). Thisiscertainly ispredominant context ofsportsassociations 28% inItaly European average:34%inGreece, Intheunorganised southern way. part ofEur for example, between60%and70% ofthose whoparticipateinsportdoso inan informal, of anorganisational framework thanin the ot member of theEuropeanUnion.Intennew 34 2004. 2004.Source: participants, sport of percentage in often, most play sport or exercise do participants sport context 2.5:Organisational where Figure Union werelowerin2004 than in2003. The figuresforparticipationinsportat clubs,

41 European Commission, Eurobarometer 19760.0. 52% 16% 41 This decrease is likely to be aresultoftheexpansion islikely Thisdecrease erlands, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, theUKand erlands, Sweden,Denmark, ope, the thanthe useoffitnesscentresishigher her EUcountries.In Malta, SloveniaandPoland, in the north-western partofEurope(seefigure fitness centres and sport centresintheEuropean fitness centresandsport European Commission, Eurobarometer 62.0 (213), (213), 62.0 Eurobarometer Commission, European states, sport takes place more frequently outside frequently more sport takesplace states, and 27% inPortugal. Incontrast,sport in the 15% 6% 11% At school/university In asports center In afitness center In aclub Elsewhere

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

2

d

n

la

o P 35

3

ce

e

re G

6 Hungary 6 Camy et al. Camy

44

rtugal

o P

9

Italy

10 n

ai

p S

10

nia ve

Slo 43

12

and l Fin 13 ts associations continue to retain their great in a sports or outdoor club in the last 12 12 last the in club outdoor or sports a in l number of sport clubs in the fifteen EU the fifteen of sport clubs in l number

countries are members of sports associations

13 Luxembourg

ia for Cyprus). states (with data missing member r t

associations,yet only 8% or less belonged to Aus new and candidate applies to the The same ons has declined considerably throughout the ons has declined considerably throughout There is no other social context in which There is no other social context in which 42

18

Ireland

21 y

n Germa

23 d to non-sports associations.

m

o

d

g

in

K

d

23 ite m

iu Un

g Bel

23

en

d

we S Christensen, Eurobarometer 55.1, 2001. Eurobarometer Christensen, 2003.1. Youth Eurobarometer Commission, European 1999b. Commission European 1998b; Commission European ed. 2004. Camy 42 43 44 45 24

45 Denmark

25

ands

rl

e

h

5 0 t

30 25 20 15 10 e N

Percentage of population of Percentage to 700,000. 545,000 years over five ago, range from states, dating from member European Commission estimates of the tota Between 60 and 80 million EU citizens are members of EU citizens are of these sports members one or more Between 60 and 80 million associations. calculate a total of 694,000 sport clubs in all EU calculate a total of 694,000

Figure 2.6: Percentage of population who participated of population Percentage 2.6: Figure months, 2000. Source: European Social 2002. Survey, sharemarket for sports associati Although the spor decades, entire European Union during the past social significance within a broader context. social significance within a broader association levelsmembership are as high particularly as sport. This is most the case with fifteen EU years the former In statesyoungmember 24 old. regard to 15 and people between group were of28% of this age members sports associations related to another social sphere. member states: 15% of the young people in these states: 15% of the member 8% and a maximum are affiliate wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3 members whoaresportsassociation of youths young people participateinsport(Denmark,Ire from that of the old differs considerably years asaconsequenceofmethodologicallikely differences. most figuresfluctuatesignificantly, thereof inFrance,Luxembourg, ItalyandGreece.The sport intheNetherlands, Germany, Belgium, Duringthepast levelofsport decades,the 2004). Trendsidentifiedasaresultofthesedatare within the Eur surveys least sixstandardised twenty years. twenty participate insportthecontext ofsports asso exceptions to this rule.Inbothofthese c lesssport(Spain, Portuga play where youngsters context ofclubsandcompetitions. Sweden andIreland,thosewhoparticipateins do sowithinthe contextof clubs orcompetitions. also thatalargeproportion oftheFinns(andto sport thanin other European countrieswhere the populationsofFinland,Swedenand,toa organisational andcompetitive context. Figure 2.7 not only indicates thatahigher percentageof deeper insightintothe relationship between practiced. 6

The development ofsport club membership among young people between 15and24 In principle,club-related sportparticip 47 Yet this also varies per member state. member Yetthisalsovariesper 46

47 46 European Commission, Eurobarometer 62.0, 2004. Sources:Commission oftheEuropeanComm Eurobarometer 2003.1, Eurobarometer 55.1, 2001;EuropeanSoci Commission oftheEuropean Union,Eurobaro 2003;62.0,2004. ountries, the peoplepercentage of who young frequency of sportsparticipation frequency andits opean Union(1983, 1987, Ireland, Denmark and theUK,andadecline Denmark and Ireland, lesser extent, theCzechRepublic,participatein lesser extent, the COMPASSguidelines havebeenapplied,but total adult population. In countries where many total adultpopulation.Incountrieswhere port intensively do so inthe more frequently decreases, whereas it in it whereas decreases, ation increases as sport is moreas sportis intensively ation increases a slightly lesser extent the Czechs also)donot lesserextenttheCzechs aslightly ciations hasremainedstablethroughoutciations thepast land, UK, Belgium andFrance),thepercentage land, UK,Belgium l and Greece). Italy andtheNetherlandsare l and Italy Greece). The use of the COMPASS scheme offers use oftheCOMPASSscheme The In the Netherlands inparticular, butalsoin In the Netherlands veal ariseinparticipation club-related veal club membership hasbeenquantified club membership in at al Survey, 2002;EuropeanCommission, meter 47.2,1997;50.1,1998;Christensen, unity, Eurobarometer28,1987;34.2,1990; creases inthecountries 1998, 2002,2003and Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 3 Less than 12 times12 a year Less than Irregular Regular, recreational Regular, competitive and/or organised Intensive Intensive andcompetitive and organised

4 3 4 8 3

78 8

9

l 19 l

a

g

u all countries except Spain and the except Spain and the all countries Port

4 5 4 3

74 11

2000

y l Ita

4 1 3

64 13 0 15

200

in

a

p S ipants in groups with a higher educational, with a ipants in groups

3 7 7

differs between social population categories such categories between social population differs 57 4 15 11

9 European the entire throughout states, and thus

; for Spain see Garcìa Ferrando 2001; Dutch figure see Garcìa Ferrando 2001; Dutch Spain ; for 9

1

land

on and income. Despite and the popularisation on and income. re I ese differences very have continued to remain

6 4 5

54 19 13

996

1

. .

K U. tionally related to age: as age increases, participation in sport in sport related to age: as age increases, participation tionally

sation, several sation, several Source: years.

5 8

35 9 18 11 23

99

1

. .

p

Re

ch e

4 9

32 Cz 29 15 11

01

0

2

s

d

n

rla e

5

30 7 11 17 25 12

Neth

9

e

9

1

Th

n

e

d

http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass we S

6 5 6

21 8 29 33

9 /

0% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 1997 Finland

More men participate in sport than women. More men Participation in sport is propor decreases. There are a higher percentage of sport partic level. professional and/or income 100%

Sport is socially structured. In all EU member In all EU member Sport is socially structured. is based onown calculations ondataRSO 2001 survey of carried Centerdata. out by sport degree of participation in Union also, the as gender, age, level of education, professi entirely,with the not disappeared but have somewhat, persistent. Theydiminished have differencessome exception of between men and women. These discrepancies can be summarised as follows (see table 2.6.): • • • Figure Rates of 2.7: sport participantspercentage in of total population in member 9 EU states by and organi competition frequency, democratisation it appears that th of sport,

Netherlands: 2.4 Social differentiation 2.4 Social wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society Sweden (+5%) andFinland (+2%) arehigherthanthose ofmen(seefigure2.8.). greatest deficitwithrespecttosport participati accordingtomembermen andwomen state(figure2.8). vary Thedifferencesbetween havedone, Portuguese (-21%)a Margetts etal. When oneconsidersthepercentagethatdonot 38 (76%) andwomen(71%) withsomeleisure five pe al. alsoreportedadifferenceofnearly activityintheirphysical leisuretime thanme the Eurobarometer183-6ascertainedthatalower found in earlierresearchstudies,independent of broa The differencesinsportparticipation measured Gender 2004 213, 62.0, Eurobarometer Commission, European Source: 15 above, 2004. aged and Union, Table 2.6: Differences insport participation betweenvarious population groups in the European

Education level level Education Age groups Gender

g 0o le 50% 32% older Age 20or 20% 16-19 Between younger Age 15or at: studies Finished 28% 55+ 34% 40-54 41% 25-39 60% 15-24 35% Women Men 41% 49 48 Margetts et a. 1999. The gender1999. The Margettseta. differences European Commission, Eurobarometer 183-6, Eurobarometer 213, 2004). Eurobarometer 213, member statesaregreaterstill (European time activity duringanaverageweek. time activity n (12% asopposedto et 18%). Martinez-Gonzalez rcentage pointsfor 1997 inthe numbers ofmen on, while thelevelsoffemale participationin nd Greek(-13%)womenappeartohavethe participate in any leisure as timeparticipate inany activity, by the Eurobarometer 213in2004werealso percentage ofwomenengageinalot der orstricterdefinitions of sport.In 2002, Commission, Eurobarometer and Youth 2003.1 in sportparticipationinthenew candidate and 2003;Martinez-Gonzalez etal.2001. 49 48

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

39 Male Female

Male

27 al

35 t

o t EU 15 15 EU

70 50

gal u

igated, with of igated, with the exception Port

46 33 Greece

42 29 France

43

34 m iu

of the time use survey, which is presented in of the time use survey, which Belg

27

19 UK n in all countries, including Sweden and n in all countries, including d in the various states,members is the most Linking it to other patterns of social equality Linking it mpetitive sport, but that this does not always sport, mpetitive

40

concerning the degree of sport participation, concerning the 33

in

50

pa S the on participation sport irregular nland and 41 34 a non-competitive or club-related context. The a non-competitive

rk. In Sweden, a higher proportion of women women of proportion rk. In Sweden, a higher taly I men from all the countries invest 32

27 y

n

rma e

24 G 21

14 Denmark

12 a 14 Austri

13

and

rel 18 I

18

ourg b

16 m

e

17 x

Lu that table 2.3. Thiswo reveals spend less time on sport. Germany, nds from the results Indeed, this deviates slightly http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass.

7

50 51 erla

9 h

et d

N

lan 51 7 n Fi

12

n

0 Swede

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentage of total men/women total of Percentage

The socio-geographic structure resembles one the it (cf. figure 2.1.). mirror but does not completely

Figure 2.8: Percentage of population in 15 EU member states aged 15 and over who do not who not do over and 15 aged states member EU 15 in of population Percentage 2.8: Figure any recreationalparticipate by gender, in activity, 1997. Source: physical Margetts et al. 1999. between identifie men and women, which have been here. been explored has not strategy,obvious this avenue but the COMPASS data, it appears that me From Finland, are overrepresented in club-related and co Finland, are overrepresented in club-related framewo apply of this organisational outside in sport in participate regularlyor intensively same goes for intensive sport participation in Fi Netherlands. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society highest (Slovenia) andthelowest(Belgium) levelsofregular according Whenanalysed to member state, 15 andabove. Firstly,thedifference of34percenta different between 15and24revealsaspectacularly 40 65. from rose; 83% astheagecategories incrementally 1997 thepercentageofpeople engagedin physi etal.al 6% ofthoseover65.Martinez-Gonzalez during theirleisure time, asopposedto 15% ofthose aged 26-44, 11% of45-64 olds,and year 31% of young peoplebetween 15 and oldengage25 years activity inagreat dealofphysical activity. physical participation and recreational Just asforgender,thedifference Age groups Slovenia, the Czech RepublicandSlovakia (seefigure2.9.). found among the fourcountries withthehighestle InsteadoftheScandinavian deviates significantly. is lessthanthe54percentagepointsfor sport participation among young pe 52

54 53 52 European Commission, Eurobarometer Unspecified in thequestionnaire. European Commission, Eurobarometer 183-6,2003;Martinez-Gonzalez 2001. s betweenagegroupscanbefound both with respect tosport ople in(anumber of)newEuropean Union member states. whole population.Secondl In 2002, aEurobarometer surveyfound that cal activity duringcal activity their leisuretimedecreased so determined thatduringatypical weekin countries, three new member states are tobe states are member countries,threenew vel ofsport youth participation, namely: thesportparticipation of people young ge pointsbetweenthetwocountrieswith of15-24 olds to65%year of those over pattern tothatoftheentirepopulationaged 2003.1, 2003;Eurobarometer 55.1,2001. 54 53 Thispointstoahigh degreeof sport participationamong youth y, therankingorder y, Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

2001 2003

41

37 m

iu

lg

e

B

38 ce

e

re

41 G Malta

43

ry

a

g

n

Hu UK

44 44

rtugal

o

45

P

ia

n

to

s

47 E

prus

y

C

in

a

p S

49 49

Ireland

50

d

n

la

o

ria. In nine other countries, participation other countries, ria. In nine P n as a whole. In the ranking of countries as a whole. In the ranking n ticipation of young people in the fifteen

, . At any rate this pattern is At any rate Northern Europe. ,

as a whole (cf. figure 2.1.). It seems that the It as a whole (cf. figure 2.1.). Finland

50 50 rk , followed by and Western and , followed

a Germany, namely France and Italy, in ries,

t participation for the entire adult population – – population entire adult for the t participation e first seven are the same, albeit in a slightly

nm Netherlands) there were no discernable changes. e highest percentage of young people who were who young percentage of people e highest

De ia

n

the years member states the 1997 and 2001. For these a states reveals existing member another the fifteen

ed by the higher degree of sport participation higher degree of sport participation ed by the

wed by Sweden (46%), Luxembourg (42%) and wed by Sweden (46%), Luxembourg there are fewer differences between sport ed constant at 50%. This is certainly ed constant at 50%. This the

51 51 ithu L

sen, Commission, Eurobarometer 55.1, 2001.

Latvia

y

51 l Ita

53

Germany

54 ds

n

a

rl

e

h t

Ne

Sweden

55 55 ia r

st

u A

56 France 59

62 Slovakia

ic l

ub

p

g

63 r

u

ch Re ch

o

71 Cze

a

ni

Luxemb

ve

0 lo 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 S youth sport participation in It is notable that one established for the population pattern than the socio-geographic structure for the extent of spor socio-geographic structure for the extent Figure 2.9: Percentage of youth in 25 EU member states, agedwho 15-24, plays sport regularly during leisure 2001. Source: time, Christen Europe levels found in Northern with the highest then – is partially Europe – determin then Southern with an increase in Luxembourg and Aust conjunction (the just one country while in in sport declined, populatio young people and the among participation of club-related sport, In the context among the elderly in Western and, also particularly the elderlyin Western and, also among the young. not visible among states can also be made for original member A comparisonpar between the regular sport of big count a number consequence of growth in with the highest percentage th of club members, Netherlands had th the different order. In 2001, the youth can among of club members The lowest proportion Germany (40%). Denmark and in Spain and in Italy, 17% countries, with 19% European in the southern primarily be found to this rule. exception provides the 15% Poland with although in Portugal, 13% as a whole, the level of participation remain of sports associationsmembers (48%), follo wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 76% ofthemiddle only and64%ofthelowest during atypical week,whereas time activity and Zunftetal., itappearsthat81% ofthose with Thiscorrelation wasnotonly found in th activity,body-weight and physical health. From 2004, but also,forexample, theaforementioned income level. degree ofparticipationinsport among groups sportor play iswho exercise relatedtosocial chapter. Thiscorrelationcanalsobefoundwithin The factthatsportparticipationisrelatedtoth Education andincome 42 55 Co European 55.1,2001; Eurobarometers Christensen, 2003.Sources: 2001and clubs, sport activities of in participate or club who asport of aremember 15-24, who aged states, in25EUmember youth of 2.10:Percentage Figure participated. participated. they actively organisations in asked which member the stateswere new of 15 youth the 2003.1 they organisations which The questions posed differed. In Eurobarometer 55.1 the youth of the 15 old member states were asked Ne

th 10 20 30 40 50 60

e 0 rl ands

Sweden 48 L u

xem 46 b ourg

Germany 42

De 40 40 nm a rk Cz Ire were member of or whose activities they participated in. In Eurobarometer Eurobarometer In in. were member they participated or of activities whose ech Repub land 35

lic Belgium 34 30

U

K 28 Es tonia

S Eurobaromete mmission, lo 28 28 va k ia Finland class. In almost every country, there country, class. Inalmost isahigher every with a higher educational,professionaland e degree of affluence was addressed earlierinthis e wasaddressed degree ofaffluence 525 25 A the publications of Martinez-Gonzalez etal. thepublicationsofMartinez-Gonzalez u pan-EU survey pan-EUon survey consumer attitudesto

e Eurobarometer 213,whichwasconductedin st the highest level of educational enjoy leisure thehighestlevelofeducationalenjoy individual countries. Thepercentageofthose ria Malta

S

lo 25 25 ve ni a Latvia

Fra 24 n ce 23 H 2003.55. r 2003.1, u ngary L ithu 323 23 a n ia Gr e e c e 21 Cyprus 20 I taly 19 S p a

in 17 P o la n P d o 15 r tu g

a 13 l 2003 2001

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

43 nt and in the southern nt and in and, besides this, mainly in the context of the context of and, besides this, mainly in y higher level of sport participation than in than y higher level of sport participation ng people of 15 to 24 years 24 ng people of 15 to of age in the is completed at a higher age. Further details Further at a higher age. completed is lly takes part in sport. Moreover, within takes part in sport. Moreover, lly ation in sport is higher according to the level ation in sport is higher aphical structure is discernable in this ranking so applicable to the organisational framework vels display a more or less equal level of sport sport or less equal level of vels display a more in Portugal and Greece. In the Netherlands and Greece. In in Portugal and ng that the mass participation in exercise, sportng that the mass mpetitive sports, football, tennis, swimming, tennis, sports, football, mpetitive rticipation in the new statesmember in the new occurs rticipation nd social class for these and other member states ub-related sport is domina l European countries and then those in the l European countries and then those es presentpicture. In Slovenia, the a shifting most popular sports are walking, cycling and most le. Moreover, this also seems to be fairlyle. Moreover, this also seems to be ghest and middle levels. Finland is the only Finland is the middle levels. ghest and ountries goes hand in hand with a relatively ountries goes hand in low porting activityplace in the Scandinavian taking h discusses the patterns and trends in sport and trends in h discusses the patterns Martinez-Gonzalez 2001; Zunft et al. 1999. Zunft 2001; Martinez-Gonzalez 56

56

educational level do so. This disparity level do so. This educational greatest is Sweden there between is no difference the hi country in which those of all three educational le which those of all three country in participation. A majority of the EU population participates in sport every so often, and around one in six one and around in sport every often, participates so the EU population A of majority The persons participates in sport intensively. swimming. In the context of club-related and co the context of swimming. In associations and fitness centres. quite stab has remained of sport participation degree to the states according order of member past decade, the ranking the Throughout intensive) s (and most order, with the most than averagelymore in a non-organisational context. It is striki movements. sports wide-ranging most and recreational physical activity c in these In many countries with the largest and Finland and Sweden stand out as the respects, from place to house and when moving around the level of physical activity work, in and at place. genera of the population capita, a greater proportion In many respects, sport seems to be socially As the GNP increases per structured. athletics, golf and gymnastics are the at a European level. Sport athletics, golf and gymnastics popular sports most context takes place predominantly in a non-organised the issue of whether the researchof wasindependent only, focussed on sport and exercise or A geogr also about recreational physical activities. Western and Centra by the countries, followed reaches fitness centres prevail, whereas sport pa southern part of Europe. The new stat member Europe. The of southern part there is a proportionall Czech Republic and Slovakia, the other new member states. cl north-western part of Europe the of sport. In To a certain extent, this classification is al new and candidate new and candidate member states. Regular particip income increasesto which household and education between sport participation a of the relationship whic next chapter, the will be provided in youcan likewise be seen among This pattern for each state. member participation 2.5 Conclusions wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 44 states. Thiswillbedonein the nextchapter. obtain suchinformation onemust insteadexamin takesplaceorthepopularit which sportingactivity spor Giventhelackoflongitudinalresearch, participates insport,the amount oftimepeoplede cannot ormay hardly be determined. Thisapp absentaltogether. andinsomeminimal instanceseven more per capitaishigher,thedifferences betweenthe morethan old peoplefromhigher people andby various EUmembersport isplayed by states,

moremen thanwomen, by more young people lies to the proportion ofthe population that social groupsthat have beendistinguishedare than lower social classes. Wherever theGNP Wherever than lowersocialclasses. e the datacollectedintheindividual membere the vote tosport,the organisationalcontextin y of theindividualbranchessport.To y t participationtrendsonaEuropean level Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

45 sport participation, sport ed to a few snippets ation groups, trends in trends ation groups, c and social groups and the trends that have trends and the c and social groups ated. that Furthermore, it also demonstrated to a large extent organised in the context of organised in a large extent to member state. In a number of countries there state. In a number of countries member of every of section, we acknowledge all those rends) in the various member states is various member rends) in the iew of the available data, but also carried out iew that levels of sport participation appear to that levels of sport participation the individual statesmember will be discussed ter is unavoidablyrestrict es place and the differential popularity of sports es place and the differential popularityof sports each member state is built up along established state is built up along each member opean member states mainly in a non-organised non-organised states opean member in a mainly ar sports, the organisational frameworks in which in which frameworks ar sports, the organisational Nevertheless, they do provide valuable by our contacts in the various member states. less data with regard to the ten new less datamember new with regard to the ten and frequency of sport participation from a participation from of sport and frequency do not derive from harmonised or standardised, or standardised, harmonised do not derive from espect to the nature and extent of sport and extent of espect to the nature e 25 member states can be gained through the be gained through states can member e 25 nd, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia). nd, Lithuania, it, proportionally speaking, takes place more more it, proportionally speaking, takes place re confine ourselves to presenting only a limited to presenting only a limited re confine ourselves each EU member state EU member each

Sport participation in participation Sport of information. of information. of structured as follows. Firstly, the description levels a general profile of the lines. Following (t participation Our discussion of the sport A greater insight into sport participation in th participation A greater insight sport into there are so little data summary other countries In contrast, for of interest. main points of the in this chap available that the overview presented the differences between popul European perspective, analysis of national researchanalysis data. These data of national not comparable, researchand thus also studies. participation, the of varying popularity particul demographi the differences between sport is played, withemerged them. respect to available that data is so much he we must The incidence of such data varies for each tak in which sport the organisational framework practiced are in turn. examined chapter, which determined previous based on the is that states according to a classification Secondly, the various member we deal with additional information on each country with r country each on additional information increase the further north the member states are situ Union is parts of the European sport in the western this information. us with who have supplied sports clubs, while in the south of Europe of Europe in the south while sports clubs, us with an overv not only provided Some of them secondary analyses of these data. At the beginning frequently in fitness centres and in the new Eur frequently in was far context. Finally, it appeared that there states than for the fifteen existing ones. different sections. Part 4 concerns the new EU states,member in four whereasdeal parts 1 to 3 states. with the remaining participation in On the basis of this, sport statesPart One: Scandinavian (Finland, member Denmark). Sweden and states the Netherlands, (Ireland,Part Two: Western European member United Kingdom, France, Germany and Austria). Luxembourg, Belgium, Greece). Part Three: Southern European member states (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Malta, Slovenia, (Cyprus, to north south states, from member Part Four: New European Hungary, Pola Slovakia, the Czech Republic, To a large extent, the data have been provided

3. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 4 6

Part One:Scandinavianmemberstates Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 4

ssedprevious chapter, data on sport in the age range), which makes comparison with and physically active population has remained has remained physically active population and than once a month; while a mere than once a never 7% month; ean Union member states for which comparableUnion member ean ears old. They largely comply with the comply with They largely ears old. 63% participate in sport and physical exercisesparticipate 63% their participation in sport and physicalparticipation their exercises a variety of national sources. The most importantsources. The most variety of national a University and Terhi Heinilä of the of Turku uomen Gallup conducted in 1991, 1994, 1997 and and 1997 1994, in 1991, Gallup conducted uomen rmonised time use surveys from 1999/2000, women women 1999/2000, use surveys from time rmonised

of which are derived from S the surveysof which are derived from that Finnish Sports Federation for the analysis and supply of sport participation data. of sport participation and supply for the analysis Federation Finnish Sports Introduction was discu data, which the pan-European Apart from can be found in in Finland participation trends commissioned by surveys of Education. These 2001/2002, the Ministry were based on y 3-65 representativeage groups of the samples of the COMPASS guidelines (with the exception possible. partly other COMPASS pilot countries Levels of sport participation the view sportingly active people that the Finns are the most Gallup data confirms The Suomen 85% of Finns that some 213 (62.0) indicated Eurobarometer 2004, Union. In of the European physicalparticipated in sport and exercises more reveals that the of 2001/2002 Gallup survey exercise or sport at all. The Suomen any partook in intensively:Finns also participate in sport quite ha the to old age. According continues into exercise. In all these on average a day on sport and and men 42 minutes spent 35 minutes respects, Finland scores the highest of all Europ With special thanks to Dr. Pasi Koski of the Pasi Koski to Dr. With special thanks this, a year. to In addition than 120 times more data is available. Trends in sport participation size of the sporting the and 2001, Between 1997 at more or lessat the samemore (high) level (see table 3.1.). 3.1 Finland 3.1 Finland wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society AlFml Male Female All gender, intensityand competitive ororganisational contexts (in%) esta 2tmsaya 437 48 29 3 33 4 31 9 11 4 8 year a 12 times Less than 36 7 2 Irregular recreational Regular 49 and/ororganised competitive Regular Intensive 42 organis Competitive, Table 3.2Sportandphysical activity amongthe Finn 1 4 1 3 thehighlevel of be ascertained, can As faras 2 8 Social differentiation 16 Source: Suomen Gallup data reworked by Pasi Koski (University of Turku). 2 8 Hard tosay 22 17 Never 12 22 2 Seldom 11 2-3 timesamonth 34 week 1 timesa week 2 timesa 35 2 week 3 timesa week 4 timesa week a at least5times 1997 frequency (in %) Table 3.1Sportandphysical activity amongthe Finnis 2001 higher frequency than men. identical. Alargerproportion ofwomen participateinsport(more than120 times witha ayear) activityformenmore orless The totalamount ofexercise,sportandphysical andwomenis evenly distributed among thevariousdemographi

57 SuomenGallup datareworked by Pa 2000/2001* 2000/2001* d nesv 416 1 4 ed, intensive 57

sport and physical activit sport and physical si Koski (University ofTurku). c groupsthanin most othermember states. ish population(19-65 h population (19-65 years old) according to h population years old) (19-65 y inFinlandismore y years old)accordingto Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

46 26 28 49 60-64

58 24 41 35 55-59 27 38 35 50-54 22 34 44 years old) according to old) according to years

45-49 60 e to age, 3.3.). With respect 22 34 44 40-44 ed a greater market share in the rest of 22 34 44 35-39 the context of sport clubs. The latter applies sport clubs. the context of creasing age, but this is less conspicuous in is less conspicuous in creasing age, but this ish population (19-65 population (19-65 ish ticipation in independent groups grew strongly groups in independent ticipation age is concerned,deviates from Finland the e, greater gender difference there is an even in sport declines in almost every declines in almost country as sport in 22 35 43 ext, a commercial businesses) ext, a context (private e in sport every now and then on their own on their and then e in sport every now In contrast, women engage in sport more more engage in sport women In contrast, 30-34 ports; three quarters of participants are quarters of participants men. ports; three ywas a broadly accepted observed how sport on according to gender and age is not just a recent gender on according to 22 40 38 Age groups (1997/8) 25-29

59 46 41 13 hardly the case (see tabl in Finland 20-24 in independent groups. ipation in sport within a commercial context in fact decreased betweenipation in sport Ibid. Ibid. 1989. en Roberts in Kamphorst Seppänen 58 59 60

sport in a competitive context does decrease with in other EU countries. in Finland than people get older, this is not or people get older, this dominant European pattern. While participation European pattern. While dominant as As far to sport participation according This egalitarian structure of sport participati in Finland. groups all layers and of society throughout phenomenon Intensive (>120/year) Regular (12-120/year) Occasional/non-participant (<12/year) Turku) of (University Koski Pasi by reworked data Gallup Suomen Source: Table 3.3 Sport and physical activity among the Finn the among activity Table 3.3 Sport and physical occurrence. In 1989, Paavo Seppänen alread * Walking* acceptedintensive as sport; a week 4 times is at least Turku) of (University Koski Pasi by reworked data Gallup Suomen Source: Just as elsewhere members frequently of sports clubs (35%) are more Finnish men in Europe, Furthermor (24%). than their female counterparts with respect to s participation in competitive

and on their own initiative or own initiative and on their prettyand, within the context of clubs, it remained stable (see table 3.4.). much While the commercial sport have gain providers initiative, 45% in independent groups and 15% with versus 14%). than women (18% to men more frequently within an extracurricular school cont Europe, in Finland partic same period, sport par the During and 2001. 1991 Organisational context partak population Three-quarters of the Finnish

age and (in %) intensity wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society cycling, skating and cross-country skiing skating andcross-country cycling, andjogging havegainedthe greatestpopularity. am haveshownthegreatestincrease and cycling sports thathavelostthehighest numbers ofpar before theturn ofthecentury. Volleyball, badminton, tennis, andalpine skiing areamong the walking androller-skating making anappearanceas increased andcycling duri has greatly gymnastics Atthebeginning of the1990s,there skiing. Onthe otherapplies tocross-country mid-1990swalking. However,sincethe thisgrowth swimming,cross-countryskiing andfloorball (seetable3.5). by most favouritesportsforchildrenand young peopl most widelyparticipatedinwithin were a non- In 2001, walking, cycling, cross-country skii The mostpopularsports 50 45 34 1997. asin same more orlessthe 75 31 activities oftheclub. participate inthephysical 82 35 of 1.5 million toastudy members. According 76 profit basis,fell underthe umbrella ofthesesports 77 the FinnishSport Federation.Morethan 7,8 In 2004,atotalof75sportsasso Source: Suomen Gallup data reworked by Pasi Koski (University of Turku) group Independent initiative On one’sown 16 Private 15 School 15 Workplace 15 Municipality Open college 2001 sportorganisation Sports clubsor 1997 1994 1991 %). (in context toorganisational according in1994-2001), years old 19-65 1991, Table 3.4 Sport participation and physical activity amongthe Finnish population (15-65years oldin 3111 business 10774 6576 7442

61 Koski 2000 and data from the Finnish Sports Koski2000 and datafromtheFinnish ciations andtwofitnessciations sports 61

5333 00 sports clubs,ofwhich most operateonanon- ng, swimmingandjogging werethesportsthat hand, participation infloorball, golf, dance, was a significant increase in the popularity was asignificantincreaseinthepopularity of Koski, one third members didnot of these organised context.Football andcycling werethe ticipants. Intermsof absolutenumbers, football In 2004,thetotal membersnumber remained of ong youngpeopleand,pr ng the secondhalfof1990s,withNordic associationsandhadatotal of approximately e aged between 3and18 e yearsaged between old,followed has stagnated. To a lesser extent, thesame To alesserextent, has stagnated. the latest sport trends during the final years latestsporttrendsduringthefinal years the Federation (SLU), provided by Heinilä. Terhi organisations were members of members of organisations were oportionally speaking, Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

51 45,500 208,568 1,159 Cross country Cross country ski Women gymnastics 111,000 126,184 470 per sports association revealed that, of all the 000 8 000 9 Floorball 37,000 65,672 492 33,000 10,500 428 membership and clubs, however, cross country and clubs, membership 732,000 3 91,000 60,000 450 1,990,000 1 Football 154,000 - - Nordic walking 300,000 7 Pesäpallo# 38,000 67,000 370 Weight exercise 360,000 5 Athletics 72,000 - - Cross country Cross country ski 2000/2001*1994**

Track and field 75,000 10 Floorball 170,000 10 32,000 80,000 330 Cross country Cross country ski Floorball/ 195,000 4 Swimming 160,000 5 520,000 4 Volleyball 74,000 98,000 989 Aged 3-18 Adults Participants Members Clubs 7 Skating 8 Ice-hockey 125,000 7 9 116,000 8 Jogging Gymnastics 10 250, 113,500 9 Aerobic 182, 4 5 6 Walking 132,000 6 Jogging 360,000 6 baseball. # Finnish Sources:*Suomendata reworked Gallup by Pasi Koski; data ** Suomen GallupKoski inHeikkala & 1999. of the overview membershipIn 1994, an numbers 3 Swimming 202,000 3 ice gymnastics, by women followed popularity, greatest the football enjoyed organised sports, of In terms and athletics. hockey, volleyball, the Finnish sports scene before womenskiing dominates gymnastics (with and volleyball left out because data are lacking). football and athletics 1 Football 2 261,000 1 Cycling Walking 261,000 2 Cycling 922,000 2 Table 3.5: The most popular branches of sport, non-organised and organised, and estimated estimated and organised, and non-organised of sport, branches popular most The 3.5: Table Finland. in adults and people children/young among clubs and members of participants, numbers wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.2 Sweden 3.2 Sweden 52 than onceamonth; 7% do not do soatall. pretty much onaparwithFinland: 81% ofth According to the 2004 Eurobarometer 213(62.0), the Levels ofsportparticipation (w3.uniroma1.it/compass). StatisticsSwedenonbeha outby was carried ratherth survey, a sportsspecific the firsttime figures onanational levelpersportsorganisa addition to this,theSwedishSportsConfeder conducted severaltimessince 1975: 1980-81, 1988-89, 1990-91, 1996-97,1999, 2002-2003. In is theSwedishNationalLivingConditions Su One ofthemostimportant sourcesofinformati Introduction Sports Confederation forthe supplyand analysisofdata on sport participation. With specialthankstoGöran NordströmofSt 3.7.). 3.6.& participation in activityamong sportand physical olderpeopleinSweden(seetable in age.However,comparison toother EU that Swedishparticipationinsportand physical women participatewithacluborcompetitive cont sport andphysical activity differsfromhardly th within anorganisational context.In both countri activitymorephysical than120times but ayear, w3.uniroma1.it/compass) fe showsthatslightly

62 EB213(62.0)2004. 62 TheStatisticsSwedenSurvey from 1997(in: member states, there is a higherdegreeof thereis member states, lf ofthe Swedish Sports Confederation e Swedishpopulation participate insportmore ation possesses data on theannual membership ation possessesdataon tion datingfrom 1998. Furthermore, in1997 for rvey (ULF),rvey has whichStatisticsSweden atistics Swedenand OlaStadler of theSwedish an a multipurpose survey withapartonsports, an amultipurpose survey on exercise participation andsport inSweden wer SwedesthanFinnspartakeinsportsand activity declines more activitydeclines es, the percentage of women whotakepartin es, the percentage e percentage of men, though moree percentageof men than in Sweden this takes place more frequently inSwedenmorefrequently thistakesplace ext. One significantdifferencetoFinlandis levels ofsport participationinSweden are sharply withanincrease sharply

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences 28 16 56 19 20 61

53 24 19 57 26 24 50 26 26 48 years old) according to old) according to years - 8 3 32 22 46 29 19 11 30 Female 33 23 44 - 7 17 19 15 12 30 Male ish population (16-70 old ), according population (16-70 years ish population (16-70 ish percentage that takes part in exercise during percentage 38 28 34 1997 e Swedish population between 16-74 years old years 16-74 between population Swedish e - 5 no exercise during leisure time whatsoever All 12 25 17 11 30 39 35 26 59 21 20 during leisure time in Sweden has significantly increased. The 1997 62 23 15

ised, intensive

Source: SCB 2003. now and then once a week twice a week Strenuously, at least twice a week 12 13 41 18 15 37 16 19 14 31 19 18 19 32 23 20 27 23 18 25 Table 3.8 Exercise duringleisure time among th according (inintensity %). to 1980-81 1988-89 1990-91no exercise at all 1996-97 1999 14 12 13 12 11 Regular (12-120/year) Occasional/non- participant (<12/year) Source: Statistics Sweden (in: http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass) Trends in sport participation Between 1980 and 2000, exercise in that engaged percentage of the population 62% in 1999. leisure time at least once a in 1980/81 to 46% week grew from Intensive (>120/year) to gender, intensity and competitive or organisational context (in %). (in %). context or organisational competitive and intensity to gender, Occasional Non-participant Source: Statistics Sweden (in: http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass) Swed among the activity Table 3.7 Sport and physical The 1999. in 11% to in 1980/81 14% dropped from Intensive Regular, competitive and/or organised Regular, recreational Irregular Table 3.6 Sport and physical activity among the Swed among the activity Sport and physical Table 3.6 Competitive, organ

age and intensity (in %). (in %). age and intensity 16-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65 + wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society education and income (in %). (in%). income and education (see table3.9.). 54 Table 3.9:Exerciseamongthe Swedish population ( witheducational andincome along le increases on theonehandandsocial background intheother:exercise exercise between physical egalitarianDespite thehighly structureofSwedis Social differentiation to exercise according gender andagegr Figure 3.1:Percentageofpopulation between 16-74 3.1.). population groups, whileat thesame itcontinuedtodecreaseamong (seefigure time theelderly proportion of those whodoall increasedamong notengagein exerciseat the youngest From 1999onwards, ashiftseemstohaveoccurred.Duringtheperiod 1999-2002, the dcto r-eodr 1 91 515 25 15 29 16 Pre-secondary Education Gender 10 15 20 25 0 5

Men 62 53 54 55 56 65-74 55-65 45-54 35-44 25-34 16-24 ae1 01 319 23 16 30 Male 12 eae1 61 816 28 19 26 12 Female

Women

Men

Women

Men

oups, 1996/7,1999and2002.Source:SCB2003. no exercise no exercise Women 1999 1999 vels. This doesnot,how vels. at all

h society, there still appears to be a correlation there stillappearstobeacorrelation h society, Men 16-84 years old) according years old in Sweden who do not takepartin years oldinSweden who now and now Women then

Men once a week Women ever, apply to gender ever, apply

twice a twice Men to intensity,gender, week

Women strenuously, at strenuously, least twice a least twice 2002 1999 1996/97 week Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

55

65 Swedish Sports Confederation Sports Confederation Swedish In spite of this, active club spite of this, In 64 the various age groups can be identified. the various age groups who take part in sport in a club-related or sport in in take part who , for the age category of 15-19 years old it , for the age category of 15-19 population, 7-70 old according to age years eclined for the 20-29 and 40-49 age groups (see age groups 40-49 and eclined for the 20-29 increases among the age categories 30-39, 50-59 50-59 the age categories 30-39, increases among mbers in these associations decreased during the be observed with respect to competitive sport. be observed with respect to competitive ercise during leisure time increased between 1990 ercise during leisure time increased information from Ola Stadler, ive in Swedish society as in sport. active participants in sport. between 7 and 14 years old who participated in sport within years sport within participated in old who between 7 and 14 In other words, among a stagnating proportion of members, an increasing of members, a stagnating proportion words, among In other 63 Vogel et al. 2003 Vogel et al. 2003 SCB 2003; Vogel et. al. 2003; Vogel et al. 2003. 63 64 65 Secondary12 Post-secondary7 Lowest 29Low-middle 13 24High-middle 9 17Highest8 28 21 29 24 25 16 27 19 21 27 17 16 26 20 28 27 16 17 15 17 23 19

Income membership as extens was in no field

number of members were no longer longer no were members of number category, in total and as a percentage of the total size of the respective age group. group. age respective of the size total of the percentage a as and in total category, 1998 7-14 years % 2003 650,700 Sports Confederation Swedish Ola Stadler, Source: 73 % At the same time, the percentage of active me period 1992-2000. 713,000 76 Table 3.10 Club membershipSwedish the among 15-19308,000 20-29521,400 5930-39 538,500 4640-49 544,200 4350-59 420,300 46 291,70060-70 233,900 36 485,600 26 586,500 498,400 503,200 54 276,100 45 46 42 40 28

Source: SCB 2003. Organisational context ex Various sources indicate that, in general, and 2003, but that the proportion of the population population of the the proportion that but and 2003, competitivemore or less stabilised. context has While the percentage of youngsters 73% the context of clubs increasedto 76% from In this regard, significant differences between There were also to 54%. 59% decreased from years d old, whereas the percentages and 60-70 pattern can identical almost An table 3.10.). wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society floorball arepopular pursuits forSwedishmen (seetable3.11.). andboys country Swedenistheonly in theEuropean Unionwhere footballisjustaspopular sportsarety andequestrian contrast, gymnastics amongmen. womenas Golfisanothersportinwh unihockey in experienced the greatestincrease athletics.Ontheother and hand, golf–andgymnastics toalesserextent–equestrian sportsand Footballisno longeragrowth2000 and2003, area.Indeed, between themembership whencompared tothe significant, certainly figures forthe footballunion evendeclined. This prevalent sportsamong theseolderagegroups. 50and and tosixth70 most placeamongthosebetween years ofage.Golfandskiingarethe 5 158,914 139,000 176,275 Source: Ola Stadler, 182,867 Swedis 197,285 5 Athletics 4 Golf 3 Equestrian 2 Gymnastics 1 Football figures and gender. membership associations sports to according sports, of organised order 3.11 Ranking Table old. categories of7-14and15-29 Football years mainly aconsequenceofthiss Sweden. Thisis table3.0, by football isby As illustrated far The mostpopularsports 6 Sports Club members

Females Males 66 SCB2003. h SportsConfederation. 2003 2003 Foral 99,349 118,074 103,535 370,022 807,812 Floorball 5 IceHockey 4 Skiing 3 Golf 2 Football 1 Sot Club members Sports far greater losses experienced by,forinstance, lossesexperienced far greater the most the popularly played club-relatedsportin 66 port being played by and boys girls intheage popularity popularity during the aforementioned period. pical female activities, whereas ice hockey and ice hockey whereas pical female activities,

drops intothirdplacefo membership loss,however,isnotparticularly ich both genders appearinthetopfive.In r the 30-49 year olds r the30-49 year Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 5 of Exercise and Sports of Exercise sport participation. However, walking, cycling, hunting and fishing. In In hunting and fishing. walking, cycling, particular, this is due to changes in the particular, this is due to changes Copenhagen, Institute Copenhagen, Institute tively. What is actually meant by ‘normally’ by ‘normally’ tively. What is actually meant sport participation, which was conducted participation, by sport e opportunity for identifyinge opportunity for fairly reliable wed hot on the heels of Finland and Sweden as heels of Finland and on the wed hot population of 16 years old and above can be years of 16 population t participation in the European Union: 70% of 70% European Union: in the t participation Nonetheless, it is difficult to compare this Nonetheless, it is difficult to compare rst survey in 1964 was only 15%, by conducted Research Institute for Sport, Culture and Civil Research Institute Social Research surveys conducted representative e shows a increasemassive in levels of sport ere is a wealth of information in Denmark in ere is a wealth of information ts organisations over a period of time. over a period of time. ts organisations incorporated into the COMPASS framework, incorporated into formation on the frequencyof formation ich 72% of the Danish population answered the question ‘Do ich 72% of the Danish population answered

Lokale- og Anlaegsfonden in 2002, is suitable. Lokale- og Anlaegsfonden response card to presented to respondents with respect addition to the surveys th already mentioned, of spor numbers membership regarding the Levels of sport participation revealed that Denmark follo The Eurobarometer the member state with the highest levels of spor for supplying information regarding sport participation. participation. sport information regarding for supplying Introduction of National Institute the Danish In Denmark, population research into recent national the most research data with the aforementioned surveys. In with virtually This corresponds than once a month. exercise or play sport more the population research conducted in 2002, in wh practice sports or exercise’ affirma normally you was not further elucidated here (see table 3.12). Trends in sport participation the Danish participation among A trend in sport With particular thanks to Knud Larsen of the Knud Larsen to With particular thanks the University of Dr. Laila Ottesen of Society and 1975, in 1964, the age of 16 over the Danish population leisure activities among of cultural and a few times been modified have and methodology the questions Although 1998. and 1993 1987, these surveysover the course of time, provide th be trends. Unfortunately these data cannot tabl the basis of table 3.12. This identified on Whereas the percentage for the fi participation. 51%. some it had reached 1998 because theydo not provide any in 3.3 Denmark 3.3 Denmark wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 58 broader definition ofexercise andalesserdegreeofidraet. explanations for theexpansion ofsport particip culture including sport, games, and ph playing anol the culturalsignificanceofterm ‘idraet’: The interpretationoftheseconcepts is researchers. changed throughout thecourse oftimenotonly forthe public,but also thepolicymakers and activityare Sport, exerciseandphysical the specificsports,whiletoday with associated thatsuggestth broadest sense.Therearedata Theculturalchangealsoreferstothe public health campaigns the heldby government thatthisacquired. Itislikely notion has been givenawiderconnotation asaconsequence of 37 47 becompared tothosedatingfromcannot easily statistics 1998. 46 2002, walking, hunting, fishing and cycling were 22 50 33 studies.In torespondentsduringtheseresearch alistofsportsthatwaspresented comprising Thisbroadeni orexercise?’. practice sports 52 42 Themethodological changesconcernthebroadening of theconcept of sportinthe 27* extended to‘Do you practice sports(exercise) 59 48 31 questionnaire. In1964,respondents werestillask 67 49 31 12 56 changes. Thisappliesparticularly 44 13 expansion in participation in s 67 46 21 2 The growthinsportparticipation,clearlyillust 51 49 27 3 1998 50 61 Source: Fridberg 2000; Larsen 2003b. 41 5 51 47 years 70-74 1993 42 10 47 years 60-69 56 17 1987 47 years 50-59 42 27 years 40-49 43 53 1975 years 30-39 43 27 years 20-29 1964 32 years 16-19 29 10 Female Male 20 15 Total (in%). age and to gender according above) Table 3.12: Sports and physical activitiesengaged in by the Danish population (16 years and

port. Itisalsomethodological andcultural aconsequenceof to the 1998 differences between and 2002. simply cultural phenomena whose meaning culturalphenomena has whose simply ng alsofoundexpressionintheresponsecard at theconcept exerciseusedtobestrongly broader meaning thatthetermbroader exercise has ?’ andin 1987 and 1993 to ‘Do you normally ysical ysical movement. Table 3.13 demonstrates that rated bythesefigures,doesnotjustpointtoan ation should be sought inan augmentation or term refers to everyday physical activities. physical term toeveryday refers topromotemore activityinits physical ed: ‘Doyou practice sports?’;in 1975thiswas also addedtothecard, whichmeansthatthese d Norse concept that refers to Nordic physical physical d NorseconceptthatreferstoNordic givenanextradimensionin to Denmark due 200 5 7 7 7 7 7 8 71 7 7 8 5 3 4 3 7 0 3 2 2 Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

59 Nonetheless, 67 1993 1998 2002 ion according to the ion according in sport in club-related contexts and at club-related in sport in ntly in commercial fitness centres (seently in commercial table rcentage of men that participate in sport and espect to sport participation to an even far to an espect to sport participation of men participate in sport in the context of the participate in sport in of men and those over fifty have halved during the during have halved over fifty those and course of the 1980s they caught up and the up and the they caught 1980s of the course ong the Danish population (16 years and above)ong the Danish population (16 years port participation are still visible. Firstly, men men port participation are still visible. Firstly, tes how the differences in the levels of sport 02 5 hours and 56 minutes versus 5 hours and 8 versus 5 hours and and 56 minutes hours 02 5 among the Danish populat among the out (see table 3.12.). The same proportion of rcentage of women. During the 1960s, women still 1998 ’ activities from the following list? 48 59 59

69 ‘idraet’ or exercise 57 69 83 Fridberg 2000; Larsen 2003b. Larsen 2003b. Fridberg 2000; Larsen 2003b; cf. Ottesen 2002. Ottesen 2002.

67 68 69 Secondly, comparatively more men take part men more comparatively Secondly, 68

questions (in %). (in questions significant gender differences in the nature of s significant gender differences in the devote more time to sport than women (in 20 time devote more minutes). work, while women practicework, while women freque their sport more larger proportion a As a corollary to this, 3.14.). competitions and tournaments. accordingorganisational to context (in %). 2002. Ottesen Source: with r Older people have made up for lost ground illustra greater degree than women. Table 3.12 Voluntary sport clubs (publicly financed) Evening classes (publicly financed) Workplace (private) Commercial centres (private) Unorganised (individual) 55 3 39 16 15 20 84 26 14 84 women as men took part in sport within an organised and non-organised context. and non-organised an organised sport within as part in women men took exercise am Table 3.14 Participation in sport and Organisational form of sport participation Men twentyyoung people under among participation Women exercise is more or less equivalent to the pe the considerably,during but men lagged behind levels of sport participation actually evened In: Larsen 2003a. 2003a. In: Larsen Social differentiation the pe countries, Just as in the other Scandinavian Table 3.13 Participation in sport and exercise Participation in sport Table 3.13 Do normallyyou practise sportor exercise? Participation in some sort of 47 51 72 Are practicingyou one or more ‘idraet of the

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society people overthe ageofsixtydevotedmore time thaneverbeforeto sport. contrast to womenyoung andboth men andwomen and 2002, young men of16-19 old devotedle years strength among the older agegroups.This situati 60 a club. related andnon-organised sports, wh proportion of them part insport alsotake in people whoparticipate insportdo soin a non- outside ofthe organisational contextof sports most place farthe sportparticipationinDenmark takes thatby From itappears table3.14, 3:17 4: context Organisational 5: 3:38 3:52 3: 2003b. Larsen Source: 4:39 3: 5:04 Total 3:34 2: 4:01 years 70+ 4: 4:23 years 60-69 5: 6:52 years 50-59 9:30 years 40-49 years 30-39 years 20-29 years 16-19 minutes). (inhours: gender and age to according above) Table 3.15: Time spent onsport and physical activitiesby the Danish population (aged 16 and participation amongh youngsters period between1964 and 1998. Furthermore, this 14% in1998 (see table3.16.). Nevertheless, clubsportis lo in sportwithin thecontext a of competitions sport participation haveincreased between1987an clubs. Clublifecontinues toremainstrongin Denmark:more thereare than 14,000 sports sports clubs. In total,anestimated3.2milli clubs; thatisoneclubforevery 400 inhabitants. Inaddition, therearealso7,000 company

71 70

Ml eaeTtlMl eaeTotal Female Male Total 2002 Female Male 1998 71 70 Ibsen & J Ibsen& J Ibsen& ø ø rgensen 2004. rgensen 2004. as stagnatedsince1993,whileit 044 :663 7:02 4:59 6:38 4:51 4:58 4:20 7:26 4:34 6:41 5:00 4:18 7:07 4:48 5:08 5:51 3:37 4:22 6:26 00 3:57 7:29 41 3:38 7:42 53 5:37 48 7:35 23 20 ile 8% participate exclusively ile 8%in sportwithin participateexclusively thecontext of sing itsmarket share.Whileinabroad of sense thelevels on Danesarethoughtto be membersof sports :665 :25:33 4:32 6:52 3:26 another context. 39% arethusactivewithinclub- nd tournaments fromin 1987to hasfallen 17% clubs or fitness centres. Aroundeightoutoften clubsorfitnesscentres. 955 :85:32 5:08 5:56 29 organised fashion.Atthesame time,alarge on is highlighted in table3.15. Between 1998 tableshowsthatthegrowthin sport d 1989, theproportion ofthose whotakepart ss time tosportandphysical activity,in of thehigherage categories.Inparticular, has rapidly gainedhas rapidly evermore Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

61 General participation sport according to gender 1987 1993 1998 ation (16 years and above) in general and and above) ation (16 years astics (13%) and weightlifting/bodybuilding astics (13%) and weightlifting/bodybuilding particularly with respect to gymnastics,particularly dance, ilst football (9%) and badminton (8%) were the ilst football (9%) and badminton ngsters between the ages of 12 and 15 who take take 15 who ngsters between the ages of 12 and m their position in the popularity stakes. In 2002, popularity stakes. their position in the m th in sport participation at commercialparticipation sport th in sport Number of sports association members according to gender

72 2003 2002 rgensen 2004. rgensen ø Ibsen & J 72

Number of sports association members accordingto age

<18 jaar Football Golf >25 <18 Jogging Walking 1 Football Gymnastics 2 Swimming Men Football 3 Handball 4 Gymnastics Badminton Women riding Badminton Gymnastics Sailing Swimming 5 Horse Golf Handball Men riding Walking Football Horse Swimming Football Handball Gymnastics Swimming Women Cycling Badminton Jogging Cycling Table 3.17 Ranking mostorder the of five popular sports in non-organised context according to gender and a club-related in context according to age and gender.

Regularly takes part in sport in of the context competitions or tournaments17 Source: Larsen 2002. 15 14 At the same there has time, also been a grow Table 3.16 Sport and exerciseTable 3.16 Sport and among the Danish popul youof centres. Around of adults and 10% 22% commercialso within a do context; part in sport accordingcompetitive form to (in %). Participates in and exercisesport and fitness. bowling horse riding, 43 47 51 most popular competitive sports. popular most federation has twice as second itself in many members gymnasticsas the federation, which finds They by handball, swimming and badminton order. are followed the place in the ranking popularity. The football enjoys the greatest context, football Within an organisational federations respectively. (11%) were by far the most practiced sports, wh jogging/running (18%), swimming (15%), gymn (15%), (18%), swimming jogging/running The most popular sports sports as compared to the total in competitive number of those participating The relatively small participants is also evident fro of sport number wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 62 tennis. period were,inthefollowing ten order,year te sportalsoincreased greatest increases.Equestrian Proportionallyassociations. speaking, golf, sport- growth inclub membership, followed by footba itappears thatbetween1993andanalysis, 2003, golf clubsmost experiencedthe significant on clubmembership alsomakethe The statistics Source: Danmarks Idraets-Forbund; Larsen 2002.

nnis, badminton, athletics, volleyballandtable ll, gymnastics, sport-dancing and racingcycling analysis oftrendspossible.Fromsuch an analysis dancing, ice hockey andfloorball showedthe dancing, icehockey in popularity. The inpopularity. biggestlosersduringthis Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

63 Part Two: member states Western European

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society . RepublicofIreland 3.4 that they had done no formofsportor physi Ireland thanthe Eurobarometer. Accordingto th anevenhigherle Exerciserecords and Physical participation in theEuropean Unionafter the S exception of Slovenia, this meansthattheRepub whilst 31%didnosp sport atleastonceaweek, According to the 2004 Eurobarometer 213(62.0), 53% oftheIrishpopulation participated in Levels ofsportparticipation data. conducted independently of each 1994 NationalSurvey ofInvolvement inSpor Survey, theSurvey ofLifestyles,AttitudesandNutrition(SLÁN)in19982002,the most im wereasked.The activity and physical outin which, carried research studieswere among otherthings,questionsaboutsport, exercise The NationalOmnibus came Survey upwiththesimilar figureof23% in2003. 64 Economic Social ResearchInstitute(ESRI)inDublin. and in sportwastheSurvey of conducted in Sport andPhysical Exercise,whichwasthe2003 by levels ofsportparticipation.Themost recent In theRepublic ofIreland, there isnolongitudi Introduction information on sportparticipation inIreland. With specialthankstoDr. Ann BourkeofUni that 36% werenon-participants insport. conductedstudy in1994, which askedaboutsport definitions of sportandthe factthat

76 75 74 73 COMPASS 1999. National Omnibus Survey 2001. Fahey, Layte &Gannon 2004. datapresented The inthissectionisbasedmainlythis researchstudy,which was on in Ireland published ESRI by in2004 the under thetitle (Fahey, Layte 2004) &Gannon other andthusoffer supplementary, but hardly comparable, thequestionswereposeddifferently. 76 These differences are the result ofdivergent aretheresult Thesedifferences cal exerciseduringthe previous twelvemonths. and representative national survey survey on participation and representativenational versity College Dublinforsupplyinguswith versity t and Physical Activity. These surveys were Activity.Thesesurveys t andPhysical portant of these are the 2001NationalOmnibusportant ofthesearethe candinavian countries. TheESRISurvey ofSport nal research tradition that periodically monitorsnal researchtraditionthatperiodically vel of sport participation inthe Republicof ort or exercise at all. Withthepossible ort or at all. exercise is study, only 22% ofthepopulation indicated lic ofIrelandhasthehighestlevel ofsport participation inmore generalterms, indicated .

Sports participationandhealth amongadults 73 Priorto this, avarietyofother 75 The research Theresearch 74

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

65 al groups are limited. Excluding walking, al groups are limited. that the surveysThis is due to the fact that e percentage of groups that have participated have e percentage of groups that surveys countries, which in the Scandinavian years and above who have participated in sport sport in participated have who above and years ore, between lower and even the differences the data from deviates months. This definition 12 months, according to gender, age andof level time differ too greatly from each other. differ too greatly from time ercise and the elderly and lower professional

on in sport and exercise are the sameon in sport and exercise men for both the participation in sport and exercise for the and sport the participation in 77 nces between measurements with and without with and nces between measurements 2003 Fahey, Layte & Gannon 2004. Layte Fahey, 77

Social differentiation of participati levels the If walking is included, of Ireland. Furtherm Republic and women in the and higher and lower professionhigher age categories are lesswomen physical active in sport and ex differe The further behind. groups also lag Trends in sport participation in sport participation Trends for any trends to determine It is not possible of the course throughout have been conducted percentage points. walking reach nearly fifty Republic of Ireland on the basis of the data available. basis of on the Republic of Ireland in sport at least once during the previous twelve and the national the Eurobarometers derived from Source: Fahey e.a. 2004 th concerns that table 3.18 be emphasised It should incl. walking excl. walking walking excl. profession (in %). incl. 78Male Female78 18-24 8725-29 82 52 30-39 81 34 40-49 85 67 50-65 74 60 65+ 56 51 unskilled manual 42 skilled manual 26 professionallow 16 high professional 70 79 89 81 27 49 58 52 All 78All 43 Table 3.18: Proportion of the Irish population of 18 of 18 population Irish of the Proportion 3.18: Table or physical exercise at least once during the past wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society inintensive, men thanwomentakepart participate innon-organised sport,irrespective of anon-organisedcontext. takes placewithin women concernparticipationincompetitive and Earlierresearchintosport participati JustasinScandinavia,it also agecategories. women,men and reveals but significantdifferencesbetween not only COMPASS scheme. This offer alotof ice. Nonetheless,they 6 http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/ireland.htm) (seealso COMPASS1999 Source: category and frequency (in %). 3 Table 3.20 Sportparticipation among the Irish population (16 yearsand above) according to age 4 respect tointensivesportparticipation. participate insportthan the Scandinaviancount 3 th between greater differences that thereare 36 Bearing inmind thisdataconcerns c astudy 7 21 42 15 http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/ireland.htm) (seealso COMPASS1999 Source: 20 7 30 Non-participant 14 22 Occasional 7 11 16 Irregular recreational Regular, 11 organised and/or competitive Regular, All Intensive 11 organis Competitive, Female Male gender, intensity, competitive and organisational context (in%). Table 3.19 Sportparticipation among the Irish population (16 yearsand above) according to difference. make aconsiderable mostwalking, while thatisthecasein otherc However,thesedatadonotinclude participate insportonceamonth and28%onceaweek. were presentedabove.Fahey etal.(2004) repor 6 12-120 times a yea timesa 12-120

>120 times a yea timesa >120 <12 times a yea timesa <12 Making comparisons onthe basisofnon-harmoni d nesv 1 7 3 11 ed, intensive r r r 61 02 52 03 53 40- 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 16-19 44 16 96 07 28 91 5 87 7 82 10 77 14 70 20 67 21 59 24 60 27 41 36 40 27 24 40 363323131712109864 interesting, additionalinformation. competitive sportinaclub-relatedcontext. competitive e proportionof young pe Roughly the same amount ofmen amount thesame andwomen Roughly onducted ago, itcanbe over ten concluded years on (dating from 1994)can be fittedintothe is notable thatthediffe ountries. As has already beenindicated,thiscan ountries. Ashasalready t that, on average,33% oftheIrishpopulation 1994 1994 1994 1994 organised and sportonly not the sportthat the intensityofsport participation.Yetmore ries. The‘drop off’ isparticularly greatwith sed national surveys isskating sed nationalsurveys on thin 44-95-45-96-465+ 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 44 rences between men and rences between ople andoldpeoplewho Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7

6 When 79 Unfortunately, 81 Eurobarometer 28 1987; Commission of the 28 1987; Commission Eurobarometer

tocommercial within sport participation 80 cultures. Around 33% of the Irish take part in take part of the Irish 33% Around cultures. 1 1998; European Social Survey 2002. Survey 1 1998; European Social ge has remained relatively between 1987 stable ticed sport, followed by fit, golf, aerobics/keep ticed sport, followed ean Social Survey, the Republic of Ireland is ean Social Survey, ll and association football (soccer). These sports ll and gures for the various sports organisations. gures for the various recreational walking every now and then. recreational walking 2003 European Union, Eurobarometer 50. Eurobarometer Union, European Commission of the European Communities, the European of Commission 2001. Nutrition Alliance Irish Universities & Gannon 2004. Layte Fahey, & Gannon 2004. Layte Fahey, 78 79 80 81 There are little data available with respect 78

we have no data on the recent membership fi

percentage of practitioners and gender (in %). (in %). and gender of practitioners percentage or non-organised contexts. or non-organised sports The most popular in engages of the population Around half

Source: Faley e.a. (2004). men. Swimming is equally the first place among from golf has driven football It is striking that and women. There are significant age differences with respect men to popular among sports, such as Gaelic footba competitive team are played by far more 18-29 year olds than older age groups. In contrast, participation in participation in contrast, groups. In year older age 18-29 are played far than olds more by swimming evenly and golf is more distributed across all of the age categories. Swimming Golf Aerobics/keep fit Football (soccer) 15 Golf Cycling for leisure 8 Swimming (Gaelic) football 7 (Gaelic) football 5 Billiards/snooker 10 Football (soccer) for leisure 4 Cycling 8 Golf for leisure 12 Cycling 13 Aerobics/keep fit Tennis 6 17 Swimming 6 Jogging 3 10 17 3 3 2 one of the countries with the strongest sports club with the one of the countries TableRanking 3.21 order most the of five popular sports in a non-organised context according to Organisational context the Europ and the Eurobarometers According to percenta sport as of a sports club. This members and 2002. Total % Men % Women % football and cycling. The popularity stakes are to a large extent determined by the social by the are to a large extent determined stakes popularity The football and cycling. and age. gender participants, including of background walking is left aside, swimming is the most prac wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.5 United Kingdom the GHS; namely, 1977-1986the GHS;namely, and 1987-2002. In viewofmethodological modifications, trendsfo and physical activities and,since1996,also onclub oldand years above. Amongst otherthings, the Indeed,theUnitedKingdommember isoneofthe few statesoftheEuropeanUnion, (GHS) hasbeenconducted among thepopulation of which haslongitudinal dataonsport participa living in northern Europe. than (frequently) southern sport more intensively higher. TheCOMPASS datashowsthatBritishspor month. in theScandinavian Only countries, Ire with55%ofthepopulationdoingexercise orsportatleast oncea EUaverage, were abovethe data (seefigure2.7).TheEurobarometer revealed th perspective onthebasisof the Eurobarometer In theprevious chapter,theUnitedKingdom was Levels ofsportparticipation not beexamined here. Supplementary dataonsportbehaviourin Sco with sportparticipation amongadults in the UK into sport participation amongethnicminorities InadditiontotheGHS,YoungPeople and 16 old, whilespecialyears conducted by surveys Sport England (1999/2000) offerinsight 2002) provides information onthe sport behaviour to themost period. recent focused ontheidentificationoftre and thesedataprovideastartingpointforthedeve tovariousaspects availablewithrespect ofsport the fieldofsportpolicy.readily Therearedata The UnitedKingdomof gooddata isatextbookcase Introduction 68 forreferencesto Jerry BinghamfromUKSport With specialthankstoBeth and Fowler,Louise NickRowefromSport England Hammerton and

83 82 In 2004, a new national In2004,anew survey of culture andsporthasbeendeveloped. survey This SportEngland 2004a;CurryStanier 2003; UK government2002. & continuously basis. onamonth-by-month collects information foralargersample thanthecollection carried GHSwith data out nds and international benchmarks. tion. Since 1973, the GeneralHouseholdSurvey 83 tland, Wales andNorthernIrelandwilltherefore research studies (see figure2.1)andCOMPASS studies(see research land andtheNetherlandswerepercentages GHS includesquestionsonsport participation Inthis restrict ourdiscussion section,weshall and supply ofdata onsportparticipation. and disabledpeople. Thissectionwillonly deal and anumber oftargetgroups in England. Europeans, butless intensivelythan those viewed withinaninternational comparative and SportSurvey (heldin 1994, 1999 and lopment of policy. Datacollectionislargely lopment ofpolicy. r two periodscanbeidentified onthe basisof of English youngsters betweentheagesof 6 membership and theuseofsports membership facilities. and England, andWalesofsixteen ts participants generally tendtopractice ts participantsgenerally at thelevelsofsportparticipationinUK supply andtheuseofsuchinformationsupply in 82

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

69 16-19 20-24 25-29 30-44 45-59 60-69 70 and over Total ey Office for National ing walking, the GHS shows that 59% of ing walking, be situated within a temporal perspective. be situated within a temporal from 1987 to 1990, remained at about stable remained 1987 to 1990, from est to the score found in the most recent was more prevalent in a number of demographic of demographic was more prevalent in a number General Household Surv ipating in sport fell more significantly among men significantly among sport fell more ipating in one sport, including walking, in the four weeks in the walking, one sport, including took part in sport once a month (excluding once a month took part in sport ting in sport slowly but steadily declined between 1990 and 2002. 2002. between 1990 and declined slowlybut steadily sport ting in Britons participate in sport; this is clos Britons participate Eurobarometer survey. Fox & Rickards 2004; Sport England 2004b. Includ 2004b. 2004; Sport England & Rickards Fox

84 84 1987 1990 1993 1996 2002

0

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentage of age group age of Percentage

participation Trends in sport sport participation in the UK to The GHS also allows interview, increased and twelve-months before the walking the Excluding in 2002. to 59% dropped then and between and 1996, 65% 1990 participa percentage of adults who at least percentage of those In 1990, the It reveals that overall participation in at least recent most walking) was 48%, whereasmeasurement) it had decreased to 43% in 2002 (the (see figure 3.2). groups. Firstly, the percentage of those partic groups. Firstly, Statistics. adults among The decline in sport participation Figure 3.2: Percentage of populationwhothe in UK participatedsport inweeks in the four before age group, 1987-2002. Source: by the interview,

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society

70 doing sport outof lessonsduringthesc youn Figure 3.3:Percentageof 1996 and2002. decline insportparticipationamong a younger 19 and old),with20-24 adecreaseof10andyears 11 This percentage pointsrespectively. 1990-2002, the mostsignificant dropin sport minor shiftswithrespecttoadultparticipation sports. Cycling andswimmingalsodeclined participation the result amongmainly menwas (from 1996to 51% in2002)thanwo 54%in increased from 10.0to11.2duringthesame period. 1999 and2002back between (figure 3.3). Theaveragenumber ofsportsplayed themby a weektosportduringtheir initia schoolholidays out oflessons perschool the pe year. However, as in1994and1999, 98% ofthoseinthis agecate

Percentage of age group

10 20 30 40 50 60 0 Among peoplebetweenyoung more ambiguous. 6and16 oldthe trendwas years Just 85 86 85 9419 2002 1999 1994 43

SportEngland 2003. GeneralHousehold forNationa SurveyOffice 33 g people aged 6-16 yearsg peopleaged6-16 spent ten hoursormorewho per week 51 hool holidays.Source:Sport England2003. men (from sport 38%to37%).Thedecreasing among women. There were only comparatively among comparatively women.Therewereonly 39 participation wasfoundamong young adults (16- dults of 16-24 years old accelerated between dults of oldaccelerated 16-24 years in allother sports.Secondly, during theperiod rcentage of peopleyoung whodevoted tenhours of the waningpopularity ofcycling andcue lly1994 and1999,but rose between thenfell gory participatedin2002 sportatleastonce gory 86

l Statistics;seealso SportEngland 2004b. 42 38 Secondary years 7-11 Primary years2-6

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

30 71 31 Semi routine Routine 38 and technical Lower supervisor Lower Furthermore, sport Furthermore, 87 and own account own and adults who had taken part in at least one in taken part who had adults non-organised intensive sport participation sport participation intensive non-organised to Sweden and Finland, that while fewer participated in at least one activity, including participated in at least stratification of sport also comes to the fore in atus and participation rates in sports and rates in sports atus and participation 43 43 e disabled, ethnic minorities and in deprived and in minorities e disabled, ethnic tively excluded). There was if walking was a e COMPASS scheme, one can see that women in Intermediate Small employers socio-economic classification, 2002. Source: Sport Source: Sport socio-economic classification, 2002. 51 and professional Lower managerial Higher professionals Fox & Rickards 2004. & Rickards Fox 2001a and 2001b. Sport England 87 88

59 59 and high managerial Large employers Large

88 0

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Percentage participation was lower than average among th was lower than average participation areas.

Social differentiation Social differentiation EU memberJust as in the other states, the social England. In 2002, men were likelyto have more 2002, men England. In and excluding walking. Moreover, the proportion of and excluding walking. activity in at least one generallydecreased yearspart had taken with age: 77% of 16 and 19 olds of people with 30% compared weeks previous four walking) in the physical activity (including respec versus 14% (and 72% over aged 70 and st between socio-economic clear association too physical activities (see figure controlling for age. 3.4), also after England 2004b. Figure 3.4: Participation in sport in the UK by sport in the in Figure 3.4: Participation When the 1996 GHS data is translated into th and organised the UK trail behind as regards both (see table 3.22). Earlier it was noted, with respect

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 1 ie er 2 13 94 05 06 982 69 8 72 10 67 17 14 60 and Afro-Caribbeandisabled people. 15 18 versus 13%),semi andunskilledmanual social 56 an over-representationof white, professional 20 20 more th Moreover, the Englishclubs areeven 50 23 olds and13%among olds andthencontinues 20-24 years tofallas theagerisesfurther. 21 40 school,theclub members, proportion afterleaving drops abruptly to 17% among 16-19 year 25 25 applies toadults inparticular. While47% of 39 sports clubsthanin,forexample, Sweden, 30 30 presented by namely thatre the Eurobarometers, 37 27 fromThe statistics theGHSin1996 and 2002 Young People Survey confirm thepicture 34 31 28 context Organisational 35 22 25 44 (seealso http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/united.htm) COMPASS 1999 Source: 25 53 year timesa <12 year timesa 12-120 year timesa >120 and frequency (in%). the among British participation 3.23Sport Table 6 6 figure 3.7 in section onPortugal). sport participationamong theyoungestagegr countries (Ireland,theNetherlands,Spain,Italy 5 among andoldyoung people aregreater.Compar 34 4 In comparison totheScandinaviancountries,th 20 40 19 3 (seealso http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/united.htm) COMPASS 1999 Source: 22 28 Non-participant 18 19 Occasional 6 13 20 Irregular recreational Regular, 10 organised and/or competitive Regular, Intensive 15 organis Competitive, gender, intensity, competitive and organisational context (in%). the among Britis participation 3.22Sport Table as intensivesportparticipation in anon-organised context wasconcerned. sportwomen thanmenplayed inan organised context,itwasindeedtheotherway round asfar

d nesv 825 2 8 ed, intensive 61 02 52 03 53 40- 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 16-19 1996 1996 aeFml All Female Male Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany. This andGermany. theNetherlands Denmark, youngsters of11-16 years oldinthe UKaresport h population (16 years and above) according to to according above) and (16years population h males and under-representation ofwomen(4% males an theaforementioned countriescharacterisedby oups in the UnitedKingdom 3.23and (seetable population (16 years and above) according to to age according above) and (16years population classes (4% versus 16% professional), Asians classes (4%versus e differences inlevelsofsport participation and Portugal), thereof a higherfrequency was latively few people in the UK are members of members of fewpeopleintheUKare latively ed tomost oftheotherCOMPASSpilot 1996 1996 44-95-45-96-465+ 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 44 Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

90 73 22.8 19.8 17.9 14.1 12.1 5.7

91

ch also increased significantly. The number ch also increased significantly.The number 0 12.6 10.5 7.7 8.9 6.0 2.9 89 of a sport club, more women than men could than men could women of a sport club, more before interview in 1996, 40% did so in 2002. in before interview in 1996, 40% did so ereas 32% of men who had played sports had had sports of men who had played ereas 32% 2002 another kind of social club (see tableof social club (see 3.24.). kind another ople and higher professional groups were over- groups were higher professional ople and 16 yearswho and over, practice sporta club, in 1990 and 1400 in 2000. There are currently around 3 million There are currently around 3 million 2000. 1990 and 1400 in club membership, competitive participation and tuition increased participation and tuition competitive club membership, GHS 2002 in Fox & Rickards 2004 and Sport England 2004. England 2004. and Sport & Rickards 2004 GHS 2002 in Fox 2004. & Rickards Fox 2002. in: UK government Company, Leisure Database 89 90 91 Total Gender Age groups Gender Total Age Throughout the last decades, the the fitness bran Throughout

as a fitness club and 3% health or member of were members than females more Although males of a 4% of a sport club, practised sport as a years 8% over, member adults, 16 Of all and Young pe health or fitness clubs. be found in represented in fitness centres.clubs and both sports participated competitively in the twelve months the twelve months participated competitively in significantly among men and women who participated in any physical activity sport physical or who participated in any men and women among significantly wh darts). For example, and (excluding walking Source:2002GHS Rickards Fox in 2004; & Sport England 2004. Between 1996 and 2002, Men Women 16-19 20-24 25-29 30-44 45-59 60-69 70+ Men Women 16-19Health/fitness club 20-24Social club 25-29Sports club 30-44 3.5Other club 3.2 club Any 2.8 3.6 8.2 4.8 4.7 13.2 2.8 6.0 1.1 15.4 4.0 4.2 5.6 4.3 22.3 17. 1.6 5.0 3.4 9.6 5.2 2.6 26.2 3.6 4.4 1.7 3.2 2.5 0.5 2.2 2.9 2.7 2.9 1.7 2.6 1.1 Table 3.24: Percentage of total population, according of to type club, gender and age.

The most popular sports popular are the most and cycling cue sports In general, walking, swimming, keep fit/yoga, different order (see a somewhat although in and women, activities. This applies to both men table 3.25).

of private health or fitness clubs in the UK rose - particularly during the 1990s - from around from rose - particularlyduring the 1990s - clubs in the UK of private health or fitness in around 600 1980 to 200 in of with an annual increase more than 10%. members, wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society above) (+4), whilenetball(-9),cycling(-7)and aer anddanceclasses (+5),swimming period, arerollerskating/skateboarding (+8), gymnastics and 2002.Other sports,whichalsobore witn 3 percentagepoints)and grew inpopularity among popularity than girls, byboys (- itdecreasedin played yet Football ismorewidely boys table 3.26.) and cricketaremoregymnastics/trampolining widely andgirlsarefargreater.Inpartic between boys ranking order isquitedifferent from‘top ten’ the vrl % os Grs % 45 23 21 hiking (>1hr), 53Walking 22 %Girls 57Cycling boarding 25Rollerskating/skate 25Danceclasses 74 boarding 22Rollerskating/skate 37Cycling 22 49Football %Boys 22 Tennis 31Gymnastics, trampolining Tennis 5 pools 23Snooker,billiards, hiking (>1hr), Walking 4 boarding skating/skate Roller 3 Football 2 Cycling 1 Overall 2 to gender. according England 3 Table 3.26Ranking order of th 7 Tennis 3 9Running 2 bowls/skittles 7 Tenpin 4 3 5Running 15 10Snooker/pool/billiards 34 6 4Horseriding 5Keepfit/yoga training 9Weight 5Golf bowls/skittles 3 Tenpin stronglyParticipation inmany activitiesisvery linked toage. 12Swimming 16 9Football 36Walking Source: GHS2002 bowls/skittles Tenpin 12Cycling training 6Weight Golf 10 Football 9 15Keepfit/yoga Running 8 12Cycling 14Snooker/pool/billiards training Weight 35Walking 9Swimming 7 Cycling 6 Snooker/pool/billiards 5 Keepfit/yoga 4 Swimming 3 Walking 2 1 Table 3.25Ranking order of themostplayedspor

vrl % e % oe % %Women %Men Overall according togender. 92 Fox &Rickards 2004. e mostpopularsportsamongy 2002 2002 obics/keep fit(-5)declined inpopularity. among girls(+5percentagepoints)between 1994 ess toagrowthamongst girlsduring thesame ular, football,rollerskating/skateboarding, ts among the Britishpopu practisedmost byadults.Alsothecontrasts 2002 2002 participated in by children than adults (see participated inby oung people (6-16yearsold)in 92 Forthe 6-16agegroup, the lation (16 yearslation (16 and Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

75 ng 13 Athletics, running 13

nues to be the most popular sport by far. The UK popular sport be the most nues to 93 ating/skateboarding (+13), but less in cycling but (+13), ating/skateboarding (-9) Basketball 16 Football 18 Sport England 2003. Sport England 93

Membership figures 2002

Source: Taylor et al. 2003. Source: Taylor 2 Golf 3 Gymnastics 4 Bowls 830,000 5 884,500 6 Squash 587,144 7 Tennis 442,499 8 Rugby 350,000 racing 9 Motor 250,000 286,520 10 Sailing 256,938 205,071 and cricket (-5), and rounders (-4). There was also decline in the popularity of football, cricket cricket of football, There was (-4). also decline in the popularity rounders and cricket (-5), and this period. during boys amongst and rounders Table 3.27 Rankingorder according to sports organisations’ membership figures. 1 Football 2,500,000 Source: Sport England 2003 2003 England Sport Source: took greater part in roller sk Boysprincipally 6 Snooker, billiards, pool 7 trampolining Gymnastics, 8 running Athletics, 21 Cricket 16 Walking (>1hr), hiking keep 21 Aerobics, fit 13 Tennis 22 19 20 9 Cricket 10 Basketball 12 Athletics, runni 13 Darts Rounders 14 14 top ten is also strongly dominated by other sports whose origins lie in England. origins lie in England. sports whose by other dominated strongly top ten is also conti context, football Within an organisational wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.6 The Netherlands the Scandinaviancountries and not by Sport in the characterised Netherlands is Levels ofsportparticipation 3.5). growth, othersindicateastagnation developed thereafterevident. is,however,less growth insport participationfrom the1970s different ways,theystillbring longterm comparable Although the instruments calcula various research Trends insportparticipation 7 intheSportgenerated weresummarised Report2003. guidelines forsportsparticipationsurveys. The the SportsClubsMonitor and instrumentshavebeenadded;inpartic research participation among theDutchpopulation. More (AVO), whichbot Surveys (TBO) andFacilitiesUsage conductedSocial andCulturalPlanning bothTime Office(SCP)hasperiodically UseStudies participation have beencollectedusingavari good isalsocomparatively inThe datasupply Introduction time tosporthasinfactdecreased. monthleast oncea hasincreasedthroughout the p indicates thatthisdisparity grew duringthe 1990s:wh years and above was sportingly activemorethan120times ayear. andabovewassportingly years (62.0) in 2004, in theRSOstudy 2002 revealed thatamere18% oftheDutchpopulation of 6 sportatleastpopulation exercisedorplayed Europe), but of also anaveragelowfrequency of organisation (withthehighest percentageof 6

96 95 94 Breedveld ed.2003. Hoyng, Roques &VanBottenburg 2003. Breedveld ed.2003. nationally and locally harmonised accordingto nationally andlocally surveys the RSO- Ireland havehigherlevels still), 96

in growth oreven a declineinsportparticipation (seefigure once a month accordingtotheEurobarometer 213 once a until the mid 1990s.How sportparticipation ety of research instruments. Sincethe1970s, of researchinstruments. ety theNetherlands.Longitudinal data onsport Whereas in onestudypointsto adeceleration sport participation. Although 59% ofthe sport played within contextin sport played a club-related only a highdegree ofsportparticipation (only ular, the Physical Activity andHealth Survey, Activity ular, thePhysical majority of the data that these surveys have majority ofthe data thatthesesurveys recently, severalnewandmore specific recently, ast decades,thepercentagethatdevotesmore te participationin sport andexercise in trendstolight. Theyallrevealasignificant 94 ile thepercentagethattakepartinsportat h includetheissueoflevelsport

and anexceptionallyhighlevel 95 The time use research research The timeuse Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 7 AVO survey TBOtime researchdiaries use surveys use time TBO sportclubs NOC*NSF-membership RSO survey lf of the 1980s, after which a slight decline lf of the 1980s, llowed by a stagnation during the first half the first half during by a stagnation llowed ing to the COMPASS framework guidelines, rticipation declined slightly the 1990s during declined rticipation figure of the umbrella sports organisation of the umbrella figure interpret since it is far less equivocal: the remained stable between 1983 and 1999, the 1999, between 1983 and stable remained ticipants rose during the 1980s and subsequently 1980s and subsequently ticipants rose during the in organised club-related sport. organised club-related in participation among the Dutch population (6 years and above), 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002

0

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentage of population of Percentage

Source: Breedveld & Van Bottenburg 2002. 2002. & Van Bottenburg Breedveld Source: Regular, recreational 776445 recreational Table 3.28 Classificationsport of according to the COMPASS framework, on based 1979-1999. AVO-surveys Non-participant 50Occasional 6 42Irregular 24 6Regular, 42 29 organised Regular, 41 7Intensive 3 29Intensive, organised 41 8 34 2 1979 41 33 1983 8 2 8 1987 33 1991 10 8 3 1 1995 10 1999 4 1 11 3 2 10 2 10 2 1 Figure Trends 3.5: participation in sportin the Netherlands accordingdifferent tostudies using 2003. (ed.) Breedveld Source: definitions. and methods research different The development of organised sport is easier to is The development of organised sport different studies show a growth during the 1970s, fo the different studies show a growth during second ha the during and a rejuvenation of the 1980s, Only the membership ensued during the 1990s. NOC*NSF point to a persistent growth pa stabilised and that regular and intensive sport par sport irregular and of incidental amount recalculated When the AVO data is accord (see table 3.28.). it appears that the number of non-participants it appears that the number wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society take partinsportacommercial than men (in2002 thiswas20% and32% of wome context inwhichsporttakesplace:farfewer 57 er 81 92 63 . . . . 090.9 0.9 0.9 0.6 1.0 1.1 0.6 0.6 1.2 1.3 0.3 78 0.5 1.1 1.3 2.6 0.1 0.3 1.0 1.3 2.9 35 0.2 0.7 1.2 2.5 1.0 26 1.5 48 0.5 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.8 63 23 0.8 45 2.3 1.0 1.5 74 1.9 64 19 0.9 39 1.6 86 74 0.7 62 15 1.2 31 92 0.5 85 0.9 76 58 8 29 89 65 65 84 72 57 20 88 64 63 82 73 46 85 62 63 years 65-79 85 66 86 57 years 50-64 60 81 79 years 35-49 56 61 years 20-34 50 56 years 12-19 years 6-11 Age Women group Men Gender educational level. and age, to income gender, according population the among Dutch participation 3.29:Sport Table sport thantheir malecounterparts. women laggedbehindbysixpercentagepoints. part insport during theprecedingtwelvemonths higherthanthat was ofmen. before, Sixyears participation in sportisconcerned. Indeed,in Just asintheScandinaviancountries,Dutchwo Social differentiation the reversefor This isexactly andincomeachievement startedtoparticip have higher percentage factgrew.A differences in but, classes diminished, in terms of theamount Akintothe member states,partic other EU 1999, thedisparity betweenthepercentageofs in proportion to thedegreewhichprofessiona contrast, therehasbeenacleargrowthinsportparticipation among theover-50s. Duringtheperiod 1979-1999, young people under 19 ofage begantoparticipate years The levelsofsportparticipation among 20-50 year numbein sportever-increasing

atcpto npretgs Time spent in hours per week Participation in percentages* 98 97 Hoyng, Roques &VanBottenburg 2003.Bothdatarelatetothepopulation aged between Breedveld ed.2003. 18 to 70 years 18 to70 old. 17 9318 9119 9917 9018 9019 2000 1990 1995 1985 1980 1975 1999 1995 1991 1987 1983 1979 the higher social classes. the highersocialclasses. context(in2002 19% versus11%). rs, but they were also devoting increasingly lesstime tosport. devotingincreasingly rs, buttheywerealso 97 There are also significant differences intheorganisational Therearealsosignificantdifferences respondents respectively), farmoreyet women respondents respectively), 1999, the percentage of thosewithalowerleveleducational ports participantsfrom higherandlowersocial Nevertheless, women still devote less time to stilldevotelesstime Nevertheless, women of timethattheydevoted tosport, these menhave caughtup withmen asfartheir l and income levels rise. Between 1979and rise. Between l andincomelevels ate insport,butthey spendlesstime doingso. ipation insport intheNetherlandsincreases n participate in sport in a club-related context inaclub-relatedcontext n participateinsport olds hasremained stableforalongtime. In of womenwhohadtaken 98

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

79 in other sections of this chapter. in other sections ts clubs occupies is under threat. Since the occupies ts clubs of a sports club. There are a total of 4.9 million are of 4.9 million a total of a sports club. There inhabitants. Nearly 34% of the total population total population of the 34% Nearly inhabitants. es of sports clubs. The most striking decline striking The most es of sports clubs. uding consumer organisations, trade unions, organisations, trade unions, consumer uding are affiliated to accredited sport federations; more ere were some 29,600 sports clubs in the ere were 29,600 some are now taking part in training sessions and are now taking

99 1979 1983 1979 1987 1991 1995 1999 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 1979 1983 1979 1987 1991 1995 1999 Belgium, Germany and Sweden, as mentioned and Sweden, Germany Belgium, Van Bottenburg & Schuyt 1996. The true for many holds other countries, like & Schuyt same Van Bottenburg 99 However, the dominant position that the spor that the position However, the dominant

early share (see table has diminished 1990s, the sports clubs’ 3.30). market

political parties, and so on. than any other not-for-profit organisation, incl organisation, not-for-profit than any other

and 52% of all participants in sport are members participants in sport are members and 52% of all registeredmembers with the sports clubs that Sports participants 2003. (ed.) Source: Breedveld 57 Moreover, a decreasing of people number 58competitions, which are some of the core activiti years young19 old (see table 3.31.). people between 12 and has occurred among 58 59 57 52 Table 3.30: Percentage of the Dutch population (6 years and above) and sportspeople who are and sportspeople above) and years (6 population Dutch of the Percentage 3.30: Table %). (in club sports of a members Total population 30 34 34 37 36 34 Netherlands; that is one sport club for every 539 539 Netherlands; club for every that is one sport * A minimum of once in the twelve months prior to the interview interview the to prior months twelve the in once of A minimum * 2003. (ed.) Source: Breedveld Organisational context of sport degree with respect to its high other countries most The Netherlands deviates from th framework. In 2001, within an organised Lowest Lowest Middle Highest 34 42 63 68 42 67 74 46 68 73 45 71 75 46 71 77 0.6 70 0.9 75 1.3 1.1 0.7 1.6 1.0 0.9 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.5 0.8 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.6 Income level Lowest middle Lowest Highest middle level Highest 50 37 56 Educational 55 42 65 56 42 63 61 67 48 68 60 75 48 70 64 74 51 69 0.6 75 0.6 0.7 0.7 78 0.5 0.8 1.1 0.8 76 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.0 0.8 1.1 1.3 0.9 1.3 0.7 1.0 1.4 1.7 1.7 wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society themselves. contextand 46% inanon-committed commercial Dutch population over the age ofsixparticipated become smallegap betweenthetwohasclearly the fitnessbranchcontinues toremain substantially rambling/hiking, cycling, running/jogging andtenn practiced most widely At present,fitnessisthe The mostpopularsports 80 32 32 41 25 39 42 32 41 42 15 39 44 24 43 18 39 44 29 25 30 16 36 39 34 35 60 27 17 44 59 2003,with a to Netherlands in 29 41 66 total fitness centres.Therewereanestimated 25 17 31 47 45 59 In contrastto the diminishing appealofspor 36 72 21 6 36 50 51 64 Source: Breedveld (ed.) 2003. 38 70 13 42 Highest 48 54 62 27 Middle 71 43 35 55 61 1999 Lowest 58 1995 level Educational 43 56 45 1991 years 65-79 38 28 1987 49 years 50-64 1983 43 years 35-49 1979 years 20-34 48 years 12-19 49 years 6-11 Age 50 Women group Men 39 Gender walking/cycling) Overall (excl. old) gender, ageandeducationalleve context the in in sport 3.31:Participation Table

101

101 100 Hoyng, Roques &VanBottenburg 2003. Luttikhuis2003. tal ofaround1.6million members. % l as a percentageofthespor l as ts clubs, there has been anincreasinggrowthin ts clubs,therehasbeen of training sessions and competitions according to to according competitions sessions and training of of between1600and 2000 fitnesscentresinthe , followed by swimming, sport intheNetherlands,followedby r. In2002,accordingtotheRSO,34%of in sportaclub-related context,14% ina fashion or by organisingfashion or thesportfor by less significantthanthesports clubs,but the is. Between1991 and1999, the popularity of tingly active population(6-79years 100 Inthisrespect,thesizeof Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

81 Seniors (6-18 years) ext according to Juniors (6-18 years) club-related cont club-related Women and (18 years above) far the most playedfar the most ahead of tennis, sport, s of absolute numbers, sports organisations for sports organisations for s of absolute numbers, se riding increased, while ice-skating,se riding tennis, Men and (18 years above) r for sports in general and in in r for sports ng, badminton, gymnastics, most volleyball and tennis lost the All and (6 years above) General 2002 Club-related context 2003 (6 and above)years

golf, hockey, darts, athletics and bridge enjoyed the greatest growth greatest in membership, while the and bridge enjoyed darts, athletics golf, hockey, for swimmi sports organisations members. fitness/aerobics, walking, skateboarding and hor and fitness/aerobics,skateboarding walking, volleyball and gymnastics declined. gymnastics, golf, ice-skating and hockey. In term by football is context, Within an organised

Source:(Hoyng, RSOVan Roques Bottenburg & 2003);Membership 2003. figuresNOC*NSF 2 Fitness (condition) Tennis Tennis Gymnastics Gymnastics Tennis Gymnastics Tennis Tennis Gymnastics (condition) Skiing Tennis Golf 2 Fitness riding hockey 3 Walking Golf Gymnastics 4 Skiing Horse Gymnastics Field Volleyball Ice-skating Skiing Korfball 5 FootballBridge Swimming Volleyball riding Cycling Swimming 6 Tennis hockey Ice-skating 7 Horse Field 8 Running/jogging Gymnastics Skiing 9 Aerobics/steps Bridge Golf Volleyball Bridge 10 Volleyball Swimming Fitness (strength) Athletics Volleyball Field hockey Swimming Gymnastics Football Ice-skating Golf Horse riding Horse riding Judo Water sports 1 Swimming Football Football Tennis Football Football Table 3.32: Popularity ranking orde Table 3.32: Popularity gender and age age and gender All wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.7 Belgium Together these research data provideac Togethertheseresearchdata tothedataonsoci applies especially participation. Moreover, this datahasbeent outside ofthe contextofsports clubs. records on andtheBOICkeep these data,BLOSO which has been carried out annually sincewhich hasbeencarriedoutannually 1996, is known astheAPSsurvey. various aspectsofthepopulation’s behaviour, in 1990s, the Ministry ofFlanders commissioned have been able to analyse the trendsbetween 1969andhave beenabletoanalyse 1999. everyten Drawi years since. been replicated 82 With specialthankstoLuc Vandeputte (Bru Dutch and Canadian data have been made bysecondaryanalyses. Dutch andCanadiandatahavebeen available dataisnotreally suitable forinte Belgian populationexerciseorplay sport atleast in Belgium withinaninternational context. A offer The Eurobarometers andTimeUseSurveys Levels ofsportparticipation guidelines. and organisationalcontext are formulated differe cannot befitted intothe COMPASS scheme. Fu different approachesandquestioning, the inform Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Katholieke Universiteit use ofleisuretimeamong Flemish schoolchildre studies onsportparticipation.Firstly, attheendof on thesportive 1960s,aresearchstudy Belgium –inparticularthe Flemish-speaking pa Introduction data on sport participation. ofWelfa Dept. Ministry oftheFlemishGovernment, Leuven (KatholiekeUniversiteit Jeroen Scheerder

105 104 103 102 Scheerder&Breedveld 2005. Seeforexample Vanreusel 1985; 1994; Taks Scheerder 2003. SeeScheerder &Pauwels 2002. Scheerderetal.2002;Scheerder, Pauwels &Vanreusel 2003. Following thefirstmeasurement al stratificationofsportin Flanders. rnational comparison, although comparisons with ssels EuropeanSport Manage horoughly analysed in a scientific fashion. This ina scientific fashion. analysed horoughly ng on this data, researchers at Leuven University atLeuvenUniversity ng onthis data,researchers ccording toEurobarometer 213(62.0),52% of the the development ofasurvey,whichcharted rthermore, thequestionsonclub membership onsiderable amount ofinformation onsport rt –has alongtradition ofconducting time-lag cluding participation insport. This survey, n and their parents was developed by then andtheir parentswas developedby ation onthefrequency and intensity of sport ntly thanhasbeenag ntly once a month.once a Inthis regard,viewed withina the opportunity to examinesport participation , Dept. ofSport Sciences / , Dept. & Movement individual branches ofsport,bothwithinand re, Health& forproviding us with Culture) 102 Secondly, around Secondly, the mid in1969,thisresearch has 105 Thismeansthat,dueto the reed intheCOMPASS ment Centre)andDr. 104 103 However, the However, Inadditionto Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

83

106 1979 1989 1999 century reveal a st

107 onths) among adults in Flanders onths) among adults General 41 41General 41 52 MenWomen46General 34 49 48 44Men 34 37Women 54 49 38 50 29 40 50 48 e. This average comes level also to the fore ipation occurred during the 1970s. In the ipation occurred during the 1970s. In part in sport. However, this low percentage part in sport. However, lightly during the same period. However, at the lightly during to the Leuven University this decline had data, ticipation, such time use and club-related use and such time ticipation, sport. growth applies to both men and women, as well men applies to both growth during their leisure time at some their leisure during time of their of the 1960s, half of the men and women took the men and women half of 1960s, of the 14% of respondents said they had taken part in said theyhad respondents of 14% 1999 this was 52%. The sport repertoire of the 52%. was sport repertoire The this 1999 the 1990s, sport participation among young people people young among sport participation 1990s, the l sport participation research that is participation research that discussed l sport t participation among young people. In 2001, as In 2001, people. young among t participation eerder et participation in al. established that sport e 1990s, this applied to six out of ten of them. of them. of ten out applied to six this e 1990s, n to pick up again during the 1990s. the again during pick up n to eas less than 40% of the adult Flemish population in 1969 in population the adult Flemish eas less than 40% of least once in the last twelve m least once in the last twelve Scheerder et al 2001, 2002; Scheerder 2003. Scheerder et al 2001, 2002; Scheerder Scheerder 2003. 106 107 The most partic The most significant increase in sport

Sport participation (in % of total population) Club based sport participation (in % of all sport participants) accordinggender to and organisational context.

receiving a secondary school education declined s receiving a secondary school education already occurred among young people (especially girls). Whilst the number of adult participants of adult participants number Whilst the people (especiallyyoung girls). already among occurred percent during than ten by more in sport rose time,the same the diversity of sport participation actually increased. stagnation or decline (see table 3.35.). According (see tabledecline 3.35.). According stagnation or 1980s, this growth stagnated, but bega but stagnated, growth 1980s, this Things are, though, different as regards spor different as Things are, though, is not confirmed by the results of the nationa below. participation Trends in sport In their analysis of thirtyyears of sport, Sch Flanders has increased over the long term. This as adults and young people. Wher sport in claimed to have been actively involved 1969, In to 75%. this had risen lives, by 1999 end has also grown. At the population Flemish th at the end of than one sport; part in more with respect towith respect various other aspectsof sport par all EU place of the list found itself in bottom 55.1, Belgium indicated byEurobarometer taking youngsters of 38% only states with member while in past twelve the months, sport during European perspective, BelgiumEuropean comes as averag out

Table 3.33 Sport participation (at the APS surveys Data derived from for the first years of the 21 wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 7 51 122 38 33 11 39 22 44 84 30 11 53 40 24 70 44 33 38 15 >75 53 32 48 26 65-74 70 41 43 37 55-64 36 52 40 45-54 44 59 46 35-44 39 31 2003 56 25-34 44 66 16-24 2002 38 41 Women Men 46 2001 44 Total 2000 educational level. and age gender, to according population the Flemish among participation 3.35:Sport Table Source: Scheerder2003. Table 3.34Sportparticipation(at Source: Scheerder2003. according to age and organisational context. organisational and to age according Non-organised sport participation (in % of all sport participants) sportparticipants) (in%ofall sportparticipation Non-organised all sport participants) participants) all sport %of (in participation sport Non-organised participants) all sport %of (in participation Club based sport % oftotalpopulation) (in Sport participation

54 07 75 70 67 70 68 70 80 38 78 48 75 50 45-49 39 40-44 48 25-29 46 30 48 32 53 38 56 45-49 35 40-44 41 25-29 45 36 43 46 45-49 40-44 25-29 >49867073<35756862>49224338<35384653>49302738 <35454549 least onceinthelasttwelve m 9918 1999 1989 1979 oe 17 68 73 81 Women e 56 68 66 75 Men eea 86 68 69 78 General onths) amongadults inFlanders 9918 1999 1989 1979 Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

85

109

108 However, recent data from However, recent data from 110 ve been taken into account. ks 1994, Scheerder et al. 2001, Scheerder 2003. Scheerder et al. 2001, Scheerder ks 1994, ts continues to remain greaterts continues to remain than the share in Flanders, even after the socio-economic Flanders, even after the socio-economic in l and their behaviour in relation to the media to the media l and their behaviour in relation between the various social groups became less early illustrate, participation in sport is still is still early illustrate, participation in sport ters in Flanders has indeed changed. The till decreases in a linear fashion, but the trend trend till decreases inbut the a linear fashion, cant correlation between sport behaviour and cant correlation between sport behaviour escents and the socio-economic status of their escents and the socio-economic in more kinds of sport at the same time. In this kinds of sport at the same time. in more ecome ecome more than in the past few marginal ntiation. The chances of taking part in sport are ntiation. The chances of taking cation is also found in the other EU countries and in cation is also found tion. These socialyouth sport can differences in r, age and socio-economic status, between 1969 r, age and socio-economic 57 52 49 57 sport participation. During the 1969-1999 period, women not women period, During the 1969-1999 sport participation. rticipation at a younger age ha at a younger rticipation ipation were higher for all social groups than thirty years than thirty social groups ipation were higher for all y For Flanders see: Vanreusel 1985, Ta 1985, see: Vanreusel For Flanders Scheerder 2003. Scheerder 2003 Also see chapter 4 for more information. chapter Also see 108 109 110 45 43 44 47 43 34 33 40 y y education 28 19 21 27 y 65 58 64 69 y rimar

p her secondar her non-universit g g Universit be a signifi While there has continued to variables of social background, such as gende as variables of social background, such and 1999, the strength of these structural and 1999, the strength of these structural parame relationship between the sport behaviour of adol parents has weakened, education leve whilst their has become a more important influential factor. Aside from age, the school program has an has age, the school program from factor. Aside influential important a more has become behaviour on sport exceptionally strong influence pa and sport of parent position of this category in relation to the entire popula of this categoryin relation the APS surveys suggest that during the past few years sport participation among women has past few yearsthe APS surveys the sport participation among during suggest that once again declined (see table 3.35.). indicators suggest that these differences have b years between 7 and 17 active youngsters old decades (see table share of sportingly 3.34). The participation s As people get older, sport as compared of sport participan to the total number is corroborated time participation. on sport and again by literature is corroborated time the sociological still greater for men than women, diminish with increasing age and increase with with increasing still greater for diminish women, level a higher men than This social stratifi of educational achievement. Source: APS 2000-2003. Social differentiation of sport partic levels In 1999, 2000 No/ 2001 secondar Lower 2002 2003 and people older women, the growth was higher than average among previously. Since members of lower social classes, the differences characterised by of social a high degree differe significant. Nonetheless, as tables 3.33 to 3.35 cl significant. Nonetheless, as tables 3.33 Hi Hi as regards men had lagged behind also sport, but more take part in only started to up the distance that they women made 1980s, and the 1970s For the greatest part, during respect, there are few differences and women between today. men wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society in sport as members of a sports club. in sportasmembers ofasports importance. Intheperiod 1969-1999, ahigher per Alongside the generalincreaseinsportparticipati context Organisational 8 23 28 26 20 20 organisation in theleisuresphere. around 1 million members(around 17% oftheFlemish population); more other thanany 20 a In total,there 15,000accredited more are than Source: APS 1999 15 Women Men 25 20 Total the totalpopulation. in gender, % and of context organisational to according Flanders in participation 3.36Sport Table from socially stronger strata. with respecttoactivesportparticipation encounter greaterobstacles than clearly youngsters social inequalities.Young be viewedas people be seenasthebastionof young men.makemajority Indeed,girlsnow of upthe the under18 16-25 TheFl between years olddecreased. members majority (around six A inten) ofsports cl increase inthenumber time,womenmale andgirlsjoiningup.Atthesame thenumber of of catching up. Thewomen growthinclub-relate are alsonew. aquarterof were members the same time, membership turnover.Around 25% of members did frequently: morethan20%frequently: took part insport inan organised aswellanon-organised context. during thesameperiod. 3.33). Atthe same time, non-organisedsportseems the 1990s clubsportparticipation among menappear 6

114 113 112 111 Club membership Sport participation in Sportparticipation Club membership Elchardus, Hooghe &Smits2001. Scheerder2003. Scheerder,Pauwels &Vanreusel 2003. Scheerder2003 113 Bothforms ofsportparticipation alsoseem togohand in hand 111

114 However, thesesportsorganisationsalsohaveahigh However, 112 Thisappliestoallagegroupsand women, whileduring group context group from deprivedenvironmentsmore socially nd subsidisedsportsclubsinFlanders,with on, clubsportsparticipation alsogrewin ub members are male, buteveninthis ub members are regard centage ofFlemish andyouth adultstook part d sportduring the 1990sdue to waslargely an to havenotor movedhardly forward atall not renewtheirmembership in2002. Yetat emish sports club can certainly nolonger sportsclubcancertainly emish s to havedeclinedinimportances (seetable Individual participation Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 8

116 t participation according to organisational according to organisational t participation Flemish sport federations 1995-1998. sport federations 1995-1998. Flemish oughout Flemish and French speaking regions Flemish oughout per sport. For example, judo, basketball, judo, basketball, example, per sport. For ll are the sports, which are ll are the sports, which most frequently tinctive association in Flanders, whilst sports mountain biking, table tennis, badminton and motor and motor badminton biking, table tennis, mountain 2000 lthough there are slight differences between the ably more male than female participants and vice versa. 70% ably than female more male arity of sports thr arity

117 Evolution in the number of members of Evolution in the Scheerder et al. 2001. Scheerder 2003. 115 116 117 More generally, of spor the distribution 115

sports The most popular Cycling, walking, fitness and footba swimming, practiced in Belgium at least once a year,practiced in Belgium a provinces. speaking Walloon Dutch speaking Flanders and the French context became increasingly similar for men and women during the 1969-1999 period. 1969-1999 during the for men and women similar increasingly context became

Belgium Flanders Wallonia 2001. Source: APS of sports have consider A number of participants in billiards, football, or more and dance. of women take part in aerobics, gymnastics or more racing are while 70% men, of practiced Belgium at least once as a year in of terms the population. %of 1 Cycling 2 Swimming 3 Walking 4 Fitness 5 Football 6 31 Cycling 23 Swimming Jogging 7 Tennis 8 20 Walking Gymnastics 9 15 Fitness Basketball 21 Football 10 39 Swimming 13 Football Badminton 12 Jogging 20 Walking Tennis 9 7 Mini/indoor football 17 Cycling 26 21 4 Basketball 9 Jogging Tennis 5 4 Athletics 9 Fitness 20 Gymnastics 8 19 5 Martial arts 16 4 Equestrian sports 9 13 12 4 4 Table 3.37 Ranking order of popul order of Table 3.37 Ranking age group. football and gymnastics haveas dis all emerged football and individual be regarded as typical squash may and walking, skiing swimming, cycling, jogging, sports. or ‘free-booting’ in club-related sport varies Participation wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society Itisdifficultto getacomplete pictureofsport,whichis within anorganised played branchesof context. This mainly becausesome is 88 fordifferent branchesofsport. preferences people’s characterises 36,842 be foundin cannotonly Social stratification Source:Flemish Sport Federation (VSF) concerns* 2000 (APS 2001) 41,070 54,542 7 Volleyball 83,965 108,596 6 Racing cycling* 48,953 5 Walking and 305,006 jogging 4 Basketball* 3 Gymnastics 2 Tennis 1 Football* Table 3.38 Popularity ranking order of sports inFlanders according to membership figures. grown in popularity. women.Duringthe1 with menandaerobics newsuccessfulsports,suchasindoorfootball andmountainComparatively biking, arepopular andfitness. inswimming,gymnastics Womentendtoparticipatemostly swimming. Duringthethirty between1969and 1999, therechangesyears havenotbeen many in number onesportformen, typical followedby r the generalparticipationineachbranchofs olds. 25-34year by practiced thepreserveof16-24 mainly year olds;fitnesssportsare entirely almost Ball sportsare popularActivities, suchastennis,skiingand withboth equestrian genders. sports,areequally branch of sport) possesses a socially layered profile. asocially branch ofsport)possesses 1969-1999 period. revealsthat Theirresearch clearly Vanreusel, TaksandScheerderha different socialbackgroundstendto have dive

together: and anumber ofsupplementary sources,thefollo for Belgium awhole.Onthebasisofdata as from FlandersandWallonia donot sufficiently gel tothebigumbrall sportfederationsareaffiliated

1998 1998 120 119 118 2001. Scheerderetal.2001. Foraglobal, historicalsociological perspective onthisphenomenon seeVan Bottenburg Scheerder2003. 118

ve conductedtime-lag studiesinto issue thisvery during the port. Footballretainsits obtainedfrom theFlemishSportFederation (VSF) sport participation in general, butit also rgent sportpreferences.InBelgium,Renson, ecreational sportslike jogging cycling, and ella federations.Inadditiontothis, thedata wing ranking order has cautiously been put wing rankingorderhascautiously 990s, newsportslikefitnessandsquashhave sporthavemore than together tobeablecreatearanking order 120 the diversity ofsportparticipation (per thediversity

119 uncontestedpositionasthe By and large,peoplewith By onefederationandnot Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

89 rum of sports, whereas those with a lower of sports, whereas those with a lower rum most retain their class-related status. This ers confined themselves to just one sport, just one sport, to themselves ers confined this social status hierarchy over the course this social status hierarchyover the Typically include field high status sports to specific professionalas classes. such Sports, in more or less constant. The most significant or less constant. The most in more e almost all significant at the .05 level. The e almost all significant all socio-professional strata in Flemish society.Flemish strata in all socio-professional three decades. Onlynew sports in the hierarchy udinal point of view, hardly any social change hardly anyof view, social point udinal number of sports, such as football and martial number such as football and martial of sports, and squash. Skiing, windsurfing and tennis may tennis may windsurfing and and squash. Skiing, e 1999 sports stratification pattern and the sports stratification e 1999 tion has diminished. In 1999, the percentages for the percentages 1999, In tion has diminished. presented this hierarchy in the now widelypresentednow this hierarchy in the ectual and socio-economic upper classes. The socio-ectual and socio-economic

121 Scheerder et al. 2002: 225. 121

stratification patterns of 1969, 1979 and 1989 ar 1989 and 1979 stratification patterns of 1969, occurred in of social mobility data that very little change in terms thus demonstrate empirical over the last the sports stratification in Flanders labour of uneducated status becomes. 76% In 1969, Firstly, of sports participated the number in increases socio-professional the higher the but arts, have undergone a process of democratisation, th can be detected. Rank correlations between caused any significant differentiation.” while this applied to only 30% of the intell 30% of the only to while this applied the aforementioned and strata were 54% 24% respectively. sports were participatedto an equal extent by in Barely to exist. percent of the status hierarchy Secondly, six seems a social for sport layers. A shifts have taken place in the middle was as much the case in 1969 as it is today. More importantly, puts it: “if we as Scheerder longit a analyse the stratification in sports from professional classes choose from a much choose from professional classes broader spect limited have a sport repertoire. In the last decadesmore tend to professional status of the correla twentieth century, of this the strength of sports can thus be ascribed A large proportion activities that are of are examples handball, and racing, boxing motor bodybuilding, angling, generally the lowest professional classes. done by fencing, mountaineering sailing, golf, hockey, layers rema Both the top and the bottom of time. be added to this list for women. Renson has be added to this list for women. Renson of sport. renowned social status pyramid It seems as if change in there has been little

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.8 Luxembourg 3.8 Luxembourg in 2000; this is anincreaseofaround 16%. number oflicenciésthesportsfederations Ministère del’éducation nationale, de beidentifiedwithrespectto Trends canonly Trends insportparticipation and Sweden,thisisthehighestpe these young people alsoplayalotofsport inacl sportingly active,which,in 2001, wasaboveth large numberof young people takepartin withtheexceptionvarious other of aspects ofsport, youth sport participation. A comparatively discussed inchapter2,Luxembourg alsofindsit 90 theaveragelevelofsportparticip exactly month onaverage.Withatotalof40% sport, that neverexerciseorplay Luxembourg has Luxembourg. Accordingtothisdata,49%ofthe The Eurobarometer isthereforetheonly source of Levels ofsportparticipation recreational context. beginning in 1980 andprovide detailsofpar membership ofclubsforavariety sports organisations.Thesefiguresconcernthe years yet been conducted inLuxembourg. Theonly da Apart from theEurobarometers,norepresentative Introduction Sports Luxembourgfor supplying informa With specialthankstoJean Krantzand Karin Schank des fromtheDépartementMinistériel

124 123 122 were counted. For2000,onlythe membership figures fors European Commission, Eurobarometer 55.12003. European Commission, Eurobarometer 213(62.0). rcentage intheEuropeanUnion. rcentage la formation professionelle etdessports ation foundwithin the 25 member states. tion regarding sportparticipation. sport in Luxembourg: 63% ofyoungsters are 124 ticipation accordingto genderand or competitive inLuxembourg rosefrom 85,884in 1990 to 99,881

organised sport.According toareportofthe e 50% average forthe15EUstates.Moreover, self takingthis median position with respectto ta available are the membership figuresfor ta availablearethemembership ub-related context(42%);aftertheNetherlands population takespartinsportat leastoncea national surveys national on sport participation have information onlevelsof port federationsthatalready in1990 existed 123

sport participation in sport participation , thetotal 122 As Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

91

125 wn according to members thataccording to in take part wn gymnastics is gymnastics mainly practiced by women. ber of members) were affiliated to sports ber of members) witness to the most significant growth (for both clubs; that is one association for every association for that is one 300 clubs; upled between 1980 and 2000. However, in However, and 2000. between 1980 upled frequently membersfor of such associations popular with both genders. Although football is with both genders. popular ho do not. The ratio was 81% competitiveho do to 19% by 2000 it had been superseded by tennis. byit had been superseded by tennis. 2000 also the sport that has experienced the greatest also the sport that has titive sport was clearly a male preserve. a titive sport was clearly male During the 1990s, in terms of percentages, terms 1990s, in During the ying increasing popularity among women. The total among popularity ying increasing ts according to club membership. 1980 1990 2000 Ministère de l'éducation nationale, de la formation professionnelle et des sports. et des sports. professionnelle de la formation nationale, Ministère de l'éducation 125

inhabitants. The membership are broken do figures Organisational context 1,534 sport to home was In 2002, Luxembourg w sportspeople official competitions and those is twenty period, tennis year this Throughout relative terms. absolute and both growth, in basketball was the fastest growingbased sport in the top five. club non-competitive members in 2002. members non-competitive The most popular sports second most the In 1980, sport in Luxembourg. based popular club Football is by far the most sport was gymnastics,based but popular club Social differentiation Social differentiation women In 2002, far fewer num (26% of the total purely recreational purposes. At 79%, compe associations than men. Womenassociations than were men. also more

1 Football 19,238 21,752 26,318 men and women) in this period. Source: Ministère de l'éducation nationale, de la formation professionnelle et des sports sports des et professionnelle formation la de nationale, de l'éducation Ministère Source: while men, among Football is especially popular Table 3.39 Popularity ranking of spor Table 3.39 Popularity 2 Tennis 3 Gymnastics 4 Basketball 1,675tennis 6,414 5 Table 10,534 3,765 3,124 16,051 7,442 7,747 4,222 3,654 4,262 Tennis and basketball are or less equallymore 5,754 is now also enjo this sport male dominated, absolute numbers tennis was the sport that bore number of female football club members quadr of female football club members number wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 92 3,570 3,645 7,444 3,703 Skittles/bowling 1,2504 Basketball 25,280 1,2215 Shooting Members 1,8893 Tennis* 3,0902 Football 5,9441 Source: Ministère de l'éducation nationale, de la formation professionnelle et des sports Swimming Men 5 Golf Members 4 Basketball 3 Tennis* 2 Gymnastics 1 Women Table 3.40Popularity of ranking

sportaccordingto gender. Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

93 vels of participation and INSEP in 1986/87 and INSEP in 1986/87

to the Eurobarometer, in 2004, Eurobarometer, in 2004, to the for French sports organisations for the for French sports organisations for be determined that le be determined held among the French population aged 15- the French population aged held among The measurements taken by the ministry and and ministry The measurements taken by the de in the previous chapter, participation in ation on sport participation in France can beFrance in ation on sport participation nd reached a total of 60% who did some form form some did a total of 60% who nd reached 127 considerable caution is necessary when making INSEE in 1967, INED the French population with respect to gender, respect with population the French the University of Lyon and Patrick Mignon of Lyon and Patrick the University of e only two surveys that offer the possibility surveys of e only two that This publication provides an analysis This publication provides of a survey and 1986 and then seem to have stabilised and 1986 and then seem (MJS) and the Institut National du Sport et de (MJS) and the Institut 126 ographical Institute (INED) in 1986. ographical Institute (INED) in 1986. in sport at least once a month and 43% did so at least once at least a and 43% did so in sport at least once a month due to differences in questioning and research design, the data due to differences in and research design, the data questioning the European average. According INSEP/Ministère des Sports, 2002. INSEP/Ministère 213 (62.0). Eurobarometer Commission, European 126 127 Les pratiques sportives en France.Les

INSEP for the analysis and supply of data on sport participation. sport on data supply of analysis and INSEP for the Introduction recent source of inform and far-reaching The most found in With special thanks to Professor Jean Camy of to Professor With special thanks that the Ministère de la Jeunessethat the Ministère de Sport et age and social class. have been conducted. However, Th compare. to they have produced is difficult participation surveyson sport few decades, a variety other national of During the past inStatistical Office (INSEE) comparison are the surveys out by the French carried 1967 and a survey by conducted INSEP and the Dem l’Education Physique (INSEP) commissioned to be (INSEP) commissioned to l’Education Physique of was representative yearsThis survey 75 old. last few decades are also extant. Apart from these surveys, membership figures Levels of sport participation that were European comparisons ma In the various came close to sport in France 53% of the population participated week; 36% never did anyexercise or sport at all. INSEP in 2000 differed in terms of questioning a INSEP in 2000 differed in terms of physical activity or sport at least once a week. Trends in sport participation Due to the differing samples and questionnaires, comparisons between the research conducted by and MJS/INSEP in 2000. Bearing this in mind, it can Bearing this in mind, and MJS/INSEP in 2000. between in sport significantly increased 1967 3.9 France 3.9 France wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society

94 gymnastics (79%), dance(80%), figureskating(71%), horseriding (60%), walking(57%) and ofsportareconcerned.Womenspecific branches a sport(respectively 11%and33%).Th competitive Across theboard,womenparticipateinlesscl gender differencescanbefoundamong those withth old to 44 years 35 differencesvisibleasregards also some limited 23 th duringthe previous year, whatsoever exercise 21 Women takepartinlesssportthanmen. While 18 Social differentiation 10 6 5 Source: Reworking of INSEE en 13,900,000 2000 12,200,000 1990 9,500,000 1980 5,200,000 1970 2,800,000 1960 % 2,000,000 1950 Year Members 12 1950-2000. numbers, membership organisation sports of French 3.42Growth Table 11 reveals acontinuedgrowth in membership numbers. members/population aclearlevellingoff,it has still by was followed 60 members. Between1960and 1980, ahuge increase 60 The stagnationordeclineis notvisiblein th JeanCamy by data (2000) MJS/INSEP en (1986) INED/INSEP (1967), INSEE of Reworking Source: 72 2000 74 1986 At leastonce Years (2000). 15-74 and (1986) 12-74 (1967), above and years 14 categories Table 3.41Sportamongthe Frenchpopulation, participation). participation) (regular andcompetitive sport 972 34 13 28 1967

128

SportsSTAT-info No04-02, February 2004. a yea participated in more sport than men of the same age category and thegreatest participated inmoresport thanmen agecategory ofthe same r At leastonce MJS-INSEP data by Jean Camy per week e growth of thenumber ofsportsorganisation and declined(incidentalpossibly sport In competitive ub-related (22%women ub-related in % of the populationaccordingto theage 22% ofFrenchwomenin2000 did nosport or age and educationallevel.Indeed,womenaged age and not changedcourse. Themost dataalso recent e same applied to only 12%ofmen.Thereare e sameappliedtoonly ere are also significant differences as far as ere arealsosignificantdifferencesasfar ccounted for the majority of fortheparticipants in majority ccounted context in membership hasoccurred.Although this 128 e mediume ofeducationalattainment. levels

versus 31% men)versus 31% and Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

95 The 130 competitions Participation in membership None Club There was a significant growth in regular sport women are involved in rugby (6%) and (6%) involved in rugby women are asketball associationsmost have the members those with a secondaryhigher level of those or regularly took part in sport in 2000). regularly took part in port by both men and women declines, not only declines, not only men and women both port by population aged 15-75 years accordinggender, to onal education (from 3% in 1969 to 58% in onal education (from onal level, which was identified earlier in the with 32%, 24% and 24% of the members being members of the and 24% 24% with 32%, d and competitive contexts too (see table 3.43). d and competitive so increased among the higher income groups. For income the higher so increased among young members (10%). Older people mainly Older (10%). members young r d participation in competitions. in competitions. participation d a yea At least once INSEP/Ministère des Sports 2002. des Sports 2002. INSEP/Ministère Jean Camy. by reworked data Sports 2002; des INSEP/Ministère 15-2483 25-3474 35-44 6545-54 6655-64 81 365-75 80 8 15Total 74 1215-24 65 18 4425-34 67 24 3235-44 70 33 1245-54 68 25 1455-64 76 22 54 1765-75 85 22 38 16Total70 31 31 25 28 29 27 16 24 36 13 21 22 33 21 28 19 13 14 22 8 7 3 3 11 Total 72 17 27 23

129 130 129

Age men Age women football (8%). swimming (53%). Extremely limited numbers of numbers limited Extremely (53%). swimming The same development with respect to educati has alsoFrance. occurred in section on Belgium, with a lower vocati people among participation Source: MJS/INSEP 2002. Source: MJS/INSEP 2000), though this group continues to lag behind 2000), though this group continues respectively and 81% 77% whom education (of age, club intensity, membership an Table 3.43 Sport participation French among the general, but sport in club-relate for sport in in s grow older, participation As people Comparatively speaking, gymnastics, judo and b Comparativelygymnastics, judo and speaking, bowling and boules, golf, walking, sports, sportive Strength (60-70%). of fifteen under the age of number aerial sports smallest have the years55-75 old respectively. participate in walking, boules and gymnastics, boules participate in walking,

percentage of those taking part in sport al percentage of those taking wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society There are also no w discernable differences Therearealso peoplelivinginbig cities take speaking, asmany their levelof income. 9 13 7 15 21 4 Running/jogging 3 Cycling 2 Swimming 1 Walking participation. Table 3.44:Popularity orderaccordingto ranking participation However, women’s correlation canbefound between level income men thisappliestosportparticipation in ge licensees andothersportspeoplewereaffiliated. In 2001,there wereanestimated170,000spor context Organisational culturally specifictoFrance. some influences.The betrays British players resemble thecountry’s South European neighbour tennis. Asregardsthehuge popularity of basketba other Europeancountries,many football is by 17) took part in swimming, football, cycling, tabl tothepopulationcomparison aged15-75 year arethemostwalking, swimmingandcycling popularsportsinFrance.once ayear), In Based onthebroadestdefinition of sportparticipa The mostpopularsports extent ofsport the participationinvol compare 6 Population 15-75 Young people 12-17 12-17 people Young year* Atleastoncea 15-75 Population

132 131 urbanisation on levels ofsportparticipati respect toBelgian Flanders. SportsSTAT-info No04-02mFebruary 2004. INSEP/Ministère desSports2002. Adecr Wlig 4 Hrerdn 432,498 564,783 1,064,773 Horseriding 4 24 Judo/jujitsu 2,140,133 3 32 Tennis 2 38 Football 1 39 Walking 4 Football 3 Cycling 2 Swimming 1 in club-relatedandcompetitive sp neral, club-related and competitive sport, butneral, club-relatedandcompetitive no sport, great popularity ofjudo/jujitsugreat popularity andpétanqueis farthe most popular club sport,followed by s old,proportionally more youngsters (aged12- ts clubs inFranceto which some14.7million untary sportcentres. sport clubswithcommercial untary and general sportparticipationfor women. 132 branch ofsport, gene part insportasthoselessurbanisedareas. part e tennis,basketballandracketsports.Justasin tion (sportsthatareparticipatedinatleast ll, theFrenchpatternsofsport more closely s, while thelargenumbers ofgolfandrugby Therearenodataavailablethatallowoneto ith respect to urbanisation.Proportionally ith respect on wasalso notedby (2003)with Scheerder eased andcurrentlyrestricted influence of Licensees andother Licensees titles of Club-related** Club-related** participation participation ort isdefinitelyrelatedto ral andclub-related

131

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 9 ined for Belgium, can ined for Belgium, e non-participants with the lowest levels of with the lowest non-participants e a relatively high average income (economic average income (economic a relatively high sport, which was determ sport, immediately in the French below these sports income and education. Tennis, mountaineering, Tennis, mountaineering, and education. income by a comparatively low level of average rtial arts and motor racing can be found at the racing can be found rtial arts and motor noeing/kayaking and sailing have the highest and sailing have the highest noeing/kayaking 5 Table tennis 6 Running/jogging 7 Basketball 19 5 19 6 8 Badminton/squash Basketball Pétanque 9 Tennis 17 8 Handball Boules 10 18 7 426,888 423,234 Golf 300,545 16 9 Rugby 15 10 Sailing 301,902 255,982 224,495 INSEP/Ministère des Sports 2002. des Sports 2002. INSEP/Ministère 133

133

winter sports and sportive walking are situated winter sports and sportive social status ma Boules, basketball, pyramid. There one can also of the pyramid. find th bottom the athletics is certainlyof note, and of rugby The position and education. both income practitioners of these sports are characterised (cultural capital), but by educational achievement capital). also be clearly Golf, ca in France. found of level percentage of participants with a high 6 Gymnastics 6 Gymnastics 7 Skiing 8 Football 6 9 Tennis sport 10 Strength 5 Source:INSEP/Ministère* 2002; des Sports ** Sports STAT2004. info 5 3 4 The social stratification according to branch of 5 Boules 6

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society .0 Germany 3.10 German societyhavealsobeen conducted. studies ofthe characteristics anddevelopment of available, brokendownaccordingto sport readily TheDeutscheSportbund(DSB) offersanadd therefore, alongitudinal seriesofannualmembership figuresforthe individual branches of published the membership figuresofGerman sports design andquestioning. 98 1993 and2000 andthe data havesincebeen Questions on sport participati using theSozioökonomischeWirtschaftsforschung Panels(SOEP)from 1984to 2001. theDeutschenInstitutfür whichwas conductedby study, isthe research Germany sourceofdatawithregard The most important Introduction participation. oftheRobertKo Cologne and Dr. GertMensink With specialthankstoDr. and Dr.Dirk Steinbach Karen Petry of the GermanSportUniversity elderly andgirls/women. elderly Asidefrom thislongitudinal ava research, municipalities andcities,butalsoamong specifi participation have alsobeenconducted, not only states oftheEuropeanUnion. German population appearstobemore significan close totheEuropeanaverage. neighbouringGermans countriesBelgium, Luxemb monthsport atleastoncea in2004,whilst36% According to Eurobarometer 213(62.0), 47% of Levels ofsportparticipation

138 137 136 135 134 Brettschneider &Bräutigam 1990; Pache1998. European Commission, Eurobarometer 183-6,58.22002(published 2003). Seeforexample Heinemann & Schub Hartmann-Tews 1996. Opaschowski 1987;Hübner,Pfitzner &Wu Breuer2003;Wagner1997. 136 135

However, these studies differ significantly with respect to research with respectto studiesdiffersignificantly However,these on wereincludedinpolls thattook place in1987, 1989, 1991, 138 With respect to questions on heavy exertion,the Withrespecttoquestionson physical heavy

137 analysed fromanalysed theperspectiveofsportscience.

to thedevelopmentofsportparticipationin did no sport whatsoever. As is the case in didnosportwhatsoever.Asisthecase c targetgroups,suchasyoung people, the the German population exercisedorplayed ch Instituteforthe supply ofdata onsport ata national and as in provincial level aswell voluntary sportsclubsandtheir positionin voluntary tly physically active than most other member active thanmost physically tly other gender and age category. Moreover,detailed genderandagecategory. riety of ad hoc surveys regarding ofad sport hoc surveys riety ert 1994;Rittner&Breuer 2000. ourg, France, and Austria, these figures are France,andAustria,thesefiguresare ourg, federations since the early 1970s. Thereis, federationssincetheearly itional sourceofdata,giventhatit has lf 2003; Baur,Burrmann&Krymanski 2002; 134

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

99 only category that did that did only category

140 ipation between men and ipation between organisations reveal a strong and more or more reveal a strong and organisations

eekly increased for all participants sport of trends in sport participation possible. trends in sport participation possible. of 139 with respect to other countries, is also with rences in sport partic the one hand, and age, gender and social classage, gender and one hand, and the ficantly decreased in Germany during the past and 44 yearsand 44 the old was to the questionnaire over the course of time, on over to the questionnaire rticipation. An explosive growth during the An explosive growth rticipation. age categories) also displayed a greater increase that a larger proportion of the German population of the German population proportion that a larger ng the first years of the twenty-first century, crease during and 1990s. Subsequently 1980s the population* As % of German totals Breuer 2004. Breuer 2004. 139 140 DSB membership

pa sport less uninterrupted growth in organised by but stable in 1970s was followed a slower, sports of the German figures The membership duri declined slightly of members the number increase in 2003. followed by (but limited) renewed a participation Trends in sport studiesThe SOEP research the identification make Although small modifications have been made been made have small Although modifications may research it the basis of this be concluded During this than in 1994. in 2001 basis a weekly on years part in sport of 16 and above took percentage increased 21% from period, the to 27%. characteristic of the German situation. The diffe on the other, which we have already encountered on the other, and between young signi women, and old, have * This is membershipnot (and persons) German of% population. as data TheDSB of plural include Deutschland Source: DSB/Statistisches memberships. Bundesamt Social differentiation on The correlation between sport participation, 1970 9,148,4591980 15,647,7131990 21,032,4442000 23,357,9872004 23,565,544 15 25 26 28 29 Table 3.45: Growthmembershipof DSB figures. of w proportion the and 2001, Between 1985 with respect tonot experience anygrowth weekly sport participation. age categories, though most significantly in the 45-64 age group. The numbers of women numbers The age group. 45-64 in the significantly most age categories, though weekly sport on a (in all basis participating in between 25 The category of men than for men. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 100 al. 1995. et ****Kreuter 1997; ***Wagner Sources: *European Commission, Eurobarometer 60.l; **European Commission, Eurobarometer 58.2; 13 25 7 25 in the old and new German Republic, in % ofthe population. 31 11 of participati duration and 3.47Intensity Table 29 16 14 37 20 20 23 activeisgreaterthanthenumbermen. of middle-aged womenwhoarephysically of 25 9 31 have begunto take regularly partinsport 28 13 inalinearfashiondurin decrease does notnecessary 35 16 oftheSOEPda analysis Moreover, from Breuer’s 13 49 27 22 Source: Breuer 2003. 34 25 8 >64 45 29 12 55-65 31 16 45-54 42 23 35-44 29 25-34 38 16-25 population. in% the age, of and to gender according Table 3.46Weekly sportparticipationamongth take partinsport the proportionofmen.regularly even exceeds few decades.From age35andabove,theproportion the new German Federal Republic (seetable3.47.). the newGermanFederal 1994*** 1994*** 2003* 2003* 1990/92**** 1990/92**** 2002** 2002**

Total Men Women Women Men Total Apart from age, gender and social class, there are also differences between theoldand differencesbetween there arealso genderandsocialclass, age, Apart from Old Federal New Federal New Federal OldFederal sportingly active active sportingly oftimes Number and exercise and exercise oftimessport Number sportingly active active sportingly ofhours Number exercise per week per exercise vigorous ofdays Number 141 9520 9520 952001 1985 2001 1985 2001 1985 Breuer2003; 2004. edm1 16 4 18 6 Neve Seldom Each month 1-3 da less often/neve o3tmsamnh1 15 13 1 to3timesamonth oe4 53 44 None 27 34 week more or Once a 1hu e ek1 23 15 9 18 23 16 week hourper <1 week per 1-2 hour week hourper >2 4-7 da oe4 46 45 Ever None y r we 712 27 week y y increasing numbers theageof35.The after number 027 26 30 23 s s on in sport/exercise and exerting physical activities activities physical exerting and sport/exercise in on e German population (16 yearse Germanpopulation(16 and above), ta, itappearsthatregularsport participation r g thecourseoflife.Women, inparticular, of womenin particular agecategorieswho 068 50 57 52 141

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

101

144 opulation of old German 4% of the German population, are 4% of the branch has also established footing a firm an organisational context. Sport clubs were, context. Sport an organisational

be added, however, that almostadded, however, half of these be t participation across the diverse organisational participation across the diverse t sport is characterised by an exceptionallyhigh the old than the new Federal Republic. the the old than the fitness branch appears to have somewhat 143 age groups, while there has been while there age groups, a significant In 1989/90, sport participation most frequently most frequently participation sport In 1989/90, ce 1990, the membership figures have declined ce 1990, the membership 5,651 fitness centres in Germany with a minimal Nonetheless, in no other sector are there as many women are women members and the percentage of these account for only 10% of the total number of total number 10% of the only these account for ess centres. to a fitness Of these, 22% belonged ganisational context, p ganisational context, 142 mbers signing up and in 2002 fewer new fitness mbers signing up and in . 4,5 million Germans, or rather 5. . 4,5 2 Heinemann ed. 1999. ed. Heinemann 2000. Rittner & Breuer Bestandserhebungen. DSB Delotte GmbH, Press release www.deloitte.com/dtt/press_release, & Touche 01-06-2004. 142 143 144 145

145

voluntary associations as in sport (circa 85,000). voluntary associations as in sport (circa for those in the 19-27 and, especially, 27-41 the 19-27 and, for those in the a higher percentage of men than Furthermore, with an increase in age. Sin decreases members was higher in The degree of organisation people over 60. the age of 15 and older increase in youngsters under waned. In 2003, there were fewer new me centres. During the past few years, the growth of centres opened. Nevertheless, the average of members number per centre did show an increase. degree of organisation. Indeed, the DSB has more DSB has degree of organisation. Indeed, the any than (nearlymembers more other 24 million) member-based It has to organisation in Germany. members are active as sport participant! not estimatedof commercial to be members fitn centre that is part of a fitness chain, although Source: Weber et al. 1994. Weber Source: Compared with other sectors of society,German Sports association Open sport facility Commercial context Companies/schools/colleges 3 18 8 6 Table 3.48 Sport participation according to or according Table 3.48 Sport participation Federal Republic of (14 years and responses. in % above), Organisational context Privately organised % of participants 64 surface area of 200 m in the German sport world. In 2003, there were there sport world. In 2003, in the German Apart from the sports associations, the fitness

contexts, which offer sport or make it possible. it possible. sport or make contexts, which offer outside initiatives occurred as a of individual result providers of sport (see table 3.48.). frequently used however, the most Organisational context data on the distribution of spor There is no recent wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 102 remarkablepopularityenjoy inGermany.Furt tomostcomparison otherEuropeanUnion member states,shooting, athleticsandhandballalso ranking orders forboth genders, 86% offootballe football and Althoughbothsportsgymnastics. o In termsoforganisedsports, therearetwospor 13 Source: Breuer 2004. 35 16 9 15Cycling 25 22Swimming 15 Swimming 23Walking 13Gymnastics 12Aerobic 22Gymnastics 17 Gymnastics 16 Walking 11 Fitness 19 Cycling 14Swimming 6Cycling 16Running 13 Swimming 13Cycling 20Cycling 13Swimming 18 Cycling 22 Running 9Swimming Fitness 11Football 16Fitness 19Running Swimming 40- Running 12Running 27Fitness years 30-39 Basketball Football years 20-29 years 14-19 2001 % ofthe population. Table 3.49:Popularity order ranking ininformalsporting settings. takes and placeinfitnesscentres later ageincreasingly majoris the organisationalsettingforsportactiviti an olderag at for specifichealthsportprogrammes adults andthe sportsthus needforfitnessrelated clearly indicate thatthec TheSOEPsurveys are particularlypopular during their youth. Hea thecourseofpeopl sport takesplacechangesover swi and walking, gymnastics such ascycling, suchasrunningandfitness.Forthe related sports, andisslowlyfollowed football,diminishes infavour by rapidly of more individualandfitness- outside ofthe contextofcompetitions andmatc Until theageofnineteen, team sportsoff The mostpopularsports ens Dne Bditn Wlig Arbc Gmatc 2 otal 2 2 3 3 2Aqua-aerobics 2Football 2 Gymnastics 5Gymnastics 2 Football 3Gymnastics 7Fitness 4Aerobic 10 Fitness 4 Walking 3 Dance 11 Tennis 4Badminton 7 Tennis 8Walking 4 Tennis 7 Aerobic 5 Foot 5Dance 6Gymnastics 8 Tennis 4Volleyball 6Walking Horse riding 6Aerobic 6Football 6Badminton Tennis Badminton 6Basketball Dance Cycling

146 Breuer2004. for general sportparticipationacco ootball and basketball mostpopular sportsare the mming, gaintheupperhand(seetable3.49.). hermore, itisstriking that thereisa ts in Germany that standoutaboveallothers: ts in Germany lth considerations become morelth considerationsbecome important to hes. After this the popularity of hes. Afterthisthepopularity basketball ccupy the firsttwopositionsin ccupy popularity Gymnastics increases. This is then followed by ademand Thisisthenfollowedby increases. rs are male and 70% of gymnasts female. In female. maleand 70%ofgymnasts rs are e’s lives.Team sportsandcompetitive sports es during whilesportparticipationata youth, highest age categories, healthorientedsports, highest agecategories, e. In linewiththis, thenon-profitsportsclub 9yas 5-9yas 06 er 7+ 70+ years 60-69 years 50-59 years 49 hoice oftheorganisationalcontextin which al Fobl 3 eoi 3 eoi 2 3Aerobic 3 Aerobic 6Football ball 0 ins 1 Rnig Rnig 8 8Running 12 Running 10 Fitness rding to branch ofsport,in 146

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

103 092,368 4 Horse riding 539,023 5,423,487 1 Gymnastics 3,557,874 port, shooting, have also declined since 1997. also declined since 1997. have shooting, port, 113,136 9 Skiing 85,648 order, namely athletics, handball, skiing and order, namely handball, skiing and athletics, ering 419,000 8 Handball 310,612 1,822,893 1 Gymnastics 1,236,703 tics 1,516,137 2 Football 850,534 ng 307,106 10 Volleyball 263,683 at least in its organised form, while the form, at least in its organised ennis 518,415 5 Athletics 421,740 ng 1,197,963 3 Tennis 747,943 cs 736,851 2 Horse riding 246,880 All ages (2003) ll 185,490 4 Athletics 187,827

<19 years (2003) years <19 membership numbers of the fourth most popular s most of the fourth numbers membership ranking sports in the next major the Since 1990, years. last few the during gymnastics in popularity only has continued Of all big sports, grow to and women girls or less stabilised; the influx of of footballers has more number the Since 1999, order, ranking sport in the the third and boys. Tennis, of men has compensated for the exodus has sharplydeclined in popularity since 1993, Source: DSB Bestandserhebung Source: DSB 2003 also experienced no growth. swimming, have Total 2 Gymnastics 1,973,554 2 Gymnasti Boys Girls Table 3.51: Popularity ranking order of sports in Germany among young people under 18, 18, under people among young in Germany sports of order ranking Popularity 3.51: Table accordingsports to association membership figures and gender. 1 Football 3 Tennis 4 2,037,890 1 Football Athletics 426,188 3 Tennis 362,335 4 Handba 241,066 3 10 Football Skiing 214,997 184,053 10 Skiing 98,405 10 Dance 81,371 Source: DSB Bestandserhebung 2003 Total Men Women 5 Swimming 6 Handball 7 Horse riding 361,081 5 8 Swimming Table tennis 9 338,663 6 281,416 7 175,928 5 Athletics Table tennis Judo Swimming 212,895 8 155,104 7 Judo Handball 174,508 6 185,153 Tennis 153,173 195,327 9 133,902 8 Shooting Volleyball 185,122 98,949 1 Football 2 Gymnastics 6,274,021 1 5,074,011 2 Football Gymnas Table 3.50: Popularity ranking order of sports in Germany, according to sports association association to sports according in Germany, sports of order ranking Popularity 3.50: Table gender. and membership 3 Tennis 6 Handball 7 Horse riding 1.840,311 3 8 Shooti Table tennis 827,905 6 761,314 7 Handball Athletics 673,868 8 Mountaine 517,293 6 444,457 7 Shooting Swimming 331,060 352,617 4 Shooting 5 Athletics 1,550,580 4 Tennis 9 Skiing 866,197 5 10 Table t Mountaineering 1, 666,824 10 Swimmi 671,914 9 Skiing 379,573 9 Skiing 292,341 comparatively andsimilarity great men and preference for the patterns of sport between women girls. boys and wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society his name. firstDutchmantoha become the Richard Krajicek major tennischampionship winnerinitsmidst durin tennisintheNeth relative growthexperiencedby Graf.Indeed,therelativegrowth Becker orSteffi developmentthat alsooccurredinmany otherEuropean countriesthatcouldnot boast ofaBoris asawhole.Thissignificantgr sport inGermany reignofsuccessthepopularity thanorganised during BeckerandGraf’s oftennisgrewfaster percentage ofthetotalnumber ofmembers of Davis Cupin 1988, 1989and 1992. other Grand Slam titlesduringthesameperiodand Thisexplanationisfarmore in1988, 1989 and1992.Inad earned thesetitles Becker wonWimbledoneffect. /Graf 104 biggest losersduringthesameperiodweretennis, baseball/softball andmountaineering gainedth Inabsoluteterms, thegreatestincrease Proportionally speaking, golf, roller/inline skating, gymnastics, golf,mountainwere experiencedby Germans overtheageof60in2003andforever Germans It isalsolikelythatageconsiderations havein Netherlands, forexample, 47% ofgolfclub membersof tennisclubs. memberswere previously interactions thatthey desiredandthatwere couldstillover toanother sportwherethey expe aresultofthispopularisation depreciated as hadalways whichtennisplayers status -from belong to the with respectto social class- levelling out an of socialinequalities.Therewas ofeducationa increase inthegenerallevel almost simultaneously in most a correlationbetweenthetwo.Thepopularisati Austria,Sp Finland, Denmark,theNetherlands, for ithasalsooccurre exclusive toGermany, Withoutadoubt,thetwosports thatrea spectacular tennis hasdeclinedinanequally has bornewitnesstothemostspectaculargrowth once againtennis,football, shooting, table and tennis,volleyball bowling. to participateinsportatafargreaterage. golf iscurrently profiting froman aging population and thefactthatolderpeople are continuing

148 147 DSB Bestandserhebung. VanBottenburg 2001. western countriesandwas,atthe When thenumbers isseenin terms ofthe oftennisplayers convincing than a reference to what has been called the towhathasbeencalled convincing than areference 147 educational achievement,incomeand professional nd affluence, which was accompanied by the by accompanied nd affluence,whichwas more interms fitting ofstatusvalue.Inthe Golf was the fifth most popular sportamong Golfwasthefifthmost popular d inmany otherEuropean countries,suchas fashion. This development is certainly not fashion. Thisdevelopmentiscertainly nd, over the course of time, many people crossed many peoplecrossed nd, overthecourseoftime, tensified suchsocialc been recruited.Thestatusvalueoftennis German sportsorganisations,itappearsthat German e most new members. Percentage-wise, the members. Percentage-wise, new e most on oftennisemerged during the 1970s and 1980s in membership numbers between1999and 2004 lly standoutaretennisandgolf.Whereasgolf ain, Italy andain, Italy CzechRepublic.There isprobably owth oftenniswas,however,aninternational rience theatmosphere, relationshipsandsocial increaseinthenumbers ofpeoplewhocame to eering, horse riding and dancing organisations. dition, these German tennisstarswonvarious dition, theseGerman y five tennis players there were three golfers. therewere y fivetennisplayers in sincepopularity 1986, the popularity of erlands atthattime,whichdid not haveany erlands of German tennis was more marginal ofGermanmore thanthe was tennis ve the victory of ve thevictory a GrandSlamtournament to billiards andbowlingand, martialarts(taekwondo, jujitsu andboxing), in 1985, 1986 and 1989, while SteffiGraf the Germanteamwere thevictorsin g thisperiod (figure 3.6). in Only 1996 did time, theresultofasignificant onsiderations. Undoubtedly, inabsolute terms, 148

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

105 German tennis association Dutch tennis association DSB, Bestandserhebung Ledentallen 1993-2004; Ledentallen Mitgliederzahl 1992-2004. Mitgliederzahl 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

8,0% 6,0% 4,0% 2,0% 0,0%

20,0% 18,0% 16,0% 14,0% 12,0% 10,0% Percent of membership of all sports in each country each in sports all of membership of Percent

1971-1991; Deutsche Sportbund, 1971-1991; Deutsche

Figure Relative 3.6 growth in membershipthe of German and DutchTennis Federations, 1975-2004. 1975-1992;Ledentallen Source: NSF, NOC*NSF, wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.11 Austria 10 2000. *****Pratscher 2000; Sources: *FESSEL,GfK/IFES ** Weiss, 1979; population. Table 3.52:Sportparticipationam an increaseinsport conclusion thattherewas askedif thequestionhadonly aboutsportpar sport participation.Thepercentagesforthis year you play sport ortrain?”.Only in 1989 did themain aswell activity questionrefertophysical a sport ev question: “do practice you less thesame presented intable3.52 derive fromof r avariety ofsport. Moreover, thefrequency sport partic Between 1979 and1997, alargerproportion ofth Trends insportparticipation Austrian studiesarriveatapproximately the same figures. empl whatsoever.Although they exercise orsport 45% ofthepopulationtaking pa The previous chapter indicatedthatsportparticip Levels ofsportparticipation Tourismusforschung since1997. basis morecarried outonaorlessyearly studies data hasbeenprovidedbytheresearch trend-related bureaus (FESSEL,IFES,GfK,Gallup)andtheUniversity of Vienna.Morerecent, outin1979, 1991 studies thatwerecarried sport participation,which have a there havebeenmore orlesscomparable Various sourcesprovideinformationonsport partic Introduction und Tourismusforschungfor the für Freizeit- With specialthanksMag. Rarel Neve Onl 1-2x weekl ≥ 1-2x monthl 3x weekl 3x 6 y

i h at 9 28 22 29 thepast in r y 37 30 432 219 12 20 3 4 y y 71 418 7 14 16 y 1 22 22 18 27 22 5798 9 5 7

Beatrix HaslingerandProfessor Mag.PeterZellmannoftheInstitut been conducted on a fairly regular basis. Theseareresearch beenconductedonafairly rt in sport at least once a month rt insportatleastoncea and34%whoneverdoany 99 99*19**19** 2000***** 1998**** 1997*** 1989** 1979* ong the Austrianong the population,accordin by theLudwigby BoltzmannInstitutfürFreizeit- und nd representative national population surveys into nd representativenationalpopulation surveys , 1997 and 2000 by commercial market research market commercial , 1997and2000 by Russo 1991; *** FESSEL/GfK 1997; **** BSO/ISW BSO/ISW **** 1997; FESSEL/GfK *** 1991; Russo ticipation. This cautionary note reinforcesthe ticipation. Thiscautionary supply of data onsportparticipation. ipation increased during thisperiod. Thefigures participation during th into leisure time activities, whichhavebeen into leisure timeactivities, esearch studies. However, they all ask more or more all ask studies.However,they esearch may, therefore, be higher than may be the case may, therefore,behigher thanmay bethecase ation in Austria was at an average level,with ation inAustriawasatanaverage e Austrian population beganto participate in oy different researchdesigns,mostofthe oy ery andifso,“hownow andthen?” ery oftendo ipation inAustria.Duringthe past 25 years, 31 e 1979and 1997 period. g tofrequency, in% ofthe 33 48 Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 10 r

149 rarely Neve time research, which the years and above), according to years and above), according to month ation and possibly a slight decline in the a slight possibly ation and sport more and more frequently than women. frequently than women. and more sport more tiation can also be determined in Austria. The tiation can also be determined ate in sport (at least once a week). They also s that the level of sport participation in 2003 2003 in sport participation s that the level of who take participate in sport at least once at least a in sport who take participate ation increases with ation increases and, a higher income more urismusforschung has conducted since 1997, the the 1997, conducted since has urismusforschung 997. In this respect, one can speak of a stagnation this respect, one can speak 997. In ation has developed since 1997. The research 1997. The developed since ation has according to social categories do not deviate from deviate from according to social categories do not According to the leisure According und Tourismusforschung 2001, 2004 Tourismusforschung 2001, und was witnessed during the previous decades. the previous was witnessed during among the Austrian population (14 among the Austrian education (see table 3.54). often a weeka once week once/twice a y Institut für Freizeit- Institut für Freizeit- 149 every da every

Social differentiation In Austria, the patterns of sport participation participate in men pattern in Europe: the dominant the old. people in relation to The same applies to young Institut für Freizeit- und Tourismusforschung once again confirms that more men than women that more once again confirms und Tourismusforschung Institut für Freizeit- people regularly particip youngold and more than particip of sport that the likelihood demonstrate Source: Pratscher 2000 2000 Pratscher Source: patterns of social differen Likewise, other familiar Men 5Women5 14-29 years 2630-49 years 13>50 years 11 14 17 2 4 32 7 18 8of higher level particularly, a 5 19 19 20 17 29 9 7 37 8 21 3 19 9 19 35 63 Table 3.53: Sport participation Total 5 19 16 8 19 33 gender, age and intensity, in % of the population. population. of the in % intensity, and age gender, It is, however, less evident how sport particip less evident It is, however, a stabilis and 2000 indicate 1998 from studies dating part in sport. who take percentage of those in comparison to the growth that in comparison to the Ludwig Boltzmann Institut für Freizeit- und To für Freizeit- Institut Ludwig Boltzmann years)15 population (older than percentage of the in 2002 again to 26% rise once only to in 2000, 20% to in 1997 23% from week has declined This mean in 2003. 24% to and subsequently drop than in 1 point higher was just one percentage wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 108 2000 BSO/ISW Source: Austrian population (aged 14 and above), in% ofthe population. the for urbanisation and context organisational to according participation 3.55Sport Table 36 the lowerdegreeofsportparticipation among ofthisagecategory. women 22 18 group participate insportless frequentlythannative Further tothis,research studysuggest aViennese 40 Freizeit- für Institut Source: 13 24 13 High income income Medium Low income education Higher education Secondary education Lower above 55 and 25 35-54 34 13-34 20 Women Men 28 24 Total (in % population). income the and of level togender, age, education of above), according Table 3.54:Sportparticipationatleastoncea areas. centres is sport centres.Theuseofcommercial ofaspor participate insportdosoasmembers an takesplacewithin Sport inAustrialargely context Organisational pr lb 11 20 79 1 17 71 12 21 74 5 participation Informal sport Commercial sportcentres Sport club

150 2003 2003 WienerJugendgesundheitsbericht 2002. und Tourismusforschung 2004. Tourismusforschung und Total (> 1million) week among the Austrianyears among population(15 and the week informal context. Only21%ofthosewho t club and 5% practice their sport at commercial t cluband5%practicetheirsportatcommercial Big cities s thatnon-native inthe16-24age Austrians. Thisisalmost entirelyaresultof far greaterinthelargercitiesthanrural

Small villages (< 2.000) (< 150

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

109 151

152 nd club-related sport he Institut für Freizeit- und Tourismusforschung he Institut für Freizeit- und Tourismusforschung minant than in the other countries that are countries other than in the minant aphical circumstances, typical sports, alpine sations, this growth has not levelled off during off during has not levelled this growth sations, 475 million in 1998 to 1.625 million in 2003. in to 1.625 million in 1998 475 million to sport, general a sport, to hiking/walking and skiing are among the most the most are among and skiing hiking/walking affiliated members has undergone a significant has undergone a members affiliated in number of members ipation during the past decades concerns the ipation during the past the custom of some 0.4 million members. of some 0.4 the custom und Tourismusforschung 2002. BSO. These figures are also contested by t by are also contested BSO. These figures Institut für Freizeit- (2004). 151 152 2000* 2003** (14 years and over) (14 years in % of total population

sports The most popular cycling,In general terms, (racing) swimming, widely are practiced in Austria. Indeed, mountaineering and skiing, such as mountaineering clubs. than football members clubs even have more popular sports in Austria. Football and tennis are the most popular sports played within an sports played popular are the most tennis in Austria. Football and popular sports activities are organised context, but these less do discussed in this book. Partiallydue to the geogr

participation. participation. 2003. **BSO 2000; *Pratscher Source: partic significant change in sport The most decreasing skating and fitness and the increasing popularity interest in skiing, in inline Table 3.56: Popularity ranking order according Table 3.56: Popularity In 2003, the fitness centres could bank on In 2003, the fitness 1 Cycling 2 Swimming 3 Hiking 4 Skiing 5 Walking 6 Tennis 7 Inline skating 8 53 1 45 2 Mountaineering Gymnastics Football 9 Mountain Biking 10 34 3 Football 455,312 Tennis 28 4 26 5 Skiing Gymnastics 12 7 427,600 16 6 Golf Eisstocksport 12 8 8 9 Swimming Equestrian sports 184,853 128,803 151,901 127,591 45,101 8 10 Cycling 70,591 74,085 39,034 and their of sports associations The number sports organi the Austrian to growth. According the last seven years. The number of clubs grew from 15,460 in 1998 to 15,841 in 2003. 2003. in to 15,841 the last seven of clubs 1998 years. in 15,460 The number grew from 1. from figures rose Likewise, the membership wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 110 but thepercentagethatregularlyrunshas onceagaindeclined. participation in thisactivity. Between2000and 15and men andwomenbetween particularly 49 of 15took up running, belongedbut those whoalready tothe group ofrunners in1993, into thesedevelopments.Forexample, between in Europe. significant thanelsewhere andmountaingymnastics biking. However,thegrowth less offitnessinAustriaisprobably members(+33%) leadingupto inthefive 2003. years 41%) between1988 and 1989, but has beenabletoturn things around gaining 32,000nearly tohave been in freef which seemed gymnastics, (-7%).The most striking 5000 members memb 6400 members (-10%). Inthelastfiveyears, sw cyc members. Throughout the lastfifteenyears, golfgainscontrastshar AkintoGermany, Aside decline inmembership. amounts theAustriantennisassociationlostsome20,000members; this toa-10% years, the membership numbersgrew from 6,600to 74,000; periods. Onceagain,thesuccessofgolfis par Asfarasorganisedsportsareconcerned, of percentages,golf,equestrian sportsand gainsin inthelast made significant membership

A more detailed analysis ofeachbranch of analysis moreA detailed 153 InstitutfürFreizeit- from tennis, cycling and swimming clubs also lost many andswimming clubsalsolostmany from cycling tennis, und Tourismusforschung 2002. und Tourismusforschung basketball gained the most members duringboth basketball gainedthemost members ticularly conspicuous. ticularly ership losses have been experienced by ership losseshavebeenexperiencedby 1993 and 2000,fewer Austriansundertheage ling has intotalsufferedthelossofmore than all due to a loss of nearly 67,000 membersall duetoalossofnearly (- imming alsodeclinedwiththeexodus ofsome imming 2003, the number ofrunnersremainedconstant, years old, increased the frequency of their years old,increasedthefrequency fifteen as well as the past five years. Interms thepastfiveyears. fifteen aswell football, golf andmountaineering successively ply with tennis’ losses. During thepastfive losses.During withtennis’ ply sport is necessary to reveal greater insights torevealgreaterinsights sport isnecessary this ismorethan aneleven-foldincrease. 153

Between 1988 and 2003, Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

111 Part Three: Part Three: states member Southern European

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.12 Portugal participants in sport decreases as the frequency increases. as thefrequency participants insportdecreases exercised ortook part insportatleastonce among thelowestinwholeofEuropean it appearsthatthelevelsofpar perspectives, ( speaking,thosecomparatively Portuguese Nonetheless, whoparticipatedinsport didso sport( played while7%regularly year), collected to data According intensively. south. young and olddisproportionate isalsoless inthenor participants innorthern countries thansouthern between theEuropean asymmetry reveal aclear to In herpublications, Marivoet draws attention Levels ofsportparticipation aforementioned studies. ma focusesonasegment ofthesports’ specifically which havebeenconducted market studies, has beenprovidedby research 112 data. Universidade deCoimbra published on thisresearch extensively has withotherCOMPASSpilotcountriespossible.ProfessorMarivoetofthe comparison with theguidelines thegroup, establishedby COMPASSworking thus alsorendering throughseconda possible tocompare theirresults research populations(respondentsof15-60 oldand itis 15-74 years oldrespectively), years Desportivos daPopulaçãoPortuguesa)in19 da ProcuraPráticaDesportiva) CPPD (Carta In thepast,two nationalsurveys onsport par Introduction and supply of data on sport participation. With specialthankstoProfessor SaloméMarivoet

≥ 1-<60 times). The reverse appliestotheUKa Thereverse 1-<60 times).

155 This issue was already addressedinthepr already Thisissuewas 157 156 155 154 COMPASS 1999. Seealsohttp:// European Commission, Eurobarometer 62.0,2004. Marivoet2002. Inparticular,seeMarivoet2001; Marivoet2002. annually annually between 2001and 2004 MPG. Thisresearch by ≥ in 1998, 11% practicedsportintensively ( 60 -<120 times) and 5% irregularly 60 -<120 times)and5%or incidentally irregularly

a month,a whiletheEuropeanaveragewas49%. ticipation in sportandexercisePortugalare 98. Although these surveys concern 98. Althoughthesedifferent surveys ticipation havebeenconductedin Portugal: the commissioned by Nike commissionedby inPortugal andSpain, w3.uniroma1.it/compass/map.htm Union.In2004,27%ofPortuguesecitizens men andwomen ones. Thebalancebetween in1988 andtheIHDPP (InquéritoaosHábitos thefactthatdataonsport participation nd the Netherlands, where the percentage of nd theNetherlands,wherepercentage countries. Thereareahigherproportion of ry analysis. Moreover, these surveys comply Moreover, ry analysis. thesesurveys of the University ofCoimbrafor theanalysis oftheUniversity rket andthuscannot be compared withthe evious chapter:whenviewedfrom various thern countries thaninthosesituatedthe 157

154 . More recent data ≥ 120 times a 156

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

113 ation. According to 15-60 years old, according to 15-60 old, years

degree of sport particip be concluded that this gender imbalance has gender imbalance this concluded that be 158 riod of the last thirty days: from 23% in riod of the last thirty from days: small increase in the percentage of women. countries, there are comparatively significant n in relation to the total number of sport total number n in relation to the 98, it appears that sport participation has not has not that sport participation appears 98, it in sport, as opposed to 14% of women. The The in sport, as opposed to 14% of women. e has been a slight increase in the number of e has been a slight increasenumber in the 31% of men and 19% of women in 2004. Given 31% of men and 19% of women in 2004. Given on among the Portuguese population, Portuguese on among the MPG/Marktest/Consumer 2004. 2004. MPG/Marktest/Consumer 158

frequency, in % of the population. population. of the % in frequency, 1988At least once a year 1998 > 60 times per year < 60 times a year Source: Marivoet 2001. Research data offered by 27 MPG suggest that ther Portuguese who usuallypractice sports during a pe 22 in 2004. 26% and in 2003 24% 2002, in 25% 2001, 27 5 22 5 Table 3.57: Sport participati MGP market MGP research study recorded a total of market it cannot the differences between these two studies, Social differentiation western European and to northern In comparison took part the IHDDP data, in 1998 34% of men to a very data points Indeed, the MPG diminished. percentage of wome the 2004, and Between 2001 39% to 40%. participants increased from differences between as regards the men and women participation Trends in sport and 19 in 1988 the research data collected From between. period in year the ten changed during wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 114 in age. withanincrease markedly member statesforallagegroups. western EU thelevelofsportpar Just asinSpainandItaly, Seehttp://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/portugal.htm. COMPASS 1999. Source: (<12/year) Occasional/non-participant ( Regular Intensive ( frequency, in %. Portugu among participation 3.59:Sport Table Seehttp://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/portugal.htm. COMPASS 1999. Source: (0times/year) Non-participant Occasional ( ( Irregular gender, frequency and competitive/organisational context, in%. Table 3.58:Sportparticipati participation in sportamong theoldestage(seefigure3.7). categories Regular ( Regular Intensive (

≥ ≥ ≥ ≥ ≥ 12-<120/year) 12-<120/year) 60-<120 times/year) times/year) 60-<120 12-<60 times/year) times/year) 12-<60 120/year) 120/year) 120 times/year) times/year) 120 ≥ 1-<12 times/year)

16-19 on amongthe Portuguesepopulation, 50 24 26

Non-competitive and non-organised andnon-organised Non-competitive organised and/or Competitive andnon-organised Non-competitive organised and/or Competitive 20-24 Inthe southern Europeanmemb 61 18 21 25-29 72 14 14 ese population, 15-74 years, according to age and and age to according years, 15-74 ese population, Moreover, sport participation decreases moreMoreover, sportparticipation decreases 30-34 1998 1998 ticipation islowerthanthatinthe northern and 1998 1998 72 14 14 35-39 81 11 8 40-44 81 11 8 15-74 years, accordingto 15-74 45-49 er states, there is hardly any any is hardly states,there er 87 6 7 50-54 Male 87 12 66 6 7 4 5 6 2 5 55-59 92 Female 5 3 60-64 86 2 4 4 1 0 3 92 5 3 65 + 97 1 2 77 All 3 4 8 3 1 4 Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

115

9 1 - 6 1

9 2 - 5 2

9 3 - 5 3

9 4 - 5 4

9 5 - 5 5

+ 5

6

0

0

0

2

y

l

a

t

5 I

9

9

1

n

i

a

8 p

9

S

9

1

l of sport total number relation to the sport in

a differences have decreased during the past few

g

4

u

9 t

r

9

o

1

P

d

n

a 6

l

9

e

9

r

I

1

K

U

5

9

9

1

s

d

n 7

9 a

l

9

r

1

e

h

n

t

e e

8

d

/

N

e

7

e

9 w

h

9 S t

1

0

10 d 20 30

40 50 60 70 80 90 n

100 a

l

n i F

that these Statistics provided by MPG suggest in participants of elderly years. The proportion participants in fact grew during the 2001-2004 period. period. 2001-2004 participants in fact grew during the Figure 3.7: Percentage of the population participating in sport during the past twelve months in months twelve past the during sport in participating population of the Percentage 3.7: Figure eight EU member states,according toage category. Source: Marivoet 2002; http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society with highereducation and from among 9% in sportmore thanoncea year, thisvariesbe income andeducationalattainment. Whileanav Sport participation among 15-74 oldsyear alsova 11 2004. MPG/Marktest/Consumer Source: above, 2001-2004. Figure 3.8:Age distribution of sport participants among the Portuguese population, 15years and toth Itisunclearhow thesefiguresrelate health clubs. Consistent withthepatterns identif studies, between2001and 2004, justover halfof numberparticipated insport (2%) (24% infrastructure (36%),aprivate (43%).Thosewhotookpartin sports association most particip In 1998,accordingtotheIHDPPdata, context Organisational

6 Percentage of all sport participants

100% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 0% 160 159 Marivoet2001. Marivoet2001. 0120 032004 2003 2002 2001 24,9 26,1 15,7 15,8 5,8 8,7 3 in the club. context ofacommercial 23,7 25,2 16,9 15,8 5,7 3,5 9,5 farmers to46% ofmanagerial personnel. tween 5%among theuneducated to 49% ofthose erage of 23% oftheerage entirepopulation takespart ied in other countries, women, olds 25-34 year e MPG research data. According tothe data.According MPG e MPGresearch sport also made useofthepublic sport also considerable sport participants madeuseofgyms and ries significantly ries significantly with respecttolevelsof ) or the naturalenvironment (15%). Alimited ants insport did sowithin the contextofa 25,6 25,8 11,3 10,1 6,8 4,5 16 160

23,4 25,6 12,7 18,6 5,5 4,2 10 159

15-17 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 64+

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 11

162 ted sport participation

Members 161 le who participate in sport. Football is the Football is the participate in sport. who le t, general and club-rela tistics that are available for the past decades up to 54 years old and among women between women yearsamong and 54 old to up basketball. During the 1990s, the membership ball sports are played football, most: the te terms, while in terms of percentages among of percentages among te terms, while in terms pplies not only to club-related sport, but also to also to sport, but club-related to pplies not only ugal. In comparison to the northern and western to the ugal. In comparison eliable. However, theyeliable. However, do indicate that the d among the visitors to these gyms gyms these and health the visitors to d among ball also rates highly among young people. people. young ball also rates highly among an trebled over a long period (1970-2000). (1970-2000). period a long an trebled over Club membership** gs, this is mainly due to - in contrast to the other European to the other contrast is mainlydue to - in gs, this % MPG/Marktest/ Consumer 2004. MPG/Marktest/ 2004. Consumer Cf. ISI/CONI 1994. 161 162 1998 2000 Most practiced sports, Most practiced sports, 15-74 years*

The sta 300,000 in 2000. stood at around members of registered club Desporto, the total number Nacional do the Instituto to According men of all age groups sport among popular most years15-19 yearsparticipate in swimming, age. Women of over 19 aerobics/jazz old mainly ballet/break-dance and gymnastics. Basket fluctuate considerably and thus seem to be unr seem and thus fluctuate considerably and older peop of women low number countries - the Within an organised context, three team number of clubs in existence has more th has in existence of clubs more number other thin Amongst sport in general. followed at a great distance byand then handball in absolu the most clubs grew figures of football greatest growth. enjoyedbasketball the and judo tennis, ten golf, skating, the sports top sports The most popular played far the Port sport in most Football is by that this a European countries, it is most striking

Source: *Marivoet 2001; **Instituto Nacional do Desporto, 2002 2 Swimming 3 Athletics 4 Fitness/jogging 5 Gymnastics 6 Cycling 7 Aerobics/jazz dance 8 11 2 Handball Basketball 9 7 4 Athletics 8 3 Volleyball 10 Basketball Tennis 5 7 6 5 Tennis Judo 22,032 6 6 12,524 Skating 20,278 4 8 Volleyball 3 9 10,204 Golf 10,352 2 10 Gymnastics 10,319 9,813 6,339 9,438 Table 3.60 Popularity ranking spor to order according Table 3.60 Popularity 1 Football 30 1 Football 113,895

and higher social classes were overrepresente social classes were and higher sport in general. who practiced to those clubs in comparison

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.13 Spain 118 number ofsportpractitionersduri population has begunto participate insport.Howeve During the25 periodbetween 1975 year and 2000, agreater percentageoftheSpanish Trends insportparticipation participate insportdosoacomp compthe COMPASS picture thatispresentedby European countries,thisisstillbelowtheEu onceam with 44%doingexerciseorsportatleast The levelsofsportparticipationinSpain are Levels ofsportparticipation federations areavailablefrom 1941onwards. number Furtherto this ofconsecutiveyears. by NiketoobtainMPG, whowerecommissioned datacollected by onPortugal and Spainfor a market there arealsorecent recurring surveys, modelthe COMPASS andthusalsopermitsin from every five years survey (carriedoutin 1980onwards.Thelastsurvey 2000) wasattunedto the direction hasconducted of GarcíaFerrando, sport participationin 1968 a within anorganisationalcontext.Aftertwoco to withrespect several decades trends across sport. Thisis the resultofalongitudinal r Spain isone mostof thecountries thathasthe re Introduction free lanceresearcherTilbert Manuel García With specialthankstoProfessor

nd 1975,the CentrodeInvestigacionesSociológicas(CIS),under La Hayeforthesupplyofdata on sportparticipation. ng the second halfofthe1990s. aratively more intensivefashion. aratively esearch traditionthat has revealedinformationon , annual membership figuresforSpanishsport sporting behaviour in general aswellsport ropean average. The CIS survey confirmsropean average.TheCISsurvey the somewhat higherthansomewhat for neighbouring Portugal, mpletely independenthad surveys been heldon research data(2001-2004)that havebeen research ternational comparison. Inadditiontothese a more orlessidenticalsportparticipation liable body liable body of statisticaldataonparticipation in arison, namelyarison, thatthoseinSpain whodo Ferrando of the University of Valencia and Ferrando oftheUniversity ofValencia onth. However,justasalltheothersouthern r, theCISdatapointto astagnationin the Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

163 119 Practiced no sport Practiced one sport than more Practiced only sport one Practiced

22 62 16 2000 61 16 23 1995 ated in sport during the past thirty days. the past during ated in sport 65 17 18 15-64 years, who 15-64 practicedhave years, sport during the ng population has begun to participate in sport participate begun to has ng population 1990 cate a continued growth with 45% of the cate a continued growth with 45% of second half of the 1990s (see table 3.61). second half of the 1990s (see table 66 17 17 1985

9 16 75 1980 EGM in MPG 2004. 163 15-64 years 15-74 years

7 15 78

1975 0% 20% 10% 60% 50% 40% 30% 90% 80% 70%

100% 3 times/week 20 31 42 49

Source: García Ferrando 2001. ≥ 1-2 times/week <1 times/week duringholidaysOnly 25 19 36 28 17 24 38 6 14 38 10 3 Table 3.61: Frequency of sport participation Spanish among the sportingpopulation, 1985-2000. 1985 1990 1995 2000 Figure 3.9: Percentage of the Spanish population, Spanish the of Percentage 3.9: Figure past twelve months, accordingnumber to of sports participants, 1975-2000. Source: García 2001. Ferrando EGM In contrast, more recent data from indi particip who had in 2004 and 48% 2001 in population Furthermore, between 1985 and 2000, the sporti the and 2000, between 1985 Furthermore, with a higher frequency, the during with a higher also

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 120 22 5 17 15 12 3 9 6 27 3 57 18 9 29 30 28 60 20 32 10 29 28 57 19 2000 period. thatEGMhasannuall The research 26 10 46 2000 31 donot point The CISresearchdataalso to women catchingup with menatallduringthe1990- 24 1995 22 48 2001. Ferrando García Source: 1990 26 sport thanone Practiced more 22 47 2000 onesport Practiced just 24 1995 Practiced sport 23 1990 sport thanone Practiced more onesport Practiced just Practiced sport gender. to according years, Table 3.62: Sportparticipation during the past twelve months among the Spanish population, 15-64 often involved inmore sportsatthesametime. percentage points.Moreover,more women freque As farasthelevelsofspor Social differentiation 2001-2004 period (cf.figure 3.8.inthesectiononPortugal). plus whousually practiced sportduring the past30days hasrisenslowly,but steadilyduring the In relationto the totalnumber ofsports particip participating insport(seetable3.62).TheEGMre However,itappearsthatolderpeopleare between 1990 and2000, there wasalmost atwo-fo far quicker.Whilethelevelofsportparticip thirty days (rising only slightly from 36% in2001 to 37% in2004). minimal increaseintheproportionvery of womenthat

15-24 year olds 55-65 year olds year 55-65 olds year 15-24 olds Men Women 164 EGMinMPG2004. t participation are concerned, t participation are concerned, 1990 1995 2000 1990 1995 2000 2000 1995 1990 2000 1995 1990 ation among 15-24 year oldshardly increased ants, thepercentageofthoseover 35and of 55 y conductedbetween2001 y drawing levelwiththeir younger counterparts ntly practice only ntly menone sport,whilepractice only are search indicatesthatthistrend is persistent. search ld increase inthepercentageofolderpeople usually take usually part insport during the past women lagbehindmen bynearly20 164

and 2004 revealsa Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

65+ 55-64 45-54 35-44 25-34 20-24 14-19

121 17 5,6 6,3 10,7 17,7 28,7 14,1 m 725,000 to 2,300,000), m and, in particular, 5 5,6 10,1 16,4 27,6 15,9 19,4

165 with a university education participated in a university education participated with 1990, at the expense of sport played at sports. With respect to professional strata, the levels of professional levels of in sport (66%) did so for themselves outside of outside of for themselves did so (66%) in sport tween 1970 and 1990 (fro tween 1970 and 25%) was involved in club-related sport. Both was in club-related 25%) involved from 49% among the highest category and 38% for categoryand 38% the highest among 49% from 5 4,9 10,2 16,5 28,3 16,3 18,8 4,5 4,7 9,6 15,6 28,1 16,9 20,5 2001 2002 2003 2004 García Ferrando 2001. 165 0% 80% 60% 40% 20% 100%

Percentage of all sport participants sport all of Percentage

Organisational context who participated majoritythose the In 2000, of while a quarter ( an organisational context, educational institutions and elsewhere. significantly be sports association grew most of licensees that were total number few decades, the affiliated to a During the past percentages increased slightly with as compared are the Just as differentiating as age and gender educational achievement. In 2000, 48% of those of those 48% In 2000, educational achievement. declined percentage of sport participation Figure 3.10: Age distribution of sport participants among the Spanish population, 15 years and and years 15 population, Spanish the among participants of sport distribution Age 3.10: Figure 2001-2004.above, Source:2004. EGM in MPG without any a secondary with only those and 11% of education school sport, whereas only 23% one or more educational qualifications practiced categorythe middle 27% for the lowest category. to wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society trebled. timesashighth percentage ofmenwasfour proportionally more thanmenmemb women were Tni 1 6 adal 90,370 106,683 239,782 88,323 99,469 291,445 671,581 Handball 136 Mountaineering 127 Judo Members 154 Golf 223 Basketball 362 Tennis 135 Aerobics/dancing Football 7 391 Tennis 6 Mountaineering/hiking %2003** 5 Fitness 4 Cycling 3 Football 2 Swimming 1 2000* 122 Table 3.63:Themostpopularspor 470,000 during thesameperiod. 2,900,000 in 2003, whereasthenumberof female licenceholdersonly grewfrom 300,000to to thesefigures, thenumber ofmale sports after whichthegrowthlevelledoffto 2,900,000 licenseesin2003. followed by basketball andgolf. Footballis second andthirdplacesrespectively. In general,swimming isthemost The mostpopularsports between 2001considerably and2004. thepercentage ofmeclub visitors. Nevertheless, that 37%ofallsportparticipan for gym andhealth clubuse, ratherthanageor stable during the 2001-2004 period. Genderseems As availableforthepastfewyears. areonly and healthclubmembership Dataongym more orless remain or healthclub.Thesepercentages participating insportmade use ofagym theindicated by EGMresearch,in2004 around 8% of theSpanish population and 15% ofthose 12% to27% during the1980s. remainedcompetitions duringthe stable aforementioned period,after asignificantgrowthfrom 18% in1990 to 20%in 2000. Accordingtothesam shows aslightincreaseinthenumber from ofasportsassociation ofthosewhoaremembers

168 However,thisiscontradictedbytheIN 169 168 167 166 INE2003. GarcíaFerrando2001. GarcíaFerrando2001. INE2003. 167 ts werewomenin2004,thisa 169 The CIS research also reveals thatduringthe1990s TheCIS also research ts inpercentageof practicedsport,withfootba

association licenseesrosefrom 1,600,000in 1985to association social class. Whilst the EGM research indicated indicated the EGMresearch socialclass.Whilst e percentageofwomen;in2000 this had n taking part in sport at such clubs increased partinsportatsuchclubsincreased n taking by far themostby popularclub-related sport, E data on the number of licensees. According E dataonthenumberoflicensees.According ers ofsportsassociations.In1990,the ers to bethemost important determining factor e research, participationin research, official sports e populationandinnumbersof licensees. pplied to 53% ofgymand health ll andracingcycling taking the 166 The CIS research also TheCISresearch Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

123 However, great caution 170 e last five, ten and twentye last five, ten and years, football ce (all +7) increased, while the popularity of ,000 members) since 1983. There were,000 members) sincealso 1983. There particularly athletics, a number of martial arts particularly athletics, a number nd basketball. Proportionally speaking, golf was was golf speaking, Proportionally nd basketball. gures on membership losses due to the greatlygures on ipating in mountaineering/hiking (+9 percentage (+9 mountaineering/hiking ipating in significant growth during these periods, with an significant growth during these periods, INE 2003. 170

must be exercisedmust when interpreting these fi figures. fluctuating membership 8 Basketball 9 Running/jogging 10 Athletics Source:*García Ferrando2001; **INE 2003. of those partic In particular, the percentage 11 9 Shooting 12 8 Karate 7 10 Underwater sports 214 increase of 26,000 to more than 800% (from years, past ten during the out; sports that lost suffered losses. membership (taekwondo and karate) and volleyball 57,623 43,170 59,835 points), football, racing cycling and aerobics/dan points), football, declined. (-4) (-5) and running points), tennis basketball (-11 percentage gained the most members, followed bygolf a by far the sport that experienced the most during th With respect to club-related sport, wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society .4 Italy 3.14 arrivedat monitor ISTAT’sleisure time onthefrequ specificdetail research studyoffersmore Since1981, dataonthemembers affiliatedto CONI.gathered bi-annually by levels of sport participation in Italy arelowe levels ofsportparticipationinItaly According to the standardisedpan-Europeanrese Levels ofsportparticipation 124 of thesediverseresearchins research data research onsportparticipation among theItalia Furthermore,in 1993 and 1997, the ACNielsen old,inwhichseveralquesti between 15-34 years conducted Market ResearchInstitutes(IARD)has and itssurvey longerterm time In addition usesurveys. tothis, since1983the Associationof Alongsidethese whichaskwide-rangingquestions about surveys, the sporting sporting behaviour in thecontext of various othe behaviour of the population aged3and above internationally). fit forcomparison (nationally and, employing theCOMPASSby guidelines,also omnibus’ in 1982, 1985, 1988, 1995 and 2000. Howe held inRome. ISTATalsoconductedsimilar res Institute(ISTAT) out bytheItalian Statistical of dataremains astumbling block. The first exte countries with‘goodpractices’,eventhoughth As farasthecollectionof data onsport particip Introduction regarding sport participation. Bruno Rossi Mori oftheItalianNational Ol With specialthankstoProfessor AntonioMussino that ofSpain and Portugal. month.once a Inthisregard, thelevelof sport 62.0 in 2004 indicated that 33% ofthepopulation

173 172 171 European Commission, Eurobarometer 62.02004 http://www.coni.it See Caliòetal.2002. 173

172

titutions cannotbecompared witheachother. ympic Committee (CONI)forsupplying informationympic Committee r thantheEuropeanaver , ISTAThascollectedmore limited dataon in 1959,justprior to the Olympic Gamesbeing participation in Italy inbetween participation inItaly lies somewhere e harmonisation andlongitudinalcomparability n populationaged4 and above.However, the ation is alsonumbers among concerned,Italy the -SITA research bureau has also carried out -SITA researchbureauhasalso earch intheframework nsive study into sportparticipation nsive study wascarried a lowerpercentage(26%) in2000. This r surveys, suchas r surveys, the annual‘quality oflife’ ons on sportparticipation arealsoincluded. arch studies that were discussed inchapter2, studies thatwerediscussed arch aged 15andabovetakepartinsportatleast a study every four years among among fouryoung people every years a study of the University ofRome‘La Sapienza’ and of the University Italiansportsfederationshavebeen ver, only the last two surveys are actually thever, only lasttwosurveysareactually ency of sport ency participation in 7%of Italy. age. TheEurobarometer of the‘leisure time 171

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

125 700,000 16,700,000 ,800,000 8,500,000 91 1994/95 2000/01 000 3,500,000 3,300,000 0 3,800,000 3,400,000 4,900,000 0,000 12,600,000 11, Moreover, the ISTAT survey the ISTAT survey Moreover, 174 Italy was estimated at 7 million in 1981, in Italy was estimated at 7 million es, this is primarily due to a lower degree of a lower due to es, this is primarily fferences. In some areas, namely the southern 0 4,000,000 4,200,000 4 be found in the northern regions of Valle in the be found table 3.64). During the same period, the total the same table 3.64). During tion thus went hand in hand with a decline in a decline in hand with went hand tion thus ion were found to participate in sport, but by by in sport, but participate found to were ion conducted since 1959 differ with respect to conducted since 1959 nt studies the figure had increased than nt studies to more ly less than men. This applies to young people as young people This applies to ly less than men. owth, from 56 to 58 million. It is, however, million. It is, to 58 56 owth, from 120 times per annum, while 8% did so between 60 so between did 8% while per annum, times 120 e sport. Beyond these organised contexts, women contexts, women organised these e sport. Beyond 1981/82 1987/88 1990/ rticipation figures are well under the national the figures are well under rticipation 3,600,000 4,400,000 4,600, ective of the frequencyof participation. http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/italy.htm. http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/italy.htm. Caliò et al. 2002. 174 175 Whereas the total number of sportspeople in Whereas the total number 175

participation in club-related and competitiv participation in take part in sport as much as men, irresp Source: MoriRossi 2004; CONI 1994; CONI 1995. Social differentiation In Italy, women participate in sport considerab Participants in initiatives of sport for all organisations 2,500,000 3,700,00 well as adults. stat member As in various other EU Table 3.64: Number of sports participants according in Italy, to organisational context (estimations based on membership figures and percentages from ISTAT surveys). Members of NSFs and associated disciplines Informal sports participants 1,300,00 Total sports participants 7,400,000 12,10 average, whereas much are to higher percentages regions of Puglia, Campania and Sicily, pa Campania and Sicily, regions of Puglia, region of Umbria. mid-Italian Friuli and the d’Aosta and participation Trends in sport ISTAT have research studies that Although the in sport a significant increase to questionnaires, they still point research design and of the populat 3% a mere 1959, In participation. demonstrates demonstrates there are that significant regional di and in the subseque 1982 this had risen to 15% 20%. organised sport participation. organised sport striking that, particularly during the 1990s, the number of sports association members indeed of sports association members particularlyduring the 1990s, the number striking that, general sport participa decreased. The growth in the year (see the 2000 the figure stood at 17 million gr only experienced limited Italian population 16-74 year olds took part in sport more than sport more part in took yearolds 16-74 a year. times 60 12 and between and 11% times and 120 wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society No sport and no other physical activities otherphysical no No sportand Occasional ( 12 lower foradults. sport 43% ofthegirlsin acompetitive c play the sportsfederationshave Collectively and 61%oftheboys association; members ofasports and56%ofgirlsare old, 69%ofboys distributed throughout around 65,000 sports clubs. international level. championships ataprovinciallevel; 1.3 million at championships orcompetitions. 1.8million context.2.5millioncompetitive of the remainingsportspeople areactiveinunofficial 16.7 million Italianswho practice Of theestimated context Organisational to both men andwomen allagecategories. and Thehighestpercentage ofthosetakingpart insportcanbefound in the 10-14 old year Incontrasttoanumberincrease inage. ofwest age groupwith respecttobothgenders. Afterth 2000,thesediffere theyear three. By While only one intensport participantswerewo Throughout the pastdecades,thedifferencesbe http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/italy.htm. Source: Intensive ( organ Competitive, context. competitive and club-related and frequency gender, Table 3.65: Sportparticipation among the Italian population, 6-15 and 16-74years, according to No sport, but participant in other physical activities activities physical inother No sport,butparticipant ( Irregular ( recreational Regular, ( organised and/or competitive Regular,

6

≥ ≥ 12-<60/year) 12-<60/year) 60-<120/year) 60-<120/year) ≥ 1-<12/year) 1-<12/year) 176 176 ised, intensive ( ised, intensive http://w3.uniroma1.it/compass/italy.htm

≥ 60-<120/year) 60-<120/year) Age 6-15 Age 16-74 Age16-74 Age6-15 ≥ 120/year) 120/year) ≥ 60-<120/year) 60-<120/year) nces haddiminished evenfurther. nces Italians participateincompetitions or ontext. These percentagesarethoughconsiderably ern and northern EU member states, thisapplies northernEU states, member ern and atotalof3.3 million members, whoare tween menandwomenha is age, the percentage decreases along withan is age,thepercentagedecreases men in 1959, men 1982by this had become onein aregionalleveland820,000in anationalor Of thesportparticipants between6-15 years sport, 10.3million donot activelydosoin a Male 15.0 17.1 14.3 22.7 16.5 3.2 6.0 5.2 Female 22.4 26.2 12.6 16.4 2.2 7.3 6.2 6.7 ve becomesmaller. oa aeFml Total Female Male Total 18.6 21.5 13.5 19.7 11.8 2.7 6.6 5.7 2000 2000 32.5 30.3 15.2 4.5 2.8 6.0 4.0 4.7 41.4 36.9 2.0 6.9 4.1 3.8 3.5 1.3 37.0 33.7 11.0 3.2 3.5 4.9 3.7 3.0 Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 12

178 However, CONI 177 rd to the fitness branch – an unequivocal fitness branch – rd to the population and in numbers of licensees. population and in numbers of ber at the end of the sources suggest that of ship was lower sports federations total for the ng (30%), winter sports (13%) and volleyball and volleyball winter sports (13%) ng (30%), e beginning of the 1980s the fitness branch has the fitness 1980s of the e beginning the 1990s, followed bygolf, winter sports tennis, sport, in general terms as in general well as sport, in a club-related /target_mercato_del_fitness_en.html /target_mercato_del_fitness_en.html ess in general and basketball in a club-related ess in general and basketball in a club-related club-related sport, but loses out to swimming club-related sport, but loses out to as a ontested. Firstly, football is clearly a male- only 1.4 million people participate in fitness. people participate in fitness. only1.4 million f, handball, athletics, horse riding and sailing athletics, horse riding handball, f, mbership numbers between 1991 and 2001. between 1991 and mbership numbers gger than organised associationgger than organised sport. ts in percentage of http://www.fitnesstrend.com/foro CONI, I numeri dello sport, various years. 177 178 2000* % 2001** Members 2000* % 2001**

dominated activity for it is only played by 1.4% of women. Most women (44%) participate in Most women (44%) of women. 1.4% by played only it is activity for dominated gymnastics/aerobics/fitness, followed by swimmi Source: *ISTAT; **CONI. For both see Rossi Mori 2004. 2004. Mori see Rossi both For **CONI. *ISTAT; Source: certainly unc not is of football The popularity 1 Football 2 Gymnastics/aerobics/fitness 3 Swimming, water-polo 4 21 2 Basketball Winter sports, alpinism 5 Racket sports 6 23 3 Cycling 7 Volleyball 13 4 282,795 Volleyball Tennis 8 26 1 Football Athletics 9 Basketball 10 242,361 Running, jogging 8 5 Winter sports 1,000,288 145,853 8 6 128,855 6 7 Athletics Martial arts 3 10 Sailing 6 8 it in terms but in absolute early 1990s, the growth until experienced Secondly, football (10%). 4 9 Bocce/Bowls fact lost the most members of all sports during Motorcycling 105,791 125,199 experienced the greatest growth in me 95,236 93,331 79,379 Table 3.66: The most popular spor definition thereof has never been produced - a num has never been thereof definition fitness centresregularly visited in Italy people or gyms. If this is the nearlyfour million 1990s case, then the is now bi fitness branch and bowls. In contrast, organisations for gol data with rega are no reliable there Although borne witness to a quite unrulyborne witness to a growth. sports The most popular playedJust as in Portugal, football is the most bycontext. In Spain football is far the biggest of fitn great popularity recreational sport. The in 2001 than twenty yearssince th while twenty before, than in 2001 and Spain. in Portugal the situation context also corresponds to has estimatedbasis of ISTAT data that on the Nevertheless,collective it is clear that the member wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.15 Greece participation. that thelevelofeducationalachievement namely that moremen participateinsportthan The non-representative localstudies confirm thegeneralpicturefound in othercountries, Social differentiation Trends cannotbedetermined forGreece. Trends insportparticipation time to sport and physical activities, which is also less thaninthe isalsoless other EUstates. activities, which time tosportandphysical

128 ofthewhole population. representative Inaddition,localstudieshavebeenconducted,are theEurobarometers. butthese arenot sport participation.Theonly availablesources any data availableonthefrequency, hardly natu on sport participation. For this reason,in contr Unfortunately Greecedoesnothaveanytradition Introduction on sportparticipationresearchinGreece. and Konstantinos Agriodimos oftheMinistry ofEducation & ReligiousAffairs for information With specialthankstoKonstantinosAlexandris ofthe Aristotelian ofThessaloniki University 49% and40% respectively. month and57% didno sportwhatsoever orexercise European average.In2004,32%ofthepopula The Eurobarometers indicatethatthelevelof Levels ofsportparticipation

182

182 181 180 179 Stodolska 2004). Alexandris & Carroll 1997. European Commission, Eurobarometer 52.1 1999. European Commission, Eurobarometer 62.02004. SeeLarissa (Alexandris &Carroll 1997; Alexandris 1998)and Thessaloniki (Alexandris & 180 In1999, 12% oftheGreekpopulation spentmostof theirfree 179

is a specific determining factorforsport is aspecific sportparticipation in Greece isunderthe ast to the other old EU member states, there are thereare member states, ast totheotheroldEU tion exercisedorplayedsportatleastoncea women,more people thanold young people and of informationabout the entireGreekpopulation re, differentiation andorganisational context of with respecttonationalpopulationresearch , as compared with aEuropean with averageof compared , as 181

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

129

185 older people and those with a The percentage for young people of people of young The percentage for rometer 50.1 1998. European Social Survey Survey 50.1 1998. European Social rometer 183 barometers 28.2 1987; 34.2 1990; 47.2 1997 and barometers lking, keep fit, jogging, basketball, weight basketball, lking, keep fit, jogging, sports club. In 2001, a Eurobarometer put this sports club. In 2001, the most practiced sports. Although this study Although practiced sports. most the the Greek population claimed to be members of be members Greek population claimed to the e sports, namely basketball and football. e sports, namely inment, it is noteworthy that the most popular sports included popular sports that the most inment, it is noteworthy with an under-representation of with an Commission of the European Union, Euroba the European of Commission Union, Euro the European of Commission 1998. Alexandris Christensen, Eurobarometer 55.1 2001. Eurobarometer Christensen, 2002.

183 184 185 184

lower level of educational atta fitness sports and two ‘national’ competitiv concerns an urban population The most popular sports Greece is the of sports in popularity the differential regarding of information The only source local study Wa conducted by Alexandris in Larissa. be were found to and football training, aerobics the 15-24 year is group are higher. The Eurobarometers from 1987, 1990 and 1997 indicated and 1997 1990 1987, from yearhigher. The Eurobarometers is group are the 15-24 are affiliated to a 16% of Greek youth that 15 to figure at 21%.

Organisational context of 8% in 1998 the Eurobarometer, According to for 2002, 4% of around Survey at a figure Social However, the European arrived a sports club. a little were actually active members. over half of whom wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 130

Part Four: New European memberstates New Part Four: Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

131 2003.1 2003 en 62.0 2004; Sports Information date member states, 47% regularly took part regularly 47% states, date member took , 45% of the Cypriot population is physically However, only a written report – and not even a written report – However, only ect to sport participation in Cyprus. The only only The in Cyprus. ect to sport participation Cypriot Sports Research Centre. However, there Cypriot ng. The initial report reveals that in 2004 47% of ng. The data derive from the special Eurobarometer 213 data derive from of the Center for Leisure, Tourism and Sports Center for Leisure, Tourism of the tion Bulletin, 5% of the population were members were members population of the tion Bulletin, 5% ation Bulletin, which is based on a research study ation Bulletin, which is on sport participation in Cyprus. in on sport participation mpared with mpared the 40% average for all 25 member from a numberfrom and a studies of Eurobarometer 1996. The Eurobarometer held among young people people young held among Eurobarometer The 1996. new survey accordance in with the COMPASS nnot be determined. nnot be determined. European Commission, Eurobarometer Eurobarometer Commission, European Bulletin, 44, 10, 1997. 186

186

on sport and the citizens of the European Union. citizens of the European on sport and the the raw data - was available at the time of writi Cypriots exercised or played sport, co never Levels of sport participation Sports Inform the edition of an According to Sports Research Centre carried out by the Cypriot recent inactive during their leisure time. More people was specifically at young directed which 2003.1, the Eurobarometer states. According to years thirteen new and candi between 15-24 in old in sport. The average for these countries in sport. The was 46%. Trends in sport participation Trends for Cyprus ca Social differentiation data. There is a lack of relevant Organisational context Sports Informa the an edition of According to of one of the estimated 550 sports clubs in sports clubs in estimated 550 of one of the With special thanks to Dr. Nicos Kartakoullis Nicos to Dr. With special thanks Research and Development for information Research and Development for information Introduction with resp information veryThere is only limited derive participation sport available data on survey 1994-1995 by was conducted in that the are now concrete intentions to conduct a a are now concrete intentions to conduct agreements. 3.16 Cyprus 3.16 Cyprus wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 132 350 400 Source: The Cyprus Sport Organisation in ISI/CONI 1996. 431 10 Bowling 500 450 9 Judo 8 Badminton 7 Taekwondo 602 1,200 6 Karate 1,800 5 Table 2,100 tennis 4 Volleyball 10,000 3 Basketball 2 Athletics 1 Football Table 3.67:Popularity orderaccordi ranking organisations for 1991revealthefollowingra basketball, andvolleyball were popularasclub andbasketballwerepopularamongvolleyball girls. Football and, athletics, to alesserextent, In 1996,footballandbasketba The mostpopularsports members. indicated thatonefifth of youngsters between 1991 Members 1991

ll were widely played by boys, whereas gymnastics, dance, whereasgymnastics, boys, played by ll werewidely ng to sportsclubs 15and oldare24 years activesportsclub nking order according to membership figures: nking orderaccordingtomembership -related sports.Data membership figures. provided by sports Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

133 In the same In the same 188 der the average for the lth Interview Survey revealed eported in the Sports Information Bulletin 44, eported in the Sports tion posed was ‘How often do or you exercise ‘How tion posed was This study is now more than twelve years This study now more is percentage of respondents who did not answer this did not answer of respondents who percentage only posed as a part of a broader categoryof only posed as a part of a broader onal Statistics Office only included a (NSO), revealed that in 1992 45% of the Maltese 2004 was at 57%, just un sport every now and then. According to the According to everynow and then. sport 15 and 24 regularly took part in sport during sport during part in took 24 regularly 15 and se survey survey of of 2002 and the lifestyle iversity of Malta for the supply of data on sport on sport data iversity of the supply Malta for of e issue of active sport participation has onlyof active sport participation e issue conducted on sport participation of the whole of participation on sport conducted e for the 13 new and candidate member states member e for the 13 new and candidate rch studies conducted with respect torch studies conducted physical be compared, no trends can be determined. no trends be compared, port federations are bythe NSO. maintained First National Health Interview Survey, which was In 2003, the First National Hea the In 2003, 187 The questionnaire employed in the MISCO research study is not known to us. Data is not known in the MISCO research study were employed The questionnaire Information 2003. Department of Health 2003. 2003.1 Eurobarometer Commission, European supplied by Rose Ann Gatt and are partly also r partly Rose Ann Gatt and are supplied by ‘never’. question with 10, 1997. In the Eurobarometer 62.0, the ques 10, 1997. In the Eurobarometer is the sport?’. The figure given here play 187 188 189

189

Trends in sport participation Due to the fact that the available data cannot

Eurobarometer 62.0, the level of participation in level of participation in the 62.0, Eurobarometer population of ten years ten and above participated in of population 25 EU member states (60%). limited number of questions with respect of questions number limited As far as we to sporting behaviour. are aware, there has only one specific researchbeen ever study byInternational. Maltese population, namely MISCO old. Membership s figures for the individual Levels of sport participation The results of the aforementionedMISCO study participation. Introduction In recent years,resea there have been various activity behaviour in Malta, but th and sporting studies. In the played these role in a limited were activities sporting questions on held in 2003, The time u and/or vigorous activities. moderate conducted bywere Nati 2003, which the Maltese With special thanks to Rose Ann Gatt of the Un of the Ann Gatt to Rose With special thanks that 18% of men and 11% of women regularly and 11% of women men once exercised (at least that 18% of a week). (46%). year, 41% of young people between the ages of people year, of young 41% their leisure time. This was lower than averag 3.17 Malta 3.17 Malta wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society outdoor activities. oldagegroups.Older peopleaboveyear theage weekend). Timespentonsportand outdoor ac sport andoutdoor activities (ofwhom themajo according to Young peopleage category. old between15-24 devoted the years most time to and 53minutes variedsignificantly versus31minutesatweekends).Thistimeuse also more timesport andoutdoor to activities than the basisof time conducted usesurvey by 134 sport participationdiminish withanincr participated insport,this applie pointstosignificant gende The MISCOstudy Social differentiation of anorganisational framework sohigh as inMalta(69%). In no other EUmember stateisthepercentage context Organisational may bediscerned.77%ofalland 43%areyoungerthan old. 20 male clubmembersmay years are distributed among Once 405sportsassociations. 18%ofthepopulation ofsports associations,thatisnearly members people inMaltaare Together with gymnastics this fitness sportisalsopopularamong Together withgymnastics women. organised context, most football favouredbyis clearly men, followedby bodybuilding/gyms. most arethe Walking and practiceds swimming The mostpopularsports are nonetheless still statistically significant. are nonethelessstillstatistically betweenboys andgirlsthancompetitions betw Among therearefewerdifferencesbetw youngsters

194 193 192 191 190 44, 10,1997. 191 Gatt2004. NSO,Sportsorganisations 2000-2002, 2004. European Commission, Eurobarometer 62.02004 NSOtimeuse survey 2002. MISCO1992,informationsupplied by RoseAnn

d tojust of 29% ofwomen.Italsodemonstrated thatthechances ease in age and alowersocio-economicstatus. ease inageand 194 r differences. While in 199262%ofmen r differences.While women(32versus24minutes duringtheweek

the NSO,itcanbedetermined thatmendevote tivities then decreases forthe25-34and35-44 tivities thendecreases een adultmen andwomen, butthesedifferences rity mainly took part insportduringthe mainly rity of thepopulation who participateinsport outside ports by bothports by men andwomen.Withinan of 45 devote even less time tosportand of 45devoteevenless time again, significantgenderandagedifferences een clubmembership andparticipationin 192 Gatt. Seealso SportsInformationBulletin Nonetheless,around65,000 190 On 193

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

135

Men Women Total Men Women Total

% of population, 2003* Members, 2002** Source:*NSO, Lifestyle survey 2003; **NSO,Sportorganisations 2000-2002, 2004 1 Walking 2 Swimming 3 Cycling 4 Running/jogging 5 Aerobics 6 Gymexercise/weightraining 7 Exercise at home 518 23 2 Tennis 9 5 Basketball 6210 23 Football 3 5 1 56 3 2 23 8 0 Football 6 4 4 Bodybuilding/gyms 4 4 Volleyball 5,672 13 Diving 2 3 4 4,662 10,334 7 11 arts Martial 21,876 1 1 5 1 Bocci/boules 1,288 Gymnastics 8 273 22,149 1 0 2,473 2,183 971 2,108 2,259 0 8 1 9 0 818 651 376 Athletics Basketball 26 3,291 2,834 10 4 2,257 2,134 Sailing 2,633 1,102 812 405 673 928 1,507 1,485 264 1,192 Table 3.68: Popularity ranking order for sport in general and in club-related context, total and and total context, in club-related and general in for sport order ranking Popularity 3.68: Table accordinggender. to

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.18 Slovenia 13 With specialthankstoDr. Boris Silaof the Un moremonth thanonce a (seetable3.69). active, while41% ofthepopulation participated the SlovenianInstitutionof PublicOpinion in which resultinfiguresthat deviate significantly has beencoordinatedfromSlovenia itselfisb member states and25percentage points above th during theirleisure time,which wasthehighestpe Thisyouthpollrevealedthat member state. EU alsoindicated anexceptionally time usesurveys Eurobarometer 2003.1 conducted among young peop participated insport(in2004thiswas24%comp which, aftertheScandinaviancountries,hadth SloveniaQuite surprisingly, cametotheforein Levels ofsportparticipation membership ofsportsorganisations the areprovided Slovenia by National Olympic Committee. research bureau,among theSlovenian have alsobeenincludedin that havesurveys havetakenplaceFurther to annually. these surveys oldand years above, which include questions Opinion ever has heldrepresentativesurveys Sinceseveral decadesthroughalong 1973, seriesofsurveys. the Slovenian Institute ofPublic The sporting behaviour of the Slovenian adultpopulation hasalreadybeenmonitored for Introduction regarding sport participation. Burica ofMedia Publikum, and Meta ArhofGfKGral-Iteoforsupplying theinformation 6

populationof old.Additionally,15-75 years dataonthe y three yearsamongthepopulationofeighteen y been carriedoutsince market TGI,2001 by a 2000, 54%ofrespondentswerenotsportingly ased on designs, other definitionsandresearch about sporting behaviour. From 1996 onwards, iversity ofLjubljana,Fa iversity e lowestproportion of inhabitants thatnever around 71% of youngsters theEurobarometer213 astheEUmember state, from this. According to research carried out by carriedout fromby this. According toresearch in sportorrecreationduring their leisuretime high degree ofsportparticipationin this new e averageofthesecountries.Theresearchthat ared withthe40% Moreover,the ared EUaverage). rcentage ofallthethirteennewandcandidate this, questionsregard le between 15 and 24 years le between15and24 of ageandtheyears culty ofSport,Alenka ing sporting behaviour takepartinsport Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 13 year suggest some decline in period, at least ely involved in sport or recreation during their their or recreation during in sport ely involved ring leisure time during the past twelve months months twelve past the during time leisure ring ble 3.69. However, the data collected by the necessary to be cautious with respect to possible differences in the methodology and possible differences opulation of 18 years and above. and above. opulation of 18 years et al. 2001. et et al. 1998. et ć ć et al. 1996. et al. ć

confirming this trend. confirming Slovenian Institute of Public Opinion over a thirty Opinion of Public Slovenian Institute (seeleisure time figure 3.11). Due to the it is questionnaires that have been employed, Trends in sport participation basis of ta on the No trends can be determined Sources: * Petrovi Petrovi ** not activ who are the percentage of the population Some times in the year 7869 year the 4445 in week a times 5337 day du or recreation sport in Participation 3.69: Table times Some 1-3 times a month Once a week 2-3 times a week 4-6 Every 11Total 100 13 100 11 11 100 17 10 10 100 13 11 11 19 15 among Slovenian p among Slovenian 1996* Not active 1998** 2000*** 2004**** 50 46 54 34 ****Završniket al. 2005. ***Petrovi wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 138 affiliated toasportsclubasopposed38%ofmen. women were in thisregard.Women alsoparticularlyun are thanmen,recreation a butovertheageofforty womenthantomen. agewomenapplies lessto takepartlessinsportand Atayounger The levelofparticipationinsportandrecreati Social differentiation recreation or sport in participated actively have not above who and of years 18 population Slovenian the of 3.11:Percentage Figure grown after2000(seefigure 3.12) kinds ofsport participation diminished during context. Accordingtodata from theInstitute Participation insporttakes moreplace frequent context Organisational

Percentage of population 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 9317 9918 9518 9119 9720 2003 2000 1997 1994 1991 1988 1985 1982 1979 1976 1973 58 195 Petrovi 63 71 ć etal.2001. 55 during leisure time. Source: Petrovi 49 of Public Opinion, the difference betweenboth on decreases with an increase inage,butthis with anincrease on decreases der-represented insports the 1990s, but has once againappeared tohave ly withinanon-organisedly thanan organised higher percentage of women are actually active higher percentageofwomenareactually 44 44 42 195 ć

et al. several years.et al.several clubs: in2000, 18% of 51 52 47 51 34 Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

139 et ć 35,7 16,5 Sports associations 196 24,8 16,2 29,5 17,3 measurement taken in the framework of the In contrast, the percentage affiliated to a unorganised sports and recreation 2000) were concurrently members of a sports were concurrently2000) members 197 ovenians were members of a sports association ts associations in Slovenia with approximately approximately ts associations in Slovenia with der rose from 8% in 1996 to 9% in 2000. 8% 9% in in 1996 to from der rose t providers in Slovenia. Between 1996 and 2000, 2000, Between 1996 and in Slovenia. t providers

43,1 11 198 nal Olympic Committee. Olympic nal 44,1 9,3 et al. 2001. ć organised sports and recreation Statement Slovenian Natio Statement Slovenian close to the comes fairly This percentage Petrovi European Social Survey. According to this research, 16% of the Slovenian population of 15 population 16% of the According to this research, Slovenian Survey. Social European members of a sports club in 2002. and older were years 196 197 198 35,4 15,9 1986 1989 1992 1997 2000 2002 5 0

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10

% of population of %

fitness centre or other commercial sport provi Relatively few Slovenians (2% in 1996 and 3% in and 3% Relatively in 1996 few Slovenians (2% association and a commercial sports club. Figure 3.12: Participation in sport or recreation in leisure time among the Slovenian population of of population Slovenian the among time leisure in or recreation sport in Participation 3.12: Figure 18 years andwithin above an organised or non-organised context, 1986-2002. Source: Petrovi thus had the greatest greatest market share of all spor thus had the to 17%. years later this had dropped fours in 1996, this seems have declined. Whereas 18% of Sl to were a total In 2004, there of around 4,800 spor nearly competitively. sport 90,000 played of whom members, 350,000 al. Various years. al. Various years. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society

140 1,473 1,586 2,695 1,348 3,154 3,268 Mountaineering/alpinism 813 Swimming 812 2,870 3,840 Badminton 911 7,800 Athletics 10 Judo/aikido/jujitsu/kendo 6,126 109 **Statemenal. 2005; et Sources: *Završnik 8,327 4,652 Dancing 25,700 Basketball 118 Taekwondo 13 117 Aerobics 12 Fitness 11 Football Karate 10 126 Dancing Members Handball Ninepins/bowling 9 Basketball 253 135 Badminton 154 8 Running Volleyball 282 Football 7 591 Homeexercises 6 Mountaineering 5 % 2004** skiing Alpine 4 Cycling 3 Swimming 2 Walking 1 2004* Table 3.70: Popularity ranking order forsport participation in general and in club-related context. versa). men’s topten, but not in the women’s) a and women.Thedivergence concernsfootball, sport participation. Seven sports featureinthe womenmen and bediscerne can differences between place intheranking,after football. Furtherto in aclub-relatedcontextis worth mentioning. popular sports within aclub-relatedcontext. played Slovenians,butstill rankamongby basketball areingenerallessfrequentlyplayed themost areplacedatthetopoflist;teamcycling statesthanthes northern Europeanmember The ranking order forthe popularity of sports in The mostpopularsports

199

199 Petrovi ć etal.2001. t Slovenian National Olympic Committee, 2004 nd aerobics, home exercise and badminton (vice nd aerobics,homeexercise outhern ones. Walking, swimming andracing sports such as football, volleyball, handballand sports suchasfootball,volleyball, this, on the basis of the data available, few this, onthebasisofdataavailable, Together themartialartswouldassumesecond top ten of themost practicedsportsforboth men basketball andfitness (which appearinthe general resemblesmore thewesternand closely Further tothis, thepopularity ofmartial arts d from orderas theranking regardsgeneral Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

141 participation; this e in sport during their leisure e in sport during this research, 16% of the this ort, that is at least twice a ort, that is at least week for half ovides supplementary information on the ovides supplementary information ey into general sport ey into rnment. The study is representative of the into the degree to which the individual into the degree to which the individual kta; see also Anders et al. 2004. kta; see also Anders et al. ry for supplying information regarding sport sport regarding information ry for supplying sed every now and then in 2004; this figure is sed every this in 2004; and then now rvisory Offices, but since this date theyhave e new and candidate EU member states. In the membership figures for Hungarian sports the membership at in comparison with nine other European with nine other at in comparison participation in Hungary was relatively low in participation in Hungary ccording to Eurobarometer 62.0, 40% of the 62.0, 40% Eurobarometer ccording to the exception of Portugal. Furthermore, the of the exception participation. As indicated by Hungary who regularly participat who regularly Hungary GfK data provided by Szuszanna Bu Szuszanna GfK data provided by 200

200

Trends in sport participation can be identified. data, no trends Due to the lack of comparable With special thanks to Zsuzsanna Bukta of the Sport Department of the Ministry of Children, of Children, Department of the Ministry Sport of the Bukta special thanks to Zsuzsanna With of Nike Hunga Nagy and Agnes Sports and Youth participation. Introduction In 2004, GfK Hungary a large-scale conducted surv research was commissioned by Hungarian gove the the market 2004, and 2000 to this, in yearsabove. Further 18 and aged Hungarian population research bureau TGI Hungary out research carried to 1989, branches of sport were practiced. Prior held bywere Supe the Local Sport organisations by National Statistical Office.been kept up-to-date the Levels of sport participation of sport Chapter two revealed that the level European perspective in various respects. A frequencysport and intensityof Hungarian population took part in sport or exerci or part in sport took Hungarian population with the lowest within Union, the European in young people percentage of suggest th addition to this, the time use studies little time to sport and exercise. and women devote states both men member The research pr conducted by GfK Hungary time (43%) was below the average (46%) for th part in sp aged 18 and above regularly took population an hour. The percentage cannot be compared with previous research studies or data from other with previous research studies or data from be compared percentage cannot an hour. The countries. 3.19 Hungary wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society members ofasportsorganisation. suggeststhathalfof those w study GfK research activities inorthrough asports club. The fre members ofasportsclubinabove were 2002, According to the European Social Survey, 4% context Organisational 142 4% 4% 4% 3,086 3,682 3,065 421,200 353,080 424,190 3,240 1994 2,716 1990 3,263 1987 inHungary. clubs sport-related and clubs sports of 3.71Number Table: mere 9%. regularity wasa population over theageofeighteenpercentagethosewhotook partin sport withthis Although 28%of18-29 year oldsdidatleastone 58% and42%.respectively Among adults thisdec (80% ofboys; 72% ofgirls), butin the16-17 y in age:2004thelevelsportparticipati applied to13%ofthewomen.Secondly,partic women: while20% ofmentook part insport twiceaweekforhalfanhourin 2004, this only offamilia The limited datarevealanumber Social differentiation 12,000 commercial sportprovidersofall kinds. managed thefinancially by educationalinstituti had atotal In2002,Hungary of5,400spor 3,100approximately addition, s therewere included around200,000registered Thenumberof sportsclubs significantlydeclinedbetween 1975and 1990, though clubs hasgrown more than rapidly the population asawhole. began toincreaseagain during once the 1990s.Si 9541450002405% 2,410 540,020 4,154 1975

Number ofsport Number 203 202 201 National Statistical Office and information providedby Szuzsanna Bukta. GfKdataprovidedby Szuzsanna Bu GfKdataprovidedby Szuzsanna Bu clubs 201 Estimated numbe

membership of sportclub 202 sportspeoplewho participated

on among oldwasstillhigh childrenof10-11 years r port school communitiesinHungary, whichwere r patterns. Firstly, the under-representation of theunder-representation r patterns.Firstly, quency amongquency much higher.The sportspeoplewas while 6% participatedinsport or outdoor of theHungarianpopulation of oldand15 years ipation insport decreasedalongwithanincrease ear old age category this was substantially lower, ear old this wassubstantially age category 203 ons to andaround which they wereconnected, ho took part in sport at least twice a week were were aweek ho tookpartinsportatleasttwice hourofsporttwice aweek,forthetotal nce 1990,themembership numbers ofthese

kta; seealsoAndersetal. 2004. kta; seealsoAndersetal. 2004. line continuedfurther withariseinage. Sport club/ ts associations with700,000members,ts associations which population membership / membership in officialcompetitions. In population Sport club Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

143

204 older people (in virtually all all virtually (in older people erobics, fitness 8 A people, but this is the case across the board. is the case across but this people, in the table above. It therefore does not take above. It therefore does not take table the in for sport. The sports found in the top ten are the found in The sports for sport. both genders. Other sports that have equallygenders. Other sports that have both ranking orders, football and chess come to the to the ranking orders, football and chess come n include swimming, jogging, badminton, badminton, n include swimming, jogging, onal Statistical Office, reworked by Bukta. reworked by Bukta. Statistical Office, onal onally more women take women part in dance and onally more 2004 ation’ is left up to the respondents.ation’ is left few differences between young and few differences between young and Information provided by Szuzsanna Bukta. Information provided by 204 erobics, fitness 5 9 Dancing 4 9 Skating 4

A 10 Chess 11 Basketball Basketball 3 11 Table tennis 4 10 4 10 Basketball 3 11 Handball 3 3 fore as typical male pursuits, while proporti aerobics/fitness. There are also billiards, darts and basketball. In the Hungarian billiards, darts and basketball. In the rankings age categories) as regards the popularity young fewer older than practiced byproportionally high participation rates among men and wome rates among men participation high The most popular sports sport in Hungary popular for most Cycling is the * The interpretation of ‘regular particip ‘regular of interpretation * The 6 Dancing 7 Badminton 8 Darts 9 7 6 6 7 Darts Chess Source:2004. TGI 5 8 Badminton 6 6 6 7 Badminton Billiards 4 8 Darts 7 7 5 1 Cycling 2 Swimming 3 Billiards 4 Jogging 5 Football 17 1 Cycling 9 2 Football 8 3 Billiards 8 4 16 1 Swimming Cycling 12 2 Dancing 7 5 Jogging 10 3 Swimming 8 4 Jogging 7 5 19 9 9 9 TableRegularly* 3.72 practiced branches of ofin sport, Hungarian % population, 14-69 years, in total and accordinggender. to Total % Men % Women % account of the commercial figures in Hungary. such as fitness centres These sport providers, non-profit civil also reflect the for establishing and maintaining fact that the climate greatlyin Hungary by 1989 was improved in ‘law on free association’.organisations the Since many up in all societal sectors, including associations have been set then many sport, of which bodies and are directed at one specific activity membership or sport. have small Only non-profit organisations have been included have organisations Only non-profit 19995,603 20025,385 20047,008 728,390Nati and Offices Supervisory Sport Local Source: 700,050 840,000 1,785 1,857 1,427 7% 7% 8% wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 144 handball, athletics andbasketball. figures dating from 1989indicated thatfootballclubs farthehad by mostmembers, followedby There arenocurrentdataavailableonmembersh

ip figuresperbranchofsport. Membership Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

145 people get older, while golf, with respect to general sport participation. the various sports federations. Further to this, to this, the various sports federations. Further s. This data indicates that the number of clubss. This data indicates that the number However, there is data on the number of sports number there is data on the However, regularly took part in sport during their leisure their leisure during part in sport regularly took the population said that they never engaged in never said that they population the e population aged 16-64 years.e population aged 16-64 It reveals that re or less restricted about the to statistics club-related or commercial contexts and outside or commercial contexts and outside club-related tly increased by 2% from 4,685 in 2000 to 4,780 2000 4,685 in bytly 2% from increased ely large proportion of the Slovakian population population of the Slovakian ely proportion large European member states stood at 40%. In 2003, In 2003, states stood at 40%. member European and cyclists and the frequencyand cyclists which they with nd by far the extensivemost as far as football is in general sport participation among the Slovakian the Slovakian sport participation among in general e gender and age of skiers, swimmers, joggers, swimmers, joggers, e gender and age of skiers, acing cycling have a relatively large proportion of acing cycling have a relatively large proportion ogging are taken part in less as Office and Ján Tokár of the Ministry of Education of the Slovakian the Slovakian of Education of of the Ministry Office and Ján Tokár

population can be determined. can be determined. population Social differentiation differences There are no data available on population practice their concerns th sport. This information than women. These gender differences aremen practiced by more the aforementioned sports are the smallest with respect to golf and squash a concerned. Skiing, swimming and j r tennis and but also football, in particular, is also unknown. framework of an organisational availableclubs and members for the past few year With special thanks to Renáta Mašánová of Tambor Slovakia, Vladimir Cicmanec of the Slovakia, Vladimir of Tambor Mašánová thanks to Renáta special With Slovakian Statistical participation. sport regarding supplying information Republic for Introduction is mo in Slovakia participation The data on sport of clubs that are affiliated to and members number the researchprofiles of Tambor bureaus on the social and Fabrika have also gathered data are practiced. to which they several branches and the degree of sport Levels of sport participation suggest that a comparativ The Eurobarometers of 36% In 2004, participate in sport and exercise. for the 25 sport or exercise, while the average and 24 the age of 15 between youngsters of 59% time, whereas EU the average for the new and candidate statesmember was just 46%. Trends in sport participation trends On the basis of the data available, no of th information However, there is limited footballers, golfers, tennis and squash players year old age category.adherents in the 35-44 Organisational context in The relationship between sport participation end of the 1990s, but have recen dropped at the 3.20 Slovakia 3.20 Slovakia wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 14 significantly. but, atswelled appreciably, thesame the time, 135%. Further increasedby competitions tothis,the member figuresofthetennisfederation gains. Thenumbermembers77%; of grewby wise, the biggestmembership losses.Percentage gained nearly8,000 newmembers. Bodybuildi in absoluteterms, witharound 33,000 newmember thefootballfedera During thepast threeyears, 81 practiced toalimited extentwithinanorganisedcontext. 78 playedtennis arealsowidely sportsinSl 67 11 which findsitself insecondplacethesepopular 42 footballmany 12 thanfor25 times clubmembersandcompetitive footballplayers as basketball, 12 4 Within anorganised context,footballstands atthetop ofthepopularity ranking order. Thereare 20 3 6 1 2003. Fabrika/Tambor Source: 2 15 0 Golf 3 1 4 0 Squash 9 2 4 1 Tennis 2 4 0 Skiing 4 8 4 Football 2 Swimming months by the Slovakian population, 15-64years. 00Table 3.73: Frequency ofparticipation in seven swimmingfollowed by andfootball.The restri study comestotheforeasth Tambor/Fabrika, cycling From theresearchinto social profile 101493The mostpopularsports in competitions. Fishing Union) hadatotal of 687,000 members in2003,ofwhom568,000 (86%) alsotook part Togetherthespor showed thegreatestdecreases. whiletheto equestrian sportsand(ice)hockey, in 2003. The most significantgrowthoccurred withrespecttoindoor football, basketball,

yln 61 11 21 26 15 12 10 10 11 16 Cycling 6

205

205 of inaccuracies and changes in met ≥ However,needs tobecautious one intheinterpretation ofthemembership databecause 22-11-491 - - 0 1-4 5-8 9-11 12-24 25-51 52 111493 of anumber ofsports,whichwasconductedby ovakia. Tennis, bodybuilding and karate areonly selected branches of sport during the past six past the during ofsport branches selected the number ofparticipantsinbasketball tion has enjoyed the greatest increase in members members in thegreatestincrease tion hasenjoyed number ofparticipantsin and power-lifting organisationsexperienced ng tal number ofkarate,softballanddartsclubs hodology (informationof JánTokár). e most and most frequently practicedsport, mostand e frequently the basketball federation enjoyed thegreatest enjoyed thebasketballfederation t specific federations (excludingtheSlovakian t specificfederations ity stakes.ity handballandtable Icehockey, s, followed by the basketballfederationthat s, followedby cted itselftothesportslistedintable3.73. tenniscompetitions fell Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 14 ing to number of club members number of ing to 10 Indoor football 10 Indoor 4,500 2003 r of sports in Slovakia, accord sports in Slovakia, r of Members Participants in competition in ParticipantsMembers

Source: Ministry of Education Education of Ministry Source: 1 Football 2 Basketball 3 Handball 4 Tennis 5 Ice hockey 6 Bodybuilding/power-lifting 7 Table tennis 8 457,867 1 Karate 9 Football 17,785 2 13,180 6 Volleyball Basketball 10 Volleyball Mountain running 17,500 3 Ice hockey 15,190 15,004 4 5 Handball Table tennis 12,520 7 Mountain running 6,915 426,967 9,800 8 8,320 9 16,164 Athletics Field hockey 6,680 12,680 10,900 6,181 10,950 4,844 5,150 ranking orde Table 3.74 Popularity and participation in competitions in competitions participation and wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.21 The Czech Republic TheCzech 3.21 part insport; (seefigure2.7and and thatthey table 3.75). also dosofrequently pilot countriesalsoshowsthatacomparativ 148 Source: Rychtecky 2002. ≥ 0 32 % Frequency years. 16-74 population, Table 3.75: Frequency ofsport participation during the past twelve months by the Czech 2.2.and2.9). participated insport2003(seefigures exercised ortook part insport; 62% of young people between theageof16and 24 regularly levels ofsportparticipationintheCzechRe revealedthat-whenview Chapter twoalready Levels ofsportparticipation Yearbook. the CzechSportsAssociation thatareaffiliatedtotheCzechs and members people of14-30 old. makeMoreover, one ofthedetailsonnumberyears ofclubs can use Slovakia and conducted by GfKPragueprovid in theCzechRepublic.In addition to this,ar guidelines and formsmost important the source heldlast survey, in1999 among thepopulation ag 1995 and1999);eachofthem involved a differe During the1990s,threesportparticipationstudi Introduction and Sports for supplyinginformati David CisarofNikeCzech& Slovakia,andJan With specialthankstoProfessor AntoninRych ≥ ≥ ≥ 1 - 0->2 16 18 31 120 60 ->120 12 ->60 ≤

12 3 1999 1999 206 European Commission, 2003.12003. Eurobarometer 2132004; on regarding sport participation. ely large proportionely of the Czechpopulationtakes public. In 2004, only 35%of esearch study commissioned by Nike Czechand commissioned by study esearch ports organisations. These data are publishedin ports organisations.Thesedataare tecký of Charles University, Petr Janousekand tecký ofCharlesUniversity,Petr ed froma European perspective-therearehigh es dataonthesporting behaviour of young es wereconductedin theCzechRepublic(1994, of information on sport and physical activities of information onsportandphysical nt researchpopulationanddesign.The Prerovský oftheMinistryEducation,Youth ed wasadjustedtotheCOMPASS 9-74 years, 206 A comparison withtheCOMPASS Acomparison thepopulationnever Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

149 60-<120 times a 60-<120 times ≥ sations. Young people sations. Young gularly engage in recreational sport or take or take gularly engage in recreational sport also reinforces this picture. In this age this picture. also reinforces

the 45-64 age category, while for women this 45-64 age category,the while are not attuned to each other, no trends can be to each other, no trends are not attuned vement. education also People with a higher that the percentage of sport practitioners that the percentage of sport practitioners ge of men who regularly participated in ge of men who regularly participated 207 tensively, although the intensively men sporting n in an organised context. The differences with context. The n in an organised participation, on the one hand, and intensive and one hand, the participation, on an older ones and also more frequently within a within a frequently ones and also more an older Generally speaking, young people do more sport more do people young Generally speaking, etitions and/or organi category for regular sport participation ( category for regular sport participation al participation in sport occurs more or less equallyal participation in sport occurs more in all age GfK 2004. 207

year) than the one for incidental/irregular sport other. the on sport participation, respect to education are smaller in the generally took part in sport more intensively th more generally part in sport took frequently ofte more take part in sport more and competitive and organised context. The percenta competitive and organised context. The until continues sport organised competitive and/or higher percentage of women belonging to the youngest age category. increasing ends at the An who re those age categories can be discerned among part in sport irregularly. Incident categories. Rychtecky’sanalyses demonstrate Furthermore, increases with a higher level of educational achie determined. determined. Social differentiation a variety of information. provides Table 3.76 of comp often in the framework do so more participation Trends in sport sport participation surveysGiven that the various women However, in the 16-24 age category, than women. do more and men than older people thanparticipate in sport more men and just as in GfK’s researchyears age category on the 14-30 old in participate that they indicated 53% while part in sport, never took 10% category,only sporting activities thanmore three times a week. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society In1997,7,530 clubswereaffiliatedtothe in that year. the otherorganisations, itis thatth estimated around 100,000 members. School Sports Clubshad 228,000 members and Alongsidethese sportsorganisations,whic members, theCzechAssociationofSports for Czech SokolOrganisation(whichisrelate members in2000.In comparison to1997, themembership figures aroundhad risenby 7%. ofthepopulationthatare Thepercentage 24 weresportsclubmembers. Intotal,the Czec According to Eurobarometer 2003.1, atotal of within anorganisedorcompetitive framework. illustrates, in199914%of the Czechpopulation Sport in takesplacew the Czech Republiclargely context Organisational 150 Source: Rychtecky 2002 Competitive, Czech population, 16-74years. % the in gender, of and to age according sport participation, of frequency and 3.76:Nature Table 65-74 65-74 45-64 35-44 25-34 16-24

oe 10955 70 5 54 9 185 6 0 39 225 3 29 10 232 11 21 172 3 19 0 12 8 5 Women 1 19 6 Women 2 20 Women 3 36 Women 8 Women e 92 13 24 113 9 6 28 19 Men e 851 52 9 4 40 144 11 9 5 26 192 5 18 14 11 213 2 23 9 14 Men 5 7 21 Men 11 21 Men 19 Men l 531 60 7 4 48 165 10 8 3 33 214 4 10 15 21 222 6 22 1 142 17 16 9 All 3 20 6 All 6 6 21 All 11 32 All 14 All a year) ( intensive intensive organised, ≥ 120 times 120 . a year) ( Intensive ≥ 120 times 120 d to the gymnastics movement)d tothegymnastics had186,000 times a year) times a ( organised and/or competitive Regular, ≥ e Czech Republic was home to some 20,000 clubs e CzechRepublicwashometosome 60-<120 60-<120 All totalled257,000 members, theAssociationof 34% of young people betweentheageof16and h Sports Associations had1,275,000 registered many other smaller or smaller many other between 16-74 years oldparticipatedinsport members ofasportsclub must behigher. ithin anon-organised context. ithin As figure3.13 Czech Sports Association. TogetherwithCzech SportsAssociation. all h generally represent competitive sports, represent the competitive h generally times a year) times a ( recreational Regular, ≥ 60-<120 60-<120 times a year) times a ( Irregular ganisations numbered ≥ 12-<60 12-<60 times a year) times a ( Occasional ≥ 1-<12 1-<12 Non-participant Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

151 Competitive, organized, intensive organized, Competitive, Intensive organized and/or competitive Regular, recreational Regular, Irregular Occasional activities physical other in participation Non-participant: activities no physical Non-participant: 22,9 5,2 club-related sport. It is also striking that few striking that few club-related sport. It is also and within a few yearsgain a has gone on to lated sports in the Czech Republic. In contrast, lated sports in the dball (-67%) and, to a lesser extent, basketball nd in the ranking orders for general sport orders for general the ranking nd in the country’s own sports culture does come to culture own sports the country’s women. As far as club-related sports are 10,7 all (-7%) and tennis (-2%) also lost ground and tennis (-2%) all (-7%) terms of percentages is of percentages terms noteworthy the most e popularity of football and bodybuilding among among and bodybuilding of football e popularity 110,000), floor ball (+20,682) and racing cycling racing cycling and ball (+20,682) floor 110,000), 8,4 ice hockey one’s attention. ice attracts 17,5 14,3 3,4 17,6

men and aerobics and equestrian sports among men and aerobics and equestrian sports among participation. The only dissimilarities participation. The only dissimilarities are th of popularity enormous concerned, the (+ football With respect to organised sport, The 2003. between 1999 and numbers gains in membership the greatest enjoyed (+13,461) last two sports and aerobics in growth of the volleyb top ten in the while although (-17%), and 2003. between 1999 differences between can be fou men and women from Floor ball appeared nowhere development. practiced club-re most the place in the top ten of serious losses membership were suffered by han The most popular sports enjoy the and tennis generally popular football practiced Since cycling and is the most sport from deviate greatest popularity not sports, the Czech Republic clearly does as club-related EU states. However, of the other member most hockey as a ice the fore with the great popularity of

Figure 3.13: Sport participation according to frequency intensity, and organisation, ofin the % 2002. Rychtecky Source: 1999. years, 16-74 population, Czech wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 152 20,265 27,682 23,271 Cycling 110 30,917 34,121 sports Equestrian 19 33,249 ball Floor 18 53,047 61,013 Basketball 58,439 35 tennis Table 110 Athletics Athletics Skiing 19 16 17 Volleyball 4 Tennis IceHockey 92 Tennis 53 18 sports Equestrian 27 ** 2002; *Rychtecky Source: Athletics Jogging 25 10 Basketball Tennis 26 9 Volleyball tennis Table 34 8 Basketball Swimming Aerobics 3 92 7 building Body 6 Jogging 5 Volleyball 4 Swimming 3 Soccer 2 1 figures forsportsfederations. membership in participation sport organised and years, 16-74 population % the in of participation Table 3.77: Ranking order of the most practiced sports inthe Czech Republic, general sport Mn Wmn raie prs Members Organised sports % Women % Men

biking mountain Cycling, 10 1 1999* 2003** 2003** 1999* Č eský svaz t biking mountain Cycling, ě lesné výchovy 2003. 2003. lesné výchovy 1 Fobl 478,205 Football 11 1 Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

153 played sport regularly or relatively often. often. or relatively played sport regularly ey on sport and physicaley activity, which is a country that finds itself fairly close to the itself fairly close to that finds a country

ge of the Polish population that participated that population ge of the Polish esults of this study could not yet be included yet not could esults of this study Poland is more or less equivalent that found to is more Poland 208 S-Demoskop’s data suggests that 21% of the of the that 21% data suggests S-Demoskop’s data and a fairly overview of the extensive According to Eurobarometer 213 in 2004, 46% 46% 2004, 213 in to Eurobarometer According een 15-24 years old regularly took part in sport sport part in years regularly took een 15-24 old points higher than the average of the thirteen points higher than S-Demoskop in 1997, 2002 and 2003 and by GfK by GfK and 2003 and 2002 1997, S-Demoskop in ports federations. The market research data czynowski of Pilsudskithe Jozef Academy ddition to this, the Jozef Pilsudski Academy of PhysicalAcademy Pilsudski this, the Jozef ddition to tistics Bureau (GUS) publishes data on the number of clubs and on the number tistics Bureau (GUS) publishes data

209 SGI Europe 2004. SGI Europe 2004. Statistical (www.stat.gov.pl/english). 2002-2004 Yearbooks, 208 209 During the period 1990-2002, the number of sports club members rose by 40% from from 40% rose by of sports club members number the 1990-2002, During the period

in exercise or sport rose from 26% to 42%. The proportion that did so regularly or relativelyso regularly or did that The proportion to 42%. 26% in exercise or sport rose from 1997. than in 2003 often was seven percentage points higher 396,000. to 283,000 Trends in sport participation percenta the and 2003, between 1997 In the period

during their leisure time; this time; percentage is four during their leisure The IPSO new and candidate EU states. member exercised or and above years 15 of Polish population not at all. did so and 59% seldom Likewise, 21% With special thanks to professor LechWith special thanks Ja of Nike for Kowalski and Witold of GfK Polonia Kotnowski Pawel of Physical Education, participation. sport regarding supplying information Introduction participation in on sport The level of information exercise (the any average for the 25 EU in sport or did never participated of the population betw of youngsters 50% states is 40%). member in Slovakia and Hungary: some some market research Hungary: in Slovakia and of clubs affiliated and members number to s European average as regards sport participation. concerns research that was IPSO conducted by a In 2000 to 2003. Poland from population surv Education held a new representative in this volume. The Main Sta annually. figures their membership Levels of sport participation Poland comes to the fore as In the Eurobarometers, partly attuned to the COMPASS guidelines. The r partly attuned to the COMPASS guidelines. 3.22 Poland 3.22 Poland wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society ynsisarbc/oybidn 2930 17 22 9 35 154 40 6 35 4 2 38 Source: GfK Poland 9 2 Football 21 1 Running/jogging 27 building Gymnastics/aerobics/body 43 Swimming 1 3 Hiking 9 Cycling Walking 8 Very population). popul by sports Polish practiced 3.79:Most Table Rarely andwalkingwereth of thesecycling according tothe EuroSocio researchst Styles Walking, cycling, hiking andswimmingwere Often The mostpopularsports often available onthefitnessbranchinPoland. member st ofallthenew lowest percentage the peopleyoung between16-24 ofasports clubin oldmembers year 2003; were thiswasthe alsopointtoalow Eurobarometermeasurements allthenineteen countriesthat percentages for sports oroutdoorsports activitiesorganisedby 59 in members ofasportsassociation 200 above were 21 According to the European Social Survey, around 4% ofthePolish population of and 15 years 59 21 context Organisational 18 9 74 14 withregardtosocial No dataareavailable 12 Social differentiation 9 7 2004. Europe SGI in data Demoskop IPSOS Source: 7 No, notatall 2003 Yes, seldom Yes, ratheroften 2002 basis Yes, onaregular 1997 in population. % the frequency, of to according Table 3.78:Participation in sport orexercise

e most frequentlypracticedsports. 2004 2004 differentiation insportpa ates. Toourknowledge, there arenopublicdata among thePolishpopulation15years andabove, wereinvolvedin this research study.The udy that GfKhasconductedannuallyudy since 2000; the mostthe popular sports amongst thePoles, clubs. Along withGreece, thesearethelowest ation, 17 years and above, by frequency (in % of %of (in frequency above, by and ation, 17years degree oforganisationinPolish sport:15% of 2. More than 2% were active participantsin active 2. Morethan2%were rticipation inPoland. Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

155 ver, proportionally speaking, karate had the speaking, karate ver, proportionally in this top ten, only basketball and handball only top ten, in this 1998 2002

Source: GUS 2005 (www.stat.gov.pl) (www.stat.gov.pl) 2005 GUS Source: 1 Football 2 Athletics 3 Volleyball 4 Basketball 151,9795 Karate 182,802 tennis 18,1256 Table 15,693 18,400 16,3937 Handball 17,256 10,4378 Swimming 14,309 11,855 9 Tennis 8,14810 Judo 12,040 13,611 8,191 10,113 8,868 6,492 7,863 6,883 7,812 Tablewith 3.80: Sports most the members in club-related context experienced losses during this period. experienced losses greatest gains in membership. Of all the sports greatest gains in membership. Of all the Football figures. membership at the club when one looks very different order looks This ranking by volleyball distance sport, followed at a significant athletics, popular club-related is the most biggest that enjoyed the also the sport football was 2002, 1998 and and basketball. Between Howe increase in absolute numbers. membership wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 3.23 Lithuania 15 reveal asignificantgrowth inthenumber ofpeopl identified. Thereare,however, sporting behaviour that hasbeenconducted inLith Given thatthe2001survey wasthe firsta Trends insportparticipation perspective. comparative of thepopulation dedicatedfourhoursaweek 23 Inaddition, more isknownaboutthe aver 52 two hoursa week toexerciseandsport, one seventhspenttwotothree hoursonit andaneighth 16 Lithuanian people. Accordingtothis data, in2001onefifthofthe population devoted lessthan 8 between thesout somewhere can besituated Viewed alongsidetheCOMPASSpilot ofsport countries theintensity participation in Lithuania Source: LSIC 2002. sport and No exercise 1-2 times/week week 3-4 timesa week>4 timesa % 2001 years. freque to according sport and 3.81:Exercise Table participation (see table3.81). at 52%.Furthermore, thissurveyalso exercise fromstates. TheLSICsurvey 2001 puts thefigureof those whodo notparticipate insportor takes partinsport.Thisiseight percentage According to the 2004 Eurobarometer 213,48% ofthe Lithuanian population neveror exercises Levels ofsportparticipation sports clubsand(sports)schools. statistics from 1998to2003 withregard tothe theLithuanianSport Inform by commissioned In 2001, asurvey on physical exercise andsportunder the population of7-80 years oldwas Introduction for supplying information regarding sport participation. With specialthankstoIngaSmalinskait 6

data ontrendswithinthesphe ė oftheDepartment ofPhysicalEducation and Sports nd only representative populationresearchinto points above the average for the 25 EU member pointsabovetheaveragefor25EU hern European andScandinaviancountries. to it. These data cannot be analysed from toit.Thesedatacannotbeanalysed a ation Centre (LSIC). The LSIC also possesses TheLSICalsopossesses ation Centre(LSIC). offers insight into the frequency of offersinsightinto the sport frequency number ofpeople who participateinsport ncy, in % of the Lithuanian population, 7-80 population, ncy, Lithuanian % the in of age durationofsportparticipation amongthe e participating in sport inan organised context uania, notrendsin sportparticipation canbe re oforganisedsports.These Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 15

number of persons practising sport in sport clubs number of persons practising sport in sport schools number of sport clubs number of sport schools Clubs and schools and Clubs 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 thin an organised context, but in adulthood rticipate in sport and exercise thanrticipate in sport women. Men gure 3.15; see also table 3.83 in the section on gure 3.15; see also table 3.83 in those taking part in sport in the context of the sport in part in those taking context. There is also a sharp decline in hose over sixty still do any sport or exercise. In hose over sixtydo anyor still sport young adults and almost exclusively for older exclusively for older and almost adults young 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 0

90.000 80.000 70.000 60.000 50.000 40.000 30.000 20.000 10.000

Members

and a slow, but steadyand a slow, of decline in the number (sport) schools. in participate that of people number and (sport)clubs and of (sport)schools Number 3.14: Figure sport in these contexts.www.kksd.lt. Source: Latvia). the 7-18 age categorythe 7-18 age sport generally place wi takes occurs (primarilysport participation among people) mainly in a non-organised setting (see fi participation with a rise in age. Only14% of t participation also do so more frequently within an organised frequently also do so more Social differentiation a higher percentage of men also pa In Lithuania, wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society sport alsoseem tobepopular inLithuania (seetable3.82). young people of aschoolgoing age). Asidefrom organisational framework. Thisprimarily concerns independently ofany organisational context. One thirdofthe Lithuanian population of7and80oldtakepartinsportbetween theages years context Organisational adsotpatcs 29 8 15 158 each branchofsport. The dataonsportparticipation inLithuania The mostpopularsports Source: LSIC 2002. school/club Practices atthehealth atthesportsclub sessions Training prac sport education Supplementary practices Paid sport insportseduc sessions Training 2001 Table 3.82: Nature ofsport participation, in % of 2002. LSIC Source: years. 7-80 population, Lithuanian in% the age, of and to gender according sport participation, of 3.15:Nature Figure 100%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 0% e oe 7-18 Women Men 32 19 49 30 14 56 to ntttos(re 32 (free) institutions ation years 28 56 16 ie teuainisiuin 17 institution tices ateducation 19-25 years 45 23 32 are unfortunatelynot broken downaccordingto Justunder17%practicesportwithinan 26-40 years the Lithuanian sports participants, 7-80 years. years. 7-80 participants, sports Lithuanian the 36 12 52 sport inschools,the commercialprovidersof schools (the survey waspartly directedat schools(thesurvey 41-60 years 29 67 4 61-80 years 13 86 1 Does exercise and sport independently sport and exercise Does practices) sport paid schools, sport clubs, sports school, (at practises sport organised Attends sport and exercise not Does %

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

159 Latvia. As far as we Latvia. As far as tivity. Moreover, this neighbouring Lithuania Lithuania neighbouring es to all age categorieses to (see table tvians participated in hard training and Latvian population in 2004 never participated participated never in 2004 Latvian population date EU member states (Bulgaria, and date and states (Bulgaria, Turkey EU member Health of Societies in Transition and the Health of Societies on sport participation in on sport participation population in Latvia are less physically active in Latvia population men and that this also significantly decreases men cial differentiation in Latvian sport participation cial differentiation in Latvian sport participation levels in in sport participation may participation be identified. in sport sport in 2003. This is five percentage points This is 2003. sport in ere was who were a lower percentage of women y on nutrition and lifestylenutrition yon in the Baltic states, 1 are the only publicly available sources of available publicly 1 are the only frequency of physical ac her Baltic states. This also appli The same research that fewer La demonstrated

and is also eight percentage points above the EU average.and is also eight percentage points above Trends in sport participation which trendsThere are no available data from Social differentiation of so picture It is possible to construct a limited a few unrelated sources of of data. with the help in participated and 24 regularly the ages of 16 candi above the average for the ten new and three people between young of Latvian that 51% suggests 2003.1 Firstly, the Eurobarometer Romania). Health of Societies in Transition shows that th regularlyphysically active during the week than by health research Secondly, conducted the WHO and the European Centre on the applies to the with increasing age. The same research suggests that both the male and female the male and female research suggests that both 3.83). as well as applies to men Estonia. This Lithuania and neighbouring than in sport competitions in all age categories.women, than their counterparts in the ot in any sport or exercise. This or in any corresponds with sport World Health Organisation, does provide some detail on the extent of physical activity in of physical detail activity some in on the extent does provide World Health Organisation, Latvia. Levels of sport participation of the 213, 48% Eurobarometer the According to Introduction data no is virtually Lithuania, there In contrast to However, the joint research stud information. which was conductedEuropean Centre on by the are aware, the Eurobarometers 213 and 2003. are aware, the Eurobarometers 3.24 Latvia 3.24 Latvia wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 160 7 4 15 6 84 18 8 10 79 14 4 77 6 14 15 6 68 2 No information wasobtained onthe differential popularity of sports inLatvia. 7 7 24 85 12 6 The mostpopularsports 9 94 13 8 79 5 18 88 4 toLithuania, lesscomparable Hungary this ismoreand Slovenia. or 75 63 7 17 85 organisational contextsuggests that25% of16-24 70 5 7 availableinformation regardings The only 9 5 15 9 11 15 90 context Organisational 12 11 18 92 82 12 15 9 1999. CentreWHO/European inTransition Source: HealthofSocieties on 81 80 67 9 79 Total 70 13 years 50+ 14 21 years 35-49 17 78 Women Women Women years 18-34 16 16 74 70 Total 64 years 50+ years 35-49 years 18-34 over. and years in% population 18 of gender, and age tofrequency, according a sweat, out break to physical regular in participation 3.83:Weekly Table

Mn e Men Men Men neve r 1-2 days 1-2 days a week 3 days o 3 days soi avaLithuania Latvia Estonia more a ekneve week r port participationinLatviaaccordingto

1997 1997 activity (such as jogging, cycling) long enough enough long cycling) jogging, as (such activity year oldsareinvolved inclub-related sport; r 1-2 days 1-2 days a week 3 days o 3 days more a ekneve week r

r 1-2 days 1-2 days a week 3 days o 3 days more a week r

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

161 ting behaviour in Estonia can be found in Estonia behaviour ting Ministry of Culture offers supplementary of Culture Ministry sport participation in Estonia are (almost) sport participation also keep records of the membership figures also figures keep records of the membership is much better for Estonia than Latvia, though Latvia, though than Estonia is much better for Estonian population. This research reveals that Estonian that were discussed in chapter two. formation with regard to this study was not lt population take part in sport every now and now take part in sport every lt population ople between 16-24 years old also regularly between 16-24 ople in the section on Latvia, and the homogenised in the section on Latvia, and the homogenised ities.16% thereof do so a number of times a month of times a number thereof do so ities.16% nal information on spor nal information

1997 210 European Commission, Eurobarometer 213 2004, Eurobarometer 2003.1. 2003. Commission, European 210 Estonia Latvia Lithuania Men

All 5.118-34 7.635-49 3.4 3.050+2.7 6.3 2.4 2.8 0.6 6.6 1.1 0.4 Table 3.84: Hard training and competitive sport more thanweek once instates, a the Baltic accordingage to and of population gender, in the 18 % andof years above. With special thanks to Peeter Lusmägi for supplying us with information regarding sport sport with information regarding us thanks to Peeter Lusmägi for supplying special With participation. Introduction participation on sport information of The supply it is still fairly limited. In 2003, the Estonian Olympic Committee conducted a survey among the Committee among conducted a survey Olympic Estonian In 2003, the it is still fairly limited. their report. able to extract a few have only been main points from but we Estonian population, Committee the Estonian Olympic Further to this, for sports organisations. Additio in the research study, which was referred to scale research studies conducted on a European Levels of sport participation theAccording the recent Eurobarometers, levels of exactly at a European average: 60% of the adu pe young of 45% do not at all. 40% then, thus participate in sport. and 25% at least twice a week. More specific in 55% of Estonians take part in sporting activ take part in sporting of Estonians 55% obtained. information about the sporting behaviour of the behaviour sporting about the information The research study carried out by the Estonian 3.25 Estonia 3.25 Estonia wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 162 of sportschools andpersons participatinginsport schoolsdecreased. number ofpersonspractisinginsport clubs inthe show asharpincr The limited dataavailable Trends insportparticipation neighbours (seetable3.84). populations, but thatthe Estoniansdid participat population that activedoesnotdiffersignificantly isphysically from theLatvianandLithuanian 0.0 demonstr ofthe Baltic states study joint research 0.3 The EuropeanCentreon Health ofSocietiesin 0.6 0.0 0.3 0.3 1999. CentreWHO/European inTransition Source: HealthofSocieties on 2.6 0.4 50+ 0.8 1.9 35-49 4.1 18-34 All 2.4 No information on thedifferential popularity of sports inEstoniacould beobtained. The mostpopularsports in 2003. association members of a sports oldwere people aged16to24 years (around 10% ofthepopulation). TheEurobarometer 2003.1 suggests thataround 28% of young 2,000 sports clubs inEstonia in2004, which ha approximately theEstonian According to Olympic Committee, therewere data providedby context Organisational women, andalsomore people thanolderpeople young doso. countries. Acrosstheboard,moremen takepart Estonia doesnotdeviatefrompatterns thathavebeenfound in mostEuropean theusual Social differentiation

soi avaLithuania Latvia Estonia 211 Statistical Office of Estonia. ofEstonia. Office Statistical 1997 1997 Women Women ease inboththenumber ofsportclubsandthe Transitionandthe WorldHealthOrganisation d atotalmembership body of 140,000 people e in sport more intensively thane insportmore intensively their Baltic in physical activities, sportand exercise than in physical ated thatthepercentageofEstonian ated last five years. At the same time, thenumber thesame time, At last five years. 211

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

163 al. reported on the inconsistent results of al. reported on the inconsistent al build and physical activity among children activity physical al build and hephard 1994; Sallis & Owen 1999; Sallis, & Owen 1994; Sallis hephard the European member states will be given the European member rrelations. This has led to the conclusion that conclusion that rrelations. This has led to the a number of other variables cannot or hardly or hardly of other variables cannot number a ts therein be explained and in which ways ts therein be explained and in lete an integral decline in sport increase or fic developments in certain areas of sport at a fic developments sport and how they may be motivated to do so. to do be motivated may and how they sport or not. to sport that people attach The meaning tion in sport and exercise, how can structuralin sport and tion groups appear to be less involved in sport and be less involved groups appear to ount of research conducted into the issue of into the issue of research conducted ount on demonstrates that the determinants and that the determinants on demonstrates be interpreted as statistically proved ‘cause and st frequently encountered determining factors st frequently encountered er to these questions will not be sought in an er to these questions will not be sought e member states according to levels of e states according to levels member on in sport and exercise that have been offered exercise sport and on in rticularly with respect to gender, age, social rticularly with respect to gender, us, perceived advantages and barriers, perceivedus, perceived advantages and barriers, ied. It appears that sport participation is ied. It appears tivation, social support and the subjective and the subjective support social tivation, found within Europe. Yet, at the same time, a within Europe. found e European Union. This differentiation is This Union. e European each individual country. Instead, this chapter will Instead, this chapter will country. each individual expenditure, body image and self-esteem in and self-esteem image body expenditure, pplied under all circumstances.pplied under Complex decision- ipation reveal that there are great differences inipation sport both cise is determined by a myriad of interacting personal, by of interacting myriad a cise is determined present chapter will instead examine the behind these key drivers present chapter will instead examine Armstrong & Welsman 1997; Bouchard & S Bouchard Armstrong & Welsman 1997; and adolescents. and adolescents. Prochaska & Taylor 2000; De Bourdeaudhuij & Rzewnicki 2001. Dishman & Buckworth Buckworth Dishman & 2001. Rzewnicki & 2000; De Bourdeaudhuij Taylor & Prochaska et of 108 studies, Sallis 1997. In their overview physic between relationship research into the 212

212

correlations that have been identified should not correlations that have been identified should effect’ relationships that can always be a Qualitative research into sport participati andbehind the choice of making processes, which are context, lie dependent on the time whether to take part in sport or physicalexercise Key drivers of sport participation participation of sport Key drivers variety of different patterns mayvarietyof different still be identif asymmetrically distributed; not onlybetween th within the memberaffluence, but also states,pa in the following chapter. The differences and trends: what determines participa differences between social groups and developmen The national data on sport partic data on sport The national th in sport in preferences and developments is diversity that characteristic cultural of the class of social and ethnicity. As a rule, a number exercise, irrespective of the member are both state. the Likewise, participation trends in sport One cannot speak of a comp varied and structured. appear to be speci do there although participation, level. European or regional An overview of the differences and trends in answ The can sport participation be influenced? analysis of the data that has been given for by existing social-psychological and sociological literature. physicallyactive and take part in whypeople are for this determinants the insights into have alreadystudies many Hundreds of provided Indeed, there has been a considerable am range of significant co broad a behaviour, revealing sport and exer participation in factors. The mo interpersonal and environmental offer an overview of the insights into participati offer an overview of the insights into stat are age, gender, education, socio-economic health/fitness, intention, self-efficacy, self-mo a expectations, to Contrary surrounds. and everyday environment experience of the living correlation between sport and physical activity and This applies to knowledge, ever be found. particular.

4. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 4.1 Personal factors 164 period of physical inactivity. be positively influenced through interventions.Ho behaviour. Moreover, researchhasshownthatth This iswhypastpositiveexperienceshaveafa aptitude, whilepreferringtoavoidtheactivitiesth tend tofocus on physical andsporting activities forwhichthey feelthey havesome kindof are theperception of one’s pe owncompetency, The most psychological important factors,whichhaveanimpact onsportandphysical activity, in history. phase ofaspecific stageoflifeandischaracteristic varies foreach ofthei emerges asaresult activity and physical men, with a greater emphasis beingpl men, withagreateremphasis also continues tobeofimportance toolder people getolder emphasis themotivational shifts an importantalso plays role, justasthedevelopmentor maintenanceofthe body doestoo. As holdsfor young a Thisalso experience success. techniques, to makenewfriends,tobelong it isimportant tounderstand Nonetheless, most important motive forchildrenand young peop regards totheirparticipationinsport.These Themotivation to participate insportor activecanbe bothintrinsically bephysically medals, T- (money, stimulated byexternalrewards and extrinsicallydetermined. Theimpetusmay be states are asked abouttheir active. motivesand reasonsfor(not)being states areasked physically wh alsoconsiderablediscrepancies there are why environment and thesocial former experiences, for one’s behaviouronanother.Additionally, chooses totakepartinsportononeday does not Whatismore,one thereasonwhy together allcompete withoneanotherforprecedence. motives. Thedesirestositaroundwatchingtelevision inconsistent. behaviourPeople’s isoften based behind sport participation or thechoicetodo ot Likewise,thefactthatindividual rolein animportant motivesparticipation play and forsportand tointerpretasadeterminant easy non-participation insportand exerciseisalso

215 214 213 Gould 1995;Laverie 1998;Deforche&De Bourdeaudhuij 2000. Biddle &Mutrie 2001;Health Education Zunftetal.1999;Weinberg& Gould 1995. Biddle &Mutrie 2001.Sallis1994; Yang et 213

aced on body shapeandweightcontrol. people. Women are guided by people. Womenareguidedby other motives than to agroup, to takeon new challengesandto differ with respecttobothageandgender.The differ with these motives may be signifi these motivesmay beyond motivation isnot dispute. Nevertheless, on an appraisal of many, partly conflicting partly onanappraisalofmany, vourable effectonlatersportingand exercise physical activity behaviour.Thelie motives activity that physical r interaction withthesocialenvironment; it dults, but gettingandrema her things areoftenmanifold,conflicting and rceived pleasure and perceived rceived pleasureand barriers. People physical and societal circumstances. Thisis circumstances. andsocietal physical necessarily have to serve as a guiding principle havetoserveasaguiding necessarily is self-efficacy (the ‘I can do it’ feeling)may (the‘Icandoit’ is self-efficacy en peopleinthevarious differentEUmember to healthandrelaxation,although enjoyment viewed asextrinsic whenparticipationis at they have previously hadless have in. success previously at they the most significant motives peoplegiveas motives the most significant wever, this effect quickly evaporates after a evaporatesafter quickly wever, thiseffect shirts, stickers, etc.). Incontrast, stickers,etc.). intrinsic shirts, le istohavefun, tolearnskills and Authority al.1999; Weinberg 1997; Zunftet & , togo out withfriendsand toplay sport al. 1999; Health Education al. Authority 1997. ining fitandhealthy cantly influenced, by influenced, cantly 215

214

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

165

Although Although 217 222 It also 223 ving another priority Although they do not apply not apply do they Although

218 219 rt in sport or exercise, or alternatively ee chapter 2 of this report also. ee chapter t for not taking part in sport, various researchvarious t for part in sport, taking not rther analysis.rther lack of time, a In particular, a flow experience reaches its zenith when the motivation show that intrinsic motivation has show that intrinsic motivation motivation me spent watching television and doing other me satisfaction that participant derives from the the derives from that participant satisfaction n seems to do more with ha n seems to do more subjective and superficial motives and reasons motives subjective and superficial experience of speed, learning new techniques and new techniques of speed, learning experience perception than reality. Physicallyactive people c motivation. Moreover, it appears that extrinsic Moreover, c motivation. for non-participation than those who lead a who those than for non-participation bilities (skills) are in complete balance. in complete bilities (skills) are Csikszentmihalyi the ‘flow has introduced the term

respect to material rewards. 216 225 ons listed include a lack of money, a lack of facilities, having a lack of facilities, of money, ons listed include a lack ’s and don’ts have been formulated for the promotion of sport of sport for the promotion formulated have been don’ts ’s and These reasons also vary significantly according to EU member 220 Moreover, it often appears that a diminishing investment of time in sport of time that a diminishing investment it often appears Moreover, 224 Borms, Rzewnicki & De Bourdeaudhuij 2001; Weinberg & Gould 1995; Pargmann 1998. 1995; Pargmann & Gould Weinberg 2001; & De Bourdeaudhuij Borms, Rzewnicki 1993. & Hamel 2001; Ryckman & Mutrie Biddle & Mutrie 2001. & Gould 1995; Biddle Weinberg 1999b. Commission See, for example, European Lindner 1991. Taks 1994. Morgan 1997. S 2004. & Gould 1995; Moran Weinberg Weinberg & Gould 1995. Weinberg 1975. Csikszentmihalyi 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 216 217 When people are asked whyare take pa When people they do not There also seems to be an underlying cause behind manyof these motives. There also seems Research ofthe effects of into forms both

221

state. than having an actual lack of time. and exercise is accompanied byincrease in ti an leisure activities. ofte Indeed, non-participation appears that a lack of time isappears that a a lack of time more matter of more frequently cite lack of time as a reason frequently more sedentary lifestyle. experience’ to encapsulate these experiences. The capa (challenges) and activityopportunities financial expense is frequently used as an argumen participation. not a decisive factorstudies have indicated that costs are for sport lack of energy and a lack of motivation or interest are often given as reasons for not or interest are often given motivation lack of energy and a lack of reas sport. Other participating in lack of success, a lack of a a lack of skills, transport, having no of support, no partner, a lack health and fear of injury. come to the fore, which also mean little without fu little without to the fore, which also mean come have stopped participating in it, many intuitive, it, many in participating have stopped to all situations, a number of do number to all situations, a and exercise. individualEmphasise mastery. the Promote perceptions of choice. Promote not over-emphasise excitement of exercise and peer sport. Do comparisonsintrinsic fun and of performance. Exercise restraint with a greater impact in the long term than extrinsia greater impact in the long term can have a negative effect also motivation on intrinsic motivation. motivation primarily pleasure and relates to the motivation the game, activity of the the enjoyment itself: the excitement of a difficult move. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 4.2 Interpersonal factors behaviour. aboutwhat culturally rootedattitudes(stereotypes) to dowith biology, nor isit theresultof formal women, olderpeopleandvarious ethnicminorities societal groups,whichdeterminekind what of s consider orquestion. There areallkindsofbeha Peopleareoftennotor hardly evenaware areaform of‘t and attitudesarelearned,they cultureinfluence. The influenceexertedby revolvesaroundtheof ourinsights factthatmany participation. from beregardedasnegativeorproblematic. sport should not necessarily diminishes comparisonof toavariety in other asp process ofbecoming adultsanddevelopingtheir expression to the newopportunitiesand challenges, and researchillustratedthatfo White’s Coakley understood in thecontextof thestageoflifeandsocialcontextthose involved. For instance,

behind thechoiceofdroppingoutarequitedifferentforeachthesetypes. and theTransferDropout, who leavesonesportforanother. The motives andfactorsthatlie also makes adistinction between the Sampler sport. Inthis regard,alongside thesport par participant in dropsport willeventually out. Ho 16 within asocio-culturalcontext, enough to be able tounderstand exerciseor It isimportant togaininsight intoindividual Thesocialinfluenceofsportparticipation damaged’ orthat thepersonwhoisdr Indeed, thelevelofeducationalachievementsee not besurprising thatthe knowledgeandattitudes attitudes towardstheattractiveness, andthemedia),peopleseeex trainers/coaches throughin (particularly society 6

The motives thatliebehind sportparticipa Leaving (a) sport does not automatically mean Leaving (a)sportdoesnot automatically 229

229 228 227 226 Brustad&Babkes 2003;Breuer 2004. Lindneretal.1991. Coakley 1993. Coakley &White1992. teraction withparents,friends which means that social andcultu which meansthatsocial advantages and pleasure value of them. therefore advantagesandpleasurevalue Itshould opping out is‘lost’ to sportforever. ticipant whopermanently drops out, Lindner etal. sport behaviour.Exercise andsport take place motivesand self-perception.However,thisisnot aken for granted’ knowledge that we rarely aken forgranted’knowledgethatwerarely Dropout, whotries out various different sports, amples of sportandexercise anddevelop amples rules and restrictions.Instead,itisthe resultof rulesand r adolescents withdrawingfrom sportcangive wever, many backto dropouts findtheir wever, many way porting behaviour is acceptable. Thefactthat vioural codes in societies, and also inspecific vioural codesinsocieties,andalso ms to be themost importantms to determinant of identity, thesignificanceandplaceofsport identity, ects of theirlives. their attrition ects In thisway, that theirbehaviourissubject tocultural tion andnon-participation shouldalso be towards sports are highly sociallytowards sportsarehighly structured. is relatedtothis.Th is or isnotappropria lag behindin sport participationhasnothing which they encounter intheir lives.Inthe thatthelinkwithsportis‘seriously , acquaintances, teachers and , acquaintances,teachers ral factors can also influence ral factorscanalso rough participatingin te physical andsport te physical 226 227

In principle, every Inprinciple,every 228

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7

16 234

236

230 ng or continuing sport

235 her than fulfilling the task of the her than fulfilling of influence has been paid to the attention eir sporting careers, which are related to key en & Ziemainz 2001; Wendel-Vos 2004. 2004. Wendel-Vos en & Ziemainz 2001; e determination of them. Traffic volume, the Traffic volume, of them. e determination ears to be an important condition for a child child for a condition ears to be an important e influence of parents and teacherse influence of parents standard within their circle of friends. This nd young people allow themselves to be more to be more nd young people allow themselves appears that terminati taking a positive attitude toward sport, playing playing attitude toward sport, taking a positive nal research, there are various indications that nal research, there are various indications The variables of profession and income are less and income are of profession The variables far only limited researchhas actually into this far only limited are changes in the educational and working and leisure facilities and access to nearby sports e sport behaviour of their children in a very of e sport behaviour and driving children to sports facilities or to children and driving This applies as to how the presence of much tion can have an influence on later sporting tion can have an influence the extent of physical activity and sport. extent of physical activity the This influence goes This influence much furt 231 Scheerder & Pauwels 2002. Scheerder & Pauwels Scheerder 2004. 1997. Authority Health Education 1997. Authority Health Education Scheerder 2003. & Bollaert 1993; Duquet, De Knop 2003. & Babkes Breuer 2004; Brustad Education 1997; Health 2001; Armstrong & Welsman & Rzewnicki De Bourdeaudhuij Authority 1997; Rütten et al. 2001; Rütt Authority

230 231 232 233 234 235 236 232 When children reach adolescence, When children reach th 233

seems that experiences with physical educa in it also each country, curriculum the on the place and status of sport within Depending behaviour. being a role model (giving a good example). By example). (giving a good model being a role parents supervising them, can also stimulate th effective way. sport together, organising sporting activities organising sporting sport together, people experience various breaking points during th during points people experience various breaking of Classic a family. for dropping out moments and starting or expanding home career, moving to work and starting a family.education sport are the transition from to a lack of longitudi due this little known about is comparatively applies also there keylife events. Although This strong impact to other of these life events and experiences. Examples

a sporting lifestyle. to maintain parents also app behaviour of sporting The

the physical environment in recent years.the physical Thus environment is a link between the degree of physical that there has demonstrated but it been conducted, activity of available facilities. and the level paths and sport availabilityof footpaths, cycle related to clubs appear to be positively Along with socio-cultural factors, increasingly more Along with socio-cultural facilities is experienced subjectively as the objectiv reliable as indicators given that they are strongly correlated to education. indicatorsreliable as strongly correlated given that they are sport behaviour, far more sogender. far more sport behaviour, than age or participation during adolescence has during a significantparticipation on sport participation at a later age. impact diminishes, while peer-group pressure increases a diminishes, that are and behaviours greatly the norms lead by It the sporting career. for phase is veryimportant 4.3 Environmental factors 4.3 Environmental wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 4.4 Societal factors are focused on recreational sport. are focusedonrecreational there alsoseemstobeasignificantshortage of and theefforts localauthoritiestoimprove this. beingmadeby negative viewofthepossibilitiestoengagein southern EU lo member states,whohave markedly 168 together with national and European history. behaviour of Europeans brings individual and biographies, culture thestructureofsociety the determined by broader historicalpartially opportunsocietal developments. Nevertheless,the The possibilitiesandimpediments forsportpartic educational andinformation programmes. Itisimportant thatagreaterunderstanding of ina greaterimpact on physical the activity longertermand arepossiblyevencheaper than intheachieved, certainly light ofSallisand Owe

Moreover, sportpolicy was alsodevelopedin th lead withrespecttothissportstimulation motto ‘sportforall’ to spreadtheirmessag of sportin these Europeancountries.To this Sportsorganisationsconstructed onalargescale. for allgivenitsfields positiveeffects.Playing toa had initially encounteredgaveway elderly, Duringthesecondhalfof twentieth thatsportfor,fo and resistance The scepticism phenomenon inmost Europeancountriesaslevels groups alsobecame involved insport over thecourseoftime. alimitedby group,mainly moreyoung men milieus, from increasingly higherclasssocial andwasmodernity desirableandworth expressed norms fordecentbehaviour, itimmediatelyb wasinitiallyatoddswith anddemocratic thesocietal character ofsport competitive dynamic, ne the veryoutset, sportwasseenassomething ago, mass participationinsp Acentury From thedissemination. andtheUnitedStatesbeingmost centresfor important th attheendofnineteenthcentury It wasonly

240 239 238 237 states; seealso Wagner1997;Rütten Mills 1959. Informationgainedfromthecontact peopleinvolved in thisresearch inthenew member European Commission,183-6, 2003. Eurobarometer 58.2, Borms,Rzewnicki &DeBourdeaudhuij 2001; Sallis & Owen 1999. 239

policy, while thesouthernstateslaggedbehind. 237 e. Thenorth-western Europeancountries tookthe Inthisregard,itisstriking thatthe citizensofthe 240 end, major campaignsusingthe weredeveloped ecame significantculturally phenomenon a that context inwhichoneis situated.Thesporting , sportshallsandothe physical activityinthephysical surroundingenvironment adequate,well-maintainedsportsfacilitiesthat r example,theworkingclass,womenand

ort was still a phenomenonort wasstilla thatwasunheardof. century, sport developedintoamass century, w, innovativeanddistinctive.Althoughthe pervasive belief that sportshouldbepromoted pervasive beliefthat e East behindthe formerIronCurtain,though n’s view thatenvironmental interventionshave and governmentsalso stimulated thepractice at sport began to spread across the world,with at sportbegantospreadacrossthe ipation arenotusuallypart ofbroader seen as ities to beabletake partinsportare striving for. While it was initially practiced striving for.Whileitwasinitially & Ziemainz2001;Rütten etal.2001. of education and affluence generally education andgrew. affluencegenerally of wer levelsofsportpar the influence ofenvironmental factorsbe 238 In the new EU member states, member states, InthenewEU r sportsfacilitieswere ticipation, haveamore Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

169 ecame more independent independent ecame more As a consequence, there has been 241 e has largely by been supplanted one of l developments in society:l developments increase in the al developments occurred at an earlier al developments nd sport than in their country of origin, they they of origin, country nd their sport than in des. This health problem is the consequence des. This health problem ral developments to a far lesser extent, if at developments ral and the elderly. European society the elderly. and became less ts clothing, by the second half of the twentieth half of second the by ts clothing, developments was that behaviour became was that behaviour became developments ts club life, being forced into the background. life, being ts club The ‘sport for all’ policy reinforced this reinforced policy for all’ The ‘sport ll EU states. This applies to women, the elderly This has led to other sporting values, such as values, such as sporting led to other This has of inactive office work, the use ed bymotorised the twentieth century it was still unthinkable for the twentieth century it was still unthinkable turn cannot be viewed separately the fact be viewed from cannot turn ke place in commercial settings. The quest for is ‘sport for all’policy was successful because it talented sportspeople than the advancement of of advancement than the sportspeople talented tive behaviours, people b tive behaviours, people been liberalised and sporting behaviour has behaviour and sporting been liberalised gher education, the levelling out of income income levelling out of gher education, the lisation of interpersonal relations andlisation of interpersonal the sport and exercise, throughout the course of the the exercise, throughout sport and arly focused on the prevention of typically of typically prevention arly the on focused applicable to newer social groups, which had applicable to newer social groups, nd exercise has been increasinglydominated by ent of the necessary amenities for this. ts in particular. This deficit is further amplified by the amplified ts in particular. This deficit is further Breuer 2004. 241

a huge growth in fitness-based sports, which ta a huge growth a greater role in individual play on to has gone body muscular and a slim, health, stamina good for social status. self-worth and the competition sociability and the competitive dimension of spor sociability dimension and the competitive has particul policy This policy. governmental In various EU states, havemember these developments been reinforced by of an increasingly lifestyle, sedentary in which been supersed that physical labour has generally Western diseases (heart anddiseases, obesity), pulmonary an which have become increasingly few deca during the past significant social problem health in most European countries. Sport a health in most youthfulness.idealistic notions of fitness, slenderness and and first generation male immigran and first generation male origin generally people of immigrant which in physical environment societal position and the find themselves. the welfare them and 1990s, During the 1980s corresponded with wider economic and socio-cultura wider economic corresponded with stage, the practice of sport and exercise became generally accepted in wider circles at a far greater rate. However, this trend was far less in a native inhabitants the behind lag continue to this was directed more to the earlythis was directed more selection of all layers of society. throughout activity physical sport and for everyonewas part of a welfare policy,far broader aimed which to increase the opportunities involved in sport and recreation.to become Th countriesnorth-western sport in the stimulate to the policy 1970s, and During the 1960s of hi the expansion time, affluence and leisure differences, individualisation and the informa hierarchical, thereof alterna was an expansion units. family live in smaller and began to half of informal. Whereas during the first more One of the consequences of these societal societ where the aforementioned In countries experienced andthese social internalised and cultu exercise a do more tend to immigrants all. Although emancipation youth of the working class, women, in spor or cycling jogging to publicly go someone was once not deemed century it it has become a completely phenomenon. While normal to take part in appropriate for elderly women and fostered the establishmdevelopment twentieth century the behavioural norms have norms twentieth century the behavioural all. for positively a valued phenomenon become wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society individual’s door, whileitisproblem, infactabroadersocietal whichalsorequiresactiontobe forlaid theresponsibility ac alackofphysical models forstimulating exerciseandsportprove were activity, Later, they tailored tophysical 170 that funandsociab which means th dimension. Healthisgenerally anewsignificance, has givensportpolicy elderly activity,sportandexerci take partinphysical beby memberstates thiswill Union; insome the Secondly, focusofattention has shifted those over50inrelationtothetotalpopulati This shifting focus ispartlyrelatedtotheaging asitscentralgoal. (Health EnhancingPhysical Activity) the‘Europewere supplantedby onthe move importanceof healthhascha Theincreasing The‘sport activity. for moreon physical focuses and now itwaspreviously atsportandexercisethan itislessdirected different respects.Firstly, and quicker. fareasier interpersonal communication transport hasgrownenormously The first models Thefirst ofthisnatureweredeve sofewpeopleparticipatedinscreenings why perceptions. perceptions oftheindividual.Theinterventi direct determinant ofbehaviour.Thisinten Behaviour andtheStages-of-Changemodel,aref models. Thesemodels, suchasthe theoretical this onthein Thirdly, approach focusesless tenddesigned tofurtherphysical activity, to more onchangingindividualfacilities) and me tracks ofthedominant culture. culture. Thesearetoalargeex subcultures, suchastheadventureand Xtreme sport withan innovative power: timeand again thus alsotodeveloptheirownidentities.Th Thisapproachdoesnotcoincidewiththe Young people lookto sport tocommit themselves, made sogreatandpartofthehas experi sport way oflife. incorporated intopeople’s everyday moderately intensivefashion,suchasclimbi place agreateremphasis activities,wh onphysical

243 242 Becker1974. Breuer2004. tent focusedonexperiencing sensation,beyond the well-trodden ility take more ofabackseat. take ility and new technological developments e mostimportant motive forolder people totake partinsport, tion isthendetermined bytheattitudes and is process of commitment anddistinctionimbuesis processofcommitment ons thus focus on changing these attitudes and ons thusfocusonchangingtheseattitudes ng stairs, cycling and cycling walking, and ng stairs, can be on willincrease throughout theentire European be based on individualistically orientated be basedonindividualistically ’ campaign during the 1990s, which had HEPA but fora number theusefulnessofthese ofreasons ential culture that exemplifies modern society. modern society. ential culturethatexemplifies se far less than the young. Thisfocusonthe thanthe young. se farless for asymptomatic diseases such astuberculosis. for asymptomatic diseases more than10 percent. Olderpeople structurally tivity andthesolutionforthis problemtivity atthe Heath Belief Model, the Theory ofPlanned Belief Model,theTheory Heath sports,whichdeviate from thedominant sport ntalities. Interventionprogrammes,whichare d limited. Theaforementionedmodelsprimarily young new sportswithintheir people create own young society. Inthenearfuture,percentage of loped during the1950s in order tounderstand all’ campaigns ofthe1960s, 1970s and1980s butithasconsequentlyalsolostacrucial ounded onthe hypothesis thatintention isthe social, innovative and unruly character that character social, innovativeandunruly ich avoidriskandareregularlydoneina todistinguish themselves fromand others from people to young adults andthe elderly. frastructure (sportsorganisationsandsports nged the character of sport policy policy in three nged thecharacterofsport 242 The resulting policy tendsto Theresultingpolicy have appeared that make haveappearedthat 243

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

171 In 244 nd that is why it is ich brings together the European member the European member deauduij & Rzewnicki 2001; Borms, Rzewnicki & Rzewnicki 2001; Borms, & Rzewnicki deauduij be given a new dimension. In order to do a new dimension. In order be given ls have been developed in recent years, and the differences in sport participation; and the differences ansactional or dialectic process in which the have had little effect, both in the short and the have had little effect, both in have to account for the fact that the provision for account have to e premise of these e premise theoretical models is also ects ofsport and physical activity hardlya plays bout the value of sport and physical activity and physical value of sport bout the based, these strategiesneed to be manifold in Sport policy interventions have to give account have interventions Sport policy fferentiated approach. A ularly the within the domain of leisure, to men. That women of immigrant origin are of immigrant That women to men. theories concerning the development of human the development of human theories concerning integral approach, wh at a quite different level to southern or eastern at a quite different level to southern the factors that influence physical activity, the factors that influence sufficiently present in exceptionally process within complex the which Given the social differentiation by which sport is differentiation by Given the social which escents are concerned. Interventions that escents are concerned. Interventions is is also partly the reason whymass the media ced by interrelated factors and options. many 248 nal institutions, business community, business health care nal institutions, These are alsomodels compatible more modern with different sport preferences to older ones. That women tend to different sport preferences to older 247 eotypes than native-born women. That the urban situation is situation eotypes women. That the urban native-born than McElroy 2002. McElroy 1997; De Bour Authority Health Education 62.0 (213) 2004. Eurobarometer Commission, European 2001. & Rzewnicki De Bourdeaudhuij 2002. 2004; McElroy Naul Brettschneider & Weiss 2004; De Bourdeaudhuij 2001. 2001. De Bourdeaudhuij 244 245 246 247 248 The problem also does not lie in the understanding of the positive impact of positive impact of the lie in the understanding also does not The problem 245

246

states. exercise and sport. This appears to already be campaigns to promote sport and physical activity sport and physical to promote campaigns long term. this regard, an understanding of the potential eff potential of the this regard, an understanding a enhancement of knowledge concentrate on the be rather ineffective.have also proved to Th role, certainly not as far as children and adol as far as children and role, certainly not physical, the but also in individual, the and through changes byonly strive for which do not social and societal environment. new mode In response to these shortcomings, developmental psychological and sociological and psychological developmental behaviour, which understand it as an ecological, tr understand behaviour, which individual, the social and the physical environment mutually influence one another. mutually influence social and the physical environment the individual, allow interventional strategies to Such models justice to the heterogeneity and complexity of levels. work at different that organisations exercise necessarilyand sport, they employ an characterised and the factors upon which this is at a local level. They nature and find expression is north-western part of Europe of sport in the people have young Europe. That context a different organisational play sport in ster influenced by other cultural that in rural areas. from different fundamentally of these differences and thus need to adopt a di essential to possess reliable information on the trends

not onlyEuropean, but also a national level. at a shift from intention to behaviour is influen intention to behaviour shift from problematic, namely that individuals will alter their behaviour by consciously will alter their activating that individuals namely problematic, processes within individuals. Partic ‘cognitive’ be an has proved to of behaviour influencing institutions and the government. Furthermore, th Furthermore, the government. and institutions taken at the level of the family, educatio level of the family, taken at the wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 172

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

173

249 Union. The disparities Union. mbers is not equivalent to the number of to the ismbers not equivalent lly fit the bill. Furthermore, if other criteria Furthermore, lly fit the bill. In the present research, In the present and sport the terms states also concern forms quite different and of styles, contexts and branches of sport, is of sport, is styles, and branches of contexts over, the duration, intensity and frequency of intensity over, the duration, the Flemish part of Belgium), the voluntary part of Belgium), Flemish the million people) claimed to take part in sport to take part in sport claimed people) million s of (the fifteen original) EU member states member (the fifteen original) EU s of rticipation at least three times rticipation at least three times a week, then it e lines of the usual norms for international norms of the usual e lines ipation in the European e member states of thea Union. Yet in e member European t participation are so great that it is indeed are t participation of the sporting activity, this percentage will drop sporting activity, of the to nearly one third and in Germany it is thought it is thought in Germany nearly one third and to ropeans are thus sportingly inactive and indicate ndeed, chapter three observed that, in various chapter three ndeed, eaves the percentage of sportspeople identified nowhere so extensive as in sport. On the other, On so extensive as in sport. nowhere is unclear, since questions about duration and is unclear, since questions about ciations. These figures clearlyciations. These figures that show ates include many double counts and non-active non-active counts and double ates include many the comparatively high sports club membership sport and exercise include, for example, it must be added that the sports association it must es for individuals to participate in it. to es for individuals ation research. Research into physical activity sport whatsoever during an entire year. Once the sport whatsoever during an entire year. European Commission 1999b. 1999b. Commission European 249

Conclusions recommendations and In 2004, 60% of all European Union citizens (271 Union citizens of all European 60% In 2004, or exercise every now and then. Moreover, 70 million of these individuals (15% of the EU of these or exercise every 70 million now and then. Moreover, also of sports asso members were population) within th extensive very sport is participation in the practiced activityThis l are not stipulated. Eu of ten four out interpretation: wide open to way they perhaps paint a far too rosy a picture. wayperhaps paint a far too rosy a they along th very broadly exercise have been defined sport participation research. The concepts of Firstly, set very the margins have been low. cycling.recreational walking, swimming and More that theyany kind of exercise or do not do is raisedfrequency pa to, for instance, sport norm appears that only 17% of all European citizens actua posed intensityin sport particip seldom are are set with regard to the duration and intensity intensity are set with regard to the duration and which it will drop extent to The even further. of the inhabitant 5% that found 1997 conducted in or walk at work. to stand having than six hours beyond were physicallymore active for of sports association me number Secondly, the members. half of all the registered account of to possibly differences in spor the of sport, democratisation almost partic pointless to speak of average sport and popularisation that, in spite of the Thirdly,the present study confirms active participants in sport. On the one hand, On the one active participants in sport. members;is estimated in Finland, this to be up figures point to a flourishing club social life. I club social a flourishing to figures point EU member st figures in various membership countries (Sweden, the Netherlands, Germanycountries (Sweden, the Netherlands, and citizens in the social sectorof is participation the perspective of sport participation, from one of the most charming aspects of the sport world, but it should not disguise the fact that there but it should aspects of the sport world, charming one of the most are structural inequalities in the opportuniti that occur both within and between the EU member that occur both within and diversity, branches of sport. This with its multitude

5. 5.1 sport participation Level and trends in wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society . Patternsanddifferences insportparticipation 5.2 174 patternsinsport participation Therearealso bediscerned thatcan within clearly people thanoldapplies. Thechancesofspor individual countries. Ingeneral, therule that activity. physical activeinthisregard,although th physically who do the PortugueseandGreeks not belong to at work,inandaroundthe house orwhenmovi sporting activitiestoalargeextent,while(orpo the leisure beyond activity level ofphysical respects, FinlandandSwedenco Inmany and duration. asregardsfrequency intensively highest percentageofthepopulationexercisesorta football, basketball, volleyball, handball andothersports. that h The geographicalstructure walking, cycling andswimmingsimilarexer Thedifferencesbetweenthecountrieswithahi western andnorthernparts of Europe, but also not only mainly dueto the higher degreeofspor of thosewho take partinsport. meper capitafortheEU As theGDP differences. determined.of spor Thegeographical structure theextentofsportin a data, comparable numbe level ofsport participation in thesouthern followedbythewesternandcentr states, member The highestproportion ofthe population takespartinsportandexercise intheScandinavian identifiablegeographicalandsocial There areclearly time andbetweencountries. data,across togathercomparable necessity notsomuchmember Thereis aneed states. EU dearth oflongitudinaldatameansthatnotrendsat latest developmentsarenotincludedin the trends toberathernon-com Itis,however,necessary mostinto question.Moreover,the Even thecomparabilityoflongitudinal nationals Netherlands andItaly). Netherlands andDenmark;inacompetitive France;possibly, among young adultsin Sweden Netherlands, Belgium, Austria,Portugal, Spain thisdevelopmentto have appears past tenyears the number ofpeopletaking partinsport be Fourthly, the data ontrends forthevarious countriesindicateapossiblechangein Throughouttwentieth century. much pretty thew direction forthegrowththat sportparticipati

as beenidentifieddoes not,however, to apply participation in recent data is often several years old,whichmeans thatthe dataisoftenseveralyears recent European member states. Duetoalackof European states. member ey dothe leastamount and ofexercise,sport andchampionshipcontextinSweden,the tween the1960sand 1990s. However,during the sphere. Scandinaviansseemtobeinvolved in on hasexperiencedduringthesecondhalfof men playmore sportthanwomenand more young This goeshandin low witharelatively to the massive participationinrecreational t participation isrelatedtosocio-economic ng from placetoplace.Theoppositeapplies r of new memberr ofnew statescannot(yet) beproperly stagnated inanumberofcountries (Finland,the and Slovenia), orhas begunto decline (UKand, ssibly because) they are comparatively inactive arecomparatively ssibly because)they for statisticaldataonsportparticipation, buta t participation ofolder peopleand womeninthe cises and sporting cises activities inthesecountries. port canoftenbebrought participation surveys hole of Europe, there was a significant risein asignificant hole ofEurope,therewas the groupof Europeansthatarethe least al European countries. There is afarlower al Europeancountries.Thereis me to the fore as the countries where the me tothefore asthecountrieswhere mber states increases, so does the percentage sodoes increases, states mber and, asregardstime devotedtosport,the allcanbeobservedforatleasthalfofthe 25 that havebeenidentified.Inadditionto this, a kes partinsport. They alsodosothemost t participation are also greater for thosewith t participationarealsogreater patternswithrespecttosportparticipation. mittalabout trendsin gh orlow levelofsportparticipation are sport participation. Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

175 ticipation styles in particular. particular. ticipation styles in overall participation in sport. There are, overall participation respect to social class appear to be more tion sport to be able to thrive. Stimulated Stimulated be able to thrive. to tion sport experienced a massive growth, though it is experienced a growth, though massive or age. This fact is often overlooked in sport in sport fact is often overlooked age. This or ts associations throughout the past ten years.ts associations throughout the acquired a greater acquired degree of differentiation. have a less structural effect than in the and Further to this, there status. professional ls of sport participation for men and women women and for men ls of sport participation that education and age are the most important important that education and age are the most ent in Italy and Slovenia, though not in Spain. Spain. not in Slovenia, though ent in Italy and e percentage of older people taking part in part in e percentage of people taking older ipation in competitive sport, which is primarily is primarily sport, which ipation in competitive n now do even more exercise andn now do even more sport than n. Although one may one the levels of that observe n. Although lined in a number of West European countries; lined in a number in a commercial context. At the same time, it in a commercial context.same time, At the erences and television viewing habits are more are more erences and television viewing habits ontrast to the growing market for fitness in the ontrast to the growing market aditional structural like age, gender mechanisms, aditional a club-related context and in the southern a club-related context and in the southern people from richer (higher) and poorer regions poorer richer (higher) and people from e differences between young and old have also old e differences between young and estern Europe, with the exception of the UK and exception of estern Europe, with the applies when demographic developments are taken developments applies when demographic be found with respect to levels of sport of sport respect to levels with be found women andyoung below). and old (see the women necessarily differences mean that there are no , including Hungary, Slovakia and the Czech Hungary, Slovakia and the , including onomy of associations, these countries have borne onomy igher) and immigrant origin (lower). (lower). origin and immigrant igher)

251 rticipation in general and par general rticipation in Theberge 1997. Theberge 1997. Wagner 1997. Scheerder 2003; 250 251 Certainly sport participation seems to have seems Certainly sport participation 250

unclear whether this will indeed continue. In c branch has also During the 1990s, the fitness in Finland, Sweden sport and exercise speaking, proportionally for instance, indications that, of the new states takesmember and most context; in place more frequently in a non-organised The differences are far-reachingmore than the in western European countries it occurs more practiced often European countries sport is more sport in W may that club-related be observed the mainstay of these sports associations, has dec evid also adults. This is young particularly among witness to the increasing establishment of new spor Belgium, is under pressure. For some time, is under partic Belgium, pressure. For some states In contrast, in various new member by with regard to the aut new legislation Republic, there seems to be fertile ground for associa However, this is only true along the lines of tr along the lines However, this is only true It also appears that the respondents’ media pref media It also appears that the respondents’ pa explaining sports to important and education. Multivariate analyses demonstrate for sport participation. determinants a higher level of educational achievement, of educational a higher level income other social differencesare various that can betweensuch as the disparities participation, European countries, the leve western northern and in certain age categories wome have levelled out; of level of affluence increases, As the these In a number tend differences to diminish. their male counterparts. countries, th these In lessbecome pronounced than elsewhere. th There who do younger people of proportion the has also risen significantly, while sport and exercise This also even declined. so has stagnated or (lower) and between those (lower) and between of native (h increased, but the percentage of them of elderlypeople number only has the not into account: also grow exercise has who take part in sport and converging, this does not are participation variables such as gender than change to impervious between the sporting behaviour of men and between the sporting behaviour of men often policy In and sport research. communication it an age of mass consumption and media with The differences in levels of participation parameters mayappears that the traditional indeed past. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 17 context andstrive forrelaxationandrecreation. within thefitness branch,whileolderpeopletend comparatively more important to young adults, part insport more oftenwithinaclub-relate sportinmore a by group context, frequentlyandaremoreattracted thattheytake whichmeans the courseoflife.Proportionally young people par that organisationalcontext of sportparticipa available data w arefewpublicly fact thatthere Ascertainingtheextentofsportparticip Germany. tohavebeen UK andtheNetherlands,thereseems riseofgolfandfalltennis is notentirelyunrelated.They simultaneous Thealmost beviewedasinternationaldevelopmen may andhandballbasketball in can besaidof sev Fourthly,quite thereverse particular. Aregionaldeclineinthepopular seems tobewaningthroughout thewhole ofEurope. This appliestotennisand in volleyball (northern andeasternEurope)canalsobediscerned. popularity of football (southern andeasternEurope popular becomeincreasingly race) havealso of skating(inline,roller,speedandfreestyl a Thirdly, number ofsportsareexperien mainly whichare gymnastics/dance/fitness/aerobics, of Europe.This appliestogolf,but certainly played withinaclub-relatedhandball, aretheonesthat most context. are frequently southern Europe afterfootball otherteam-spor football Secondly, the asaclub-relatedsportinvirtually enjoys greatestpopularity tennis,whilegymnastics followed by generally westernEuropeancountriesonthe EUmember state.In every mainland,football is member states. the new walkingand swimming,cycling, theactivitiesfound Firstly, in thecluster beaddedmemberEU states.Footballmay toth the most fit/aerobicsare pr fitness/gymnastics/keep about thedifferential popularisation ofsports. of thesport profiles ofthevariousEUmember while thetotallevel significantly, levels ofparticipationin one branchofspor Differencesbetweenandwithincountries participation in general,thepopularity curves popularity of the individual branchesofsport.Co in sportsassociations.Womentendtopractice on theorganisationalcontextof 6

252 Breuer2004;Zarotis 1999. sport were available, it appeared that men were overrepresented menoverrepresented sport wereavailable,itappearedthat were of sport participation remains more or less stable. Onthebasis of sportparticipationremainsmore orlessstable. e) and skiing/snowboarding (freestyle, off-piste, e) andskiing/snowboarding(freestyle, EasternEuropecanalsobetraced. d context.Stamina condition andphysical is t can drop drastically andt candrop theothermay growdrastically ity ofjogging/athletics andbadminton in ts upon which national policy inindividual tion isgender-dependentandchanges throughout also toequestriansportsandtheclusterof among young people. A regionalincreaseinthe for sport seem tobefarmore capricious.The ts, particularly basketball, volleyballts, particularly and states, a number states, ofconclusionscanbedrawn their sport in fitness centres more thanmen. infitnesscentres their sport 252 ith respecttothisbranch. However,itisclear is listforthesouthern Europeancountries and which is why theywhich are foundis why more frequently can alsobefound within thetopthree.In cing growththroughout moreorlessthewhole mpared with the steady developmentmpared withthesteady ofsport Invirtually allthecountrieswherestatistics to participate insportwithina non-organised can alsobefoundwith regardtothe ation as regards this trend is hampered by the ation asregardsthistrendishampered by stagnationinthissectorbothFinlandand ticipate inteam-sports ), basketball (southernEurope)andfloorball acticed sportingactivitiesinalmost allofthe participated in by women. participated inby Variousforms eral othersportsforwhich theinterestnow and competitive sports Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 17

253 ndividualistic fashion. diseases in particular; in the socio-cultural phenomenon. socio-cultural phenomenon. ed with respect to sport participation there is a status pyramid sport, which for e were transformed into a broad conviction conviction were transformed into a broad e osed and hallowed circles of (private) sports and hallowed osed ast in Flanders). The growth in sports higher growth in ast in Flanders). The easingly sedentary lifestyleto also contributed sporting behaviour was partly at odds with the was partly at odds with the behaviour sporting novations and structural changes that were novations ffered a loss in status due to its popularisation popularisation its in status due to ffered a loss ns about the upsurge in medical conditions in medical ns about the upsurge ss in other status sports, or rather an expansion an expansion or rather other status sports, ss in the second half of the twentieth century,the twentieth half of the the second society due to an increase in affluenceincrease in society an and due to sport has rapidly as globe, spread across the the same time, from the very the same time, from beginning, sport ticipation that have been outlined, emphasise emphasise the outlined, have been that ticipation to their social backgrounds. Longitudinal Longitudinal to their social backgrounds. which young men, particularly from higher particularlyyoung from men, which societal norm is to promote exercise, sport and is to promote societal norm anging, differentiated, social and cultural – is anging, al, spontaneousi and alisation and integration and people’s physical people’s and alisation and integration not only on the individuals who participated in the individuals on not only ift in interest among the increasingly growing the increasingly among ift in interest nnovative, dynamic and efforts of competitive e, which led to increasingly more people adopting people adopting e, which led to increasingly more nd affluence transformedmass sport into a benefits. Policy interventions, which specifically benefits. Policy h sport could make to the self-image and self- to the self-image h sport could make increasing extent, both politicians and researchers increasing extent, both nd the implementation of policy interventions. interventions. of policy nd the implementation and highly differentiated and highly the more prestigious sport of golf. of prestigious sport the more 0s and 1980s, heart and pulmonary policy interventions policy Van Bottenburg 2001. Van Bottenburg 253

and psycho-social functioning. Increasing concer and psycho-social relating to affluence (in the 197 present obesity)of an incr 1990s and at as a result sport, but also on society as a whole. To an sport, but also on society as whic (potential) contribution, the pointed to esteem, social ties and identity soci formation, this revaluation. As a consequence, the current that taking part in sport had a positive impact had a positive part in sport that taking health physical its important activity due to among young people, workers, women and old peopl and old women people, workers, young among and resistance initially encounter The scepticism The differences, patterns and trends in sport par The differences, patterns and trends countries has hardly any influence. Tennis has su Tennis has has hardlycountries any influence. is a changing fact that the world of sport during the 1970s and 1980s, which led to a sh 1970s and 1980s, during the group of affluent older people towards older people of affluent group has demonstrated that in Belgium research conducted (at le throughout the past decades has changed little of adults are related Sports preferences to a lo status pyramid mayup in the be attributed middle class layersand the upper in the upper of higher education. something new, dynamic and distinguishing to to and distinguishing dynamic new, something Their themselves. initially applied social milieus, Since the end of the nineteenth century, for decent behaviour. At existing societal norms vital to the development of sport policy a of sport policy vital to the development was also considered to be somewhat desirabl The i significant phenomenon. this culturally these earlysportspeople corresponded with the in During taking place in wider society as a whole. Insight into the four characteristic features – ch increasing levels of educational attainment a practiced in the cl which was not only phenomenon, clubs, but increasinglyinform took place in an 5.3 Key drivers and drivers 5.3 Key wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society based typically interventionsare policy These theStag Planned Behaviourand,most recently, of individual behaviour with respecttohealth, environments res thatareallpartly cognitive manipulation, without actually inter sport andphysical exercise,isthatthey atte 178 andskiing, they quiteliterally figurativel of andnewstyles With out ofthemainstreamnew fashionnorms,expressions skiculture. sport Fortunately, isahighly differentia as golfoffersolderpeople an alternativeto fall outoffavourwith young peop diminish theattractivenessofsportto young people. good forthemand placingtheemphasis ontheavoi is alsobound to time. exerciseandsportamongchildren Promoting and theelderlybecauseitis contexts, isafirstsignofthis. Sportis not onl andabove young peopleof16 years mainstream culture.Thequestion remainswhet allowed onetodistinguish oneself from others, among people.Whereas sportwasonce‘cool’ and stoodforyoung and ownidentity one’s ‘sport isgood, onemust takepartinsport’, the Thesepolicyinterventions are,however,pr tothis.Th mainproblemsrelated There aretwo tackle otherproblematichealth of countries. focus ontheadvancement activ ofsportandphysical development, but it can possibly be facilitatedandaccelerated. development, butitcanpossibly seeninScandinavian countries.Ther clearly an ordinary part ofth will become and exercise expected thatthechangesinbehaviouralnor plus teenagers ofthattimewillbecome thefifty mass phenomenonbe describedasa invariousw in theiractivity Sportyouth. took really off inthe1960s andfrommid the 1970s onwards itcan the firstgenerationofolder peoplewho were Undoubtedly the participationinsportam the proportionofthoseoverfifty expand during thecoming decades.Populationprogn ampleand possibilities spacetodevelopit. tofostertheinnovative necessary and thesport to distinguishthemselves world reta developmentof newformssport,sporting c

The secondproblem with regardtotheusual 254

Heino 2000. behaviours, such as smoking, diet, dental care and seat belt use. seatbeltuse. diet, behaviours, suchassmoking, dental careand in relationtotherestofp and unruly aspects of sport by people giving orleaving aspectsofsportby young and unruly le, they do not necessarily exitthesportworldaltogether. Just donotnecessarily le, they ponsible forthisbehavioural problem. , particularly in club-related , thetraditionalcompetitiveparticularly and y leftthewellbeatentracksofskiing. mpt tobring about behavioural changes through tennis, snowboarding offered young people a way e isnospecificpolicythatcanshapethis brought up enmassewith sportand physical ceding in socialandcultural thephysical, y changeable,thevaluationand perception thereof ontexts and sportcultures, young people continue such astheHealthBeliefModel,Modelof e greyculture.This be development canalready perception ofsport beaffected,particularly may es ofChangeModel,whicharediscussedin her thedeclineinsportparticipation among it hasnowbeenintegratedandacceptedinto e firstproblem accentuatingthenorm isthatby ted phenomenon. Whencertain ofsport types generationduringthenextdecades.Itcanbe ms ofolderpeople will persistandthatsport estern andnorthern Europeancountries.estern The ins its dynamic and attractive character. Itis attractivecharacter. and ins itsdynamic ong olderpeoplewillcontinuetofurther dance indeed of(health)risksinsport may imarily grafted on to approaches used to imarily graftedontoapproachesused ity, havethusbeen developed in avariety oses predictamore than10%increasein policy interventions, which aim topromote on theoretical models onthedeterminants ontheoretical opulation. Moreover,thiswill be 254 Through the Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

It 179 255 ing for individuals within a ing for individuals within Exercise are and sport 257 This can only be achieved through be achieved through This can only 258 z & Park 2004; Rittner & Breuer 2000. Park 2004; Rittner & Breuer 2000. z & been developed around the issue of a lack been developed around the issue of range given that, in comparison to other comparison in to other range given that, attention being paid to gearing all these attention being paid to e are rational to such a degree that they will that they will to such a degree are rational e sufficiently respect to altering effective with raising this problem above the level of the problem raising this fronted with the consequences thereof and are fronted with the opments. They do not just deal with changing deal with changing just not opments. They do of the individual, while the intensification of while the intensification individual, of the ts organisations, commercial sport ts organisations, providers, e in physical activities and creating conditions ables are more powerful determinants with powerful determinants with ables are more nd difficult, Moreover, it demands that action demands Moreover, it nd difficult, th the short and, particularly, the long term. the long short and, particularly, th the ltural phenomena, which are directlyphenomena, related to ltural vel (government at a municipal, regional, vel (government at a municipal, strict and neighbourhood, at school, at work, in at school, strict and neighbourhood, pertoire of sport and physical activities. pertoire of sport and ternational sports organisations, media and sports organisations, media ternational lex interplay that is necessary between these all drinking and the use of safety the use of helmets, drinking and ognitive approach through the use of mass media mass media the use of approach through ognitive ltural and physical environment in particular. echnological developments and changes in the and changes developments echnological must be understood and approached as such. as such. be understood and approached must h take place and find their mean duals cognitively is far easier and thus more attractive than easier far cognitively and thus more is duals ticular in unsupervised settings). ticular in unsupervised What is more, this is also not so st What is more, this Borms, Rzewnicki & De Bourdeaudhuij 2001; Sallis & Owen 1999; Amstrong & Welsman 1999; Amstrong & Welsman & Owen Sallis 2001; & De Bourdeaudhuij Borms, Rzewnicki 2001; Schut & Mutrie Morgan 1998; Biddle & De Bourdeaudhuij 1997; et al. 1993; Dunn & Blair 1999; McMurray Sallis & Owen 1993. McMurray & Mutrie 2001; Biddle King 1992; 1997. 2000. Deforche & Bourdeaudhuij 2001; Rzewnicki 255 256 257 258 256 Successful interventions in the domain of sport and physical recognise that exercise the domain Successful interventions in

that allow for the development of broader re that allow for the development with special and government, business world, media the problem is tied to broader social and t is tied to broader the problem influence. It is, however, marginal has only on which the individual physical environment understandable. Influencing indivi areas, fashioning a living underprivileged everyday surroundings of dismal the improving to participat that encourages people environment these are changing, differentiated, social and cu devel and physical broader societal, technological the social, cu individual attitudes, but also of the work, the design education), (physical education family, level of the be taken on the spor and everyday surrounds, living environment a complex A restructuring of this is both factors and actors to one another. The comp (in the di at the micro-level levels is important the local newspaper), as well as at the macro-le organisations). and meso-level (intermediary corporations) broader societal context. Moreover, they they broader societal context. Moreover, do not succeed in of exercise and health problems, is laid at the door the problem Indeed, individual. which have research, and policy Much of the national and in European level, national and thoroughly social phenomena, whic thoroughly social phenomena, health behaviours such as excessive coffeehealth behaviours vari and cultural socio-economic environmental, and sport (par regard to exercise appears that purelypeople’s raising is in awareness their behaviour.

the collective action of many collaborating organisations. In practice, this is difficult to organisations. In practice, the collective action of many collaborating campaigns. Theycampaigns. work on the assumption that peopl frequently more behaviour when con their modify chapter four. Their point of departure is a c departure of Their point chapter four. change. of behavioural importance also aware of the in bo is disappointing actuallycampaigns rather A variety studies have demonstrated that the effectiveness of evaluative of such wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society own identity, their relationshipswithothers and sport, thekind ofsportand sportingcontext prim howeverimportantthey consequences, might donotmakepresent themselves. They rationa how, where,whatandwithwhom rela isdirectly other aspect not anexperiencethatisremoved from Littleisknown aboutsuch critical eventsdur dropping out has rightfully observedthat sportpa Inthisregard, r to people’s sportingcareers. the combination ofworkandfamily. education,the transitionfromtertiary schoolto work, thecreationofafamily and dealing with the livesof young people and adults:the trans behaviour doesnotoccuramong agegro theseyoung throughout the courseoflifeisviewedinits this appearstohaveanegativeimpact onsportpa participation of parents).Ifthereisnoparticipati Among people,theyoung greatestproblems donotconcern thoseof primary education this tooisstrongly dependentonsocial a class age. Ingeneral,youngsters undertheage oftwelve need forculturalchangeinthesportsassociations. The declineincompetitive sport,which manihas sport, but these differencesarealsopartlyroot Policyinterventions aimedat women shouldbearinmind that,in comparison tomen, in thecommercialsportsector.Thisispartially insportsassociati women areunder-represented the necessaryfacilities. sports associations,school sports clubsandan reinforcement ofthesport structure: thea turn may beinfluenced. In member the new sporting behaviour isinfluencedbysocially participation is concerned. Thetaskhereisto pointisthefactthatwo greatest sticking stimulate people young toinnovate and dissemina to bemadeto more attractive young people, or canbe question hereiswhethersportsassociations Eachlevelhasitsownproblems. InNort according to educational level,inparticular, among adolescentsandyoungadultsisthe biggest and residentialareas. class attainment, social to Europeanre that isdifferentiatedaccording second point muchsport politics of departurein as as should result in adifferentiatedpolicy; 180 Thedivergent trendsanddiffe andfunding. setting ofagendas,research task andpopular support,a stimulating rolec could beachieved withinsport.Withrespectto butgiven accomplish, the commonintereststhatw

rences insportparticipation men andolderpeoplelagbehind asfarsport dvancementand support for theestablishmentof ecent sociological research intosocialisation and ecent sociologicalresearch states, there seems tobeaneedforthe seems states, there imposed howthesein genderandclasscultures and possibly alsolivingenvironment too.The and possibly totality, thentotality, the greatestdeclineinsporting ould possibly beplayed through coordination, the gainagreater understanding inwhichof the way l considerations withrespecttohealth gions, gender,agegroups,levelsofeducational ition from primary toition from secondary andthenalso primary find these,butinsteadbasetheirchoicesfora nd thesportculture found within families (sport ed in the masculine culture oftheassociations.masculine culture ed inthe innovative commercial provision innovativeof sportwithall commercial whether thefuturelieswithnewstructuresthat due to their differentmotives fortakingpartin the EuropeanUnion,inviewofits constitutional ons (andcompetitive sport)andoverrepresented the appreciation or rejection that this may bringthe appreciationor rejection thatthismay on in sport whatsoever at this early age,then on insportwhatsoeveratthisearly hern andWestern Europe, the drop out rate ted totheissueof how peoplesee andwishto arily onthesignificance thatthishasfortheir arily fested itself in many countries,revealsthe fested itselfinmany rticipation, especially amongrticipation, especially young people, is rticipation atalaterage.However, ifsport te sporting behaviour. In Southern Europe,the sufficiently modernised sufficiently inorderforclublife ould beserved,itisnotunthinkablethat tendtotake part inalot of sport, although concern, whichagainmust bedifferentiated s of life.Thechoicetotake s part insport, ing thecourseoflifeandtheirrelationship ups, butin atvarioustransitionalmoments throughout Europe provide a Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

261 181 262 ch greater knowledge is ch greater knowledge was already noted that sport about the more profound profound the more about on the extent, motives and determinants and determinants extent, motives on the the current sport culture relates or fails to ght into the question of how sport can retain can how sport question of the ght into approach to sport as something that is good reasons that people give for giving up sport up reasons that people give for giving data knowledge sport participation, with a differentiation sport participation, with a differentiation termined views termined a also playand expectations the physical environment and environmental and environmental environment the physical processes take place and how theyprocesses take place relate to outflow), about why people leave one branch of one branch people leave about why outflow), nd non-participation, nd non-participation, mu ticipation (although improvements can be made can be made improvements (although ticipation categories with both a low and high level of categories with both a low and high people spend data on how with the other istent a qualitative research approach (longitudinal and and a qualitative research approach (longitudinal one hand, and ethnicity)on the social milieu, sational context of participation) on the other. participation) on the of context sational of sport satisfy‘quest for excitement’ their ke up another, or stop participating in sport in sport participating or stop ke up another, ection (keeping fit, losing weight, excitement and excitement weight, ection (keeping fit, losing We know precious little about the way We know precious little about the in which our, the motives behind choosing and continuing continuing and behind choosing motives our, the other things to do, lack of confidence). Yet all lack of confidence). to do, other things it possible to innovate and push back boundaries in boundaries and push back it possible to innovate dualistic approach to research and policy. Researchdualistic participants in sport should be studied with respect to their be studied with respect should participants in sport nding of why people drop out is also very limited. There are very limited. also is drop out why people nding of and young people. In the above, it and young people. In To gain a real insight into the dynamics of sport participation and non- of sport participation and the dynamics a real insight into To gain 260 Coakley & Donnelly (eds) 1999; Coakley & White 1992; Coakley 1993. & White 1992; Coakley (eds) 1999; Coakley & Donnelly Coakley 2001, Taks 1994. & Mutrie Biddle Schutz & Park 2004. & 1999; Young & White 1992; Donnelly Coakley 1986. & Dunning Elias 259 260 261 262

259

its attractiveness for adolescents also offer more Such an approach might insi should ideally retain the elements that make retain the elements should ideally physical,a sporting, social and cultural sense. respects trends, in which develop new people young which kinds relate to their world of experience,

sport (directly or after a period of time) and ta sport (directly or after a period of time) altogether, and which dynamics lie behind these changes. planning is a distinctive feature of the indivi of about the impact A lack of knowledge and what the effects are of the increasing normative and what the effects normative are of the increasing understa be done. Our and ‘must’ and (influx in sport data on turnover hardly any needed about the way needed about decision-making in which Aside from the statistical data on participation a the statistical data Aside from transitions within the course of life. There is much There is of life. much the course transitions within non-par out and dropping of sport participation, as regards comparability),but there is far too little background thereof. As discussed in chapter f background thereof. persistently point to the same dir to play sport money,(lack of time, lack of interest, lack of these and reasons applymotives to regions and challenge, being successful,just as the relaxation), are not cons they Moreover, sport participation. their time and money. according to social characteristicssocial according to (age, gender, participation, sportspeople and non- This demands and social context. development approach to contextual) alongside the quantitative organi (branch of sport, sporting characteristics to mind. As one would expect, socio-culturally de socio-culturally expect, As one would to mind. role in this. 5.4 Research gaps 5.4 Research wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society of the25 EU member states,butalackof longitudinal andcomparable data. forms thegreateststumbling block with respecttothesupply of data inthefield of sportin most questionnaires andthesport-related this, itisalso crucial thatalongitudinal resear more insightinto thecorrelation betweenphysi the integrationofthesequestionnaires should be c the COMPASS,HETUSandIPAQquestionnaires deser Thedevelopment, validationandimplem nature ofthis,nationaland European supportfor importancequestionnaires areofgreat inthis developed into aEuropean model. idea forthegood in evidence-basedsport practices thesocietalimpact researchinto benchmarks and integrated, withtheemphasis beingplaced existing ones.Thisisduetothefactthats not example, Sport –can be takenasashining data. Inthisregard participation comparable inthesecountriesbestim important thatresearch ofinformation an especialdearth There isalso Ourinventory ofdataon sportparticipa skewed andratherlimited duetothelack of that although there isalotofinformation onthis 182 level ofquality). objective criteria(forexample, theproximity of point toasignificant they studies arelimited, environment and(theextentnature) of into beenhas only conductedsporadically of thecorrelationbetweenquality the living

263 263 Wendel-Vos 2004; Rütten&Ziem

Eurobarometers. Indeed,itisnot alackofinformation that port policy and sportresearchintheUKarehighly on trendresearch,nationalandinternational sporting behaviour.Although therangeofthese comparability acrosstime andbetweencountries. , theUnited Kingdom –withSport England and UK impact of these factors, not only asof thesefactors,notonly regards impact regard. Given thetime-consuming andcostly ch traditionbeestablishedwiththe help ofthese only for the new member states, but alsothe forthenewmember states, only on sport in the new member states. Itisthus on sportinthe states. new member cal activity andsportingcal activity behaviour. Furtherto ainz 2001; Rüttene.a.2001. tion in the 25 EU member states demonstrates demonstrates tion inthe25 member states EU facilities),butalsosubjectiveones(perceived topic, theknowledgethatitgives risetoisstill ulated, sothatsportpolicy can be basedon entation ofstandardisedandhomogenised research activities is vital.AtaEuropeanlevel, research activities of sport and sport policy. Itwouldbeagood andsportpolicy. of sport ontemplated, particularly in ordertogain ontemplated, particularly policies statestobe inthevariousmember ve tobefurtherpropagated. Moreover, Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

183

, pp. 107- 116,

Health Education Education Health 26 (1) pp. 12-24 26 (1) Oxford: Oxford , 11, pp. 44-62. 44-62. , 11, pp. , 30 (6), pp. 975-991. 975-991. pp. , 30 (6), Leisure Studies

Brussel: APS. , 27 (1), pp. 197-217. , 27 (1), 34 (3) pp. 233-252 pp. 34 (3) ACSM's exercise management for , pp. 93-127. β differences in the perception of constraints on perception of constraints differences in the Self-efficacy and participation in vigorous Self-efficacy and participation (2002) Perceived constraints on recreational Perceived constraints on recreational (2002) , 30 (6), pp. 992-1008. 992-1008. , 30 (6), pp. uence of perceived constraints on the attitudes perceived constraints on the attitudes of uence port participation within the adult population in population within the adult participation port influence on children’s cognitive and affective cognitive influence on children’s , 2, (2), April. , 2, (2), Pediatric Exercise SciencePediatric . Champaign Ill.: Human Kinetics. . Champaign Ill.: Human 301, pp. 203-205. 203-205. pp. 301, M) (1998) The recommended quantity and quality quality M) (1998) The recommended quantity and cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, and 2002) Sportpartizipation von Mädchen und jungen jungen und Mädchen von 2002) Sportpartizipation tionship with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, tionship with intrinsic Health Education & Behaviour, Behaviour, & Health Education

. odel and personal health behaviour. odel and personal Society and Leisure Society Young people and physical activity. physical people and Young Sport und Buch Strau und Sport Journal of Leisure Research, of Leisure Journal Medicine & Science in Sport & Exercise & Science in Sport & Medicine British Medical Journal, Vlaamse Regionale Indicatoren (VRIND). Indicatoren Regionale Vlaamse 2, pp. 191-215. pp. 191-215. 2, The Cyber-Journal Marketing of Sport Medicine & Science Exercise Medicine & in Sport &

Baur, J., Burrmann, U. & Krysmanski, K. ( Becker, M. (1974) The Health Belief M Frauen in ländlichen Regionen. University Press. year 16 11 to activityPatterns of physical among & Kirby, J. N., Balding, B. (1990) Armstrong, old British children. responses to competitive soccer participation. Monograph Parental Babkes, M. L., & Weiss, M. R. (1999) Medicine (ACSM) (1997) College of Sports American persons with chronic diseases and disabilities Medicine (ACSM) (1998) Exercise and physical activity College for older of Sports American adults. Medicine (ACS College of Sports American and maintaining of exercise for developing healthy adults. flexibility in APS (1998-2003) N. & Welsman, J. (1997) Armstrong, sport participation: investigating their rela sport participation: investigating and amotivation. motivation school students high physical activity by Grouios, G. Alexandris, K., Tsorbatzoudis, C. & Allison, K.R., Dwyer,S. (1999) J.J.M. & Makin, Carroll, B. (1997) Demographic Alexandris, K. & Greece. study in a results from participation: recreational sport 125. infl The Stodolska, M. (2004) Alexandris, K. & participation. sport toward recreational Greece. Alexandris, K. (1998) Patterns of recreational s of recreational Patterns Alexandris, K. (1998) Bibliography Bibliography wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society Materialen zumSport inNordrhein-Westfalen Brettschneider, W.D.&Bräutigam, M.(1990) The Foundation for promotion ofPhysical CultureandHeath, pp. 115-132. In: Telama, R.etal.(eds.) Brettschneider, W.D.(1990) Pedagogical, psycholog 49. kapitaal. sportdeelnameensociaal vanderelatietussen analyse Breedveld, K.&VanderMeulen,R.(2002/2003) participation, harmonization Breedveld, K.&VanBottenburg, M.(2002) 184 Biddle S.(ed.) (1995) Breedveld, K.(ed.)(2003) Publishers, pp. 77-88. health. Internationalproceedi Concepts,Key in:C.Bouchard, R.J.Shephard &T.Stephens, Bouchard, C. & Shephard, R.J. (1994)Physical proceedings andconsensusstatement. Bouchard, C. et al.(eds.)(1994) consensus ofcurrentknowledge Bouchard, C.,T. (1994) ShephardR.J. &Stevens fitness andhealth consensus ofcurrentknowledge.Proceedings Bouchard, C., Shepard,R.J.&Stephens,T.(eds.)(1994) health. Aconsensusofcurrentknowledge concepts. In:C.Bouchard, R.J. Shephard&T.Stevens(eds.), Bouchard, C. & Shephard, R.J. (1994)Physical uitgave, pp. 89-101. vlak. maatschappelijk Borms, J.,Rzewnicki,R.&DeBourdeaudhij,I. people and health-enhancing physical activity. Biddle, S.,Sallis, J.&Cavill,N.(eds.)(1998) interventions Biddle, S.&Mutrie,N.(2001) Human Kinetics.

. &NewYork:Routledge. . Champaign Ill.:Human Kinetics. Vlaams TijdshriftvoorSpor European perspectives on exercise andsport psychology European perspectivesonexercise Physical education and life-long physical activity education andlife-longphysical Physical Rapportage sport2003 . Paperfor third Compass workshop, Rome. ngs andconsensusstatement Psychology ofphysical activity.Determinants,well-beingand . Champaign IL:HumanKinetics. Physical Activity,FitnessandHealth:international Champaign Ill.:HumanKinetics. . Champaign Ill.:Human Kinetics,pp. 77-88. Sports in the Netherlands: Policy,research, 27, pp. 49-50. Sport in derAlltagswelt vonJugendlichen. of the international conference on exercise, of exercise, the international conference on London: HealthEducation Authority. Young and active? Policyframeworkforyoung Activity,Fitness,andHealth:TheModel activity,fitnessand health: themodelandkey (2001) Interventiestrategieën opindividueel en Vertrouweninde sport.Eenempirische Physical activity,fitnessandhealth. A . Den Haag:SCP. tgeneeskunde en-Wetenschappen ical andsocialaspectsofchildren’ssport. Exercise, fitness, andhealth.A Exercise, , Champaign, Ill.:HumanKinetics Physical activity,fitnessand Physical activity,fitness,and Vrijetijdsstudies , Jyväskyläskylä: , Jyväskyläskylä: . ChampaignIll.: , 20(2), pp. 37- , speciale Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

185 . 1 (1), 1 (1), . . . Rome: 53, pp. 191-192. 191-192. pp. 53,

Handbook of sport of Handbook Sport und Gesellschaft , 5, pp. 210-223. 210-223. , 5, pp. . Brussels: European Developmental sport psychology ofessionnel dans le domaine du sport . Wien: University of Wien. . Wien: Universityof Wien. , 6 (1), pp. 38-51. pp. , 6 (1), Developmental sport and exercise statistiche sullo sport in Italia statistiche and physical activity services: implications for sportlicher Aktivität im Lebensverlauf, im sportlicher Aktivität activity and socio-economic position: implications activity position: implications and socio-economic influences on the psychological dimensions of of dimensions influences on the psychological erations in sport and exercise psychology erations in sport and exercise Study on young people’s lifestyles and sedentariness and sedentariness young people’s lifestyles Study on Pediatric Exercise Science ducation and as a means of restoring the balance restoring as a means of and ducation hnology Publishers, pp. 461-470. hnology Publishers, pp. 313-332. Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement r Sportnachfrage im Lebenslauf. r Sportnachfrage im . Morgantown: Fitness Information Technology. Morgantown: Fitness Publishers, Hausenblas, & C. Janelle (eds.), tion, tendances et perspectives go out and play? Parental and psychological influences on psychological Parental and go out and play? European integration and sport integration European Journal of Sport Management of Sport Journal Le fonti di dati e le indagini indagini dati e le di Le fonti La formation et l’enseignement pr et l’enseignement La formation Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, and Journal of Epidemiology 33 (3), pp. 263-279. 263-279. pp. 33 (3), (2nd ed). New York: Wiley & Sons, pp. 604-635. 604-635. & Sons, pp. Wiley ed). New York: (2nd

will Brustad, R.J. (1993) Who pp. 50-72. pp. 50-72. psychological Youth in sport: A. L. (2001) Brustad, R. J., Babkes, M. L., & Smith, considerations. In: R.N. Singer, H. psychology attraction to physical activity. children's and the role of sport in the context of e role of sport in the and the R. (2004) W.D. & Naul, Brettschneider, Brussels: European Commission. Stabilität und Entwicklung Breuer, C. (2003) Sportwissenschaften de Dynamik Zur Breuer, C. (2004) dans l’Union européenne: situa dans l’Union University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’/CONI. (2004) J. (ed.) Camy, consid Brustad, R.J. (1998) Developmental measurement. In: J. L. Duda (ed.), Fitness Information Tec Morgantown: of sport outcomes psychological upon Social influence Brustad, R.J., & Babkes, M.L. (2003) In: M.R. Weiss (ed.), activityand physical involvement. Fitness Information Tec Morgantown: Brustad, R.J. & Babkes, M.L. (2004) Social Weiss (ed.) In: M.R. physical activity involvement. psychology: A lifespan perspective pp. 313-333. Anders, G. et al. (2004) Caliò, B. et al. (2002) for health promotion. for health promotion. al. (1999) Barriers to physical Chinn, D.J. et sport management. In: Commission. Commission. Chelladurai, P. (1992) A classification of sport

wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 18 Christensen, T.(2001) COMPASS (1999) J.& P.Coakley, Donnelly, (eds.) (1999) 200. J.(1993)Coakley, Sport and socialization. adolescents. J.& White,A.(1992)Making Coakley, decisi 2001. Computer file.Amsterdam: archive.(P1553). Steinmetz CONI (1994) (P1433). Steinmetz archive Amsterdam: Commission oftheEuropean Union(1998) (P1368). Steinmetz archive Amsterdam: Commission oftheEuropean Union(1997) 1987 Commission oftheEuropean Communities(1987)

CONI (1995) Csikszentmihalyi, M.(1975) Csikszentmihalyi, Informazione.Ufficio Documentazionee CONI (variousyears) Tijdschrift voorSportgene De Bourdeaudhuij,I. &RzewnickiR.( UK: Meyer & Meyer Sport. DaCosta, L. & Miragaya, A.(eds.)(2002) & Miragaya, DaCosta, L. Č perspectives. A.&Stanier,R.(2003) Curry, Publishers. Curtis, J.E.&Russell,S.J.(1997) Centre. The Henley eský svazt 6

. Computer file.Amsterdam: archive(P1090). Steinmetz ě Sociology of Sport Journal Sociology ofSport Champaign Ill.:HumanKinetics. lesné výchovy (various years) Yearbook. Sports inItaly –1994. Participation and trends Lo sportin movimento. Evoluzione Sports Participation inEurope Inumeri dellosport Eurobarometer 55.1. GlobalizationEurobarometer55.1. andhumanitarian aid eskunde en–Wetenschappen, Beyond boredom andanxiety Strategic frameworkforcommunitysportinEngland Physical activityin human exp 2001) Determinanten vanfysieke activiteit. , 9(1), pp. 20-35. Inside Sports . Roma: Comitato Olimpico NazionaleItaliano. . Roma:Comitato Olimpico Worldwide experiences and trendsin Worldwide experiences sport forall Exercise and SportSciencesReviews Exercise and Eurobarometer 50.11998.Computer file Eurobarometer 47.2OVR1997 ons: genderandsport pa della praticasportivainItalia . London: UKSport. Eurobarometer 28.1 TheEurobarometer European Youth in . London: Routledge. speciale uitgave . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Jossey-Bass . SanFrancisco: . Roma:CONI. erience: interdisciplinary erience: interdisciplinary rticipation among British , pp. 75-88. pp. 75-88. . Computer file. . Roma:CONI. , 21, pp.169- , . April/May Vlaams . London: . . Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 . 18 . . Brussels: . Frankfurt: . Malta: Luxembourg: Luxembourg: Physical activity and Physical . Schorndorf: Hofmann. . Schorndorf: Hofmann. . Champaign, Ill.: Human Ill.: . Champaign, . Consultation Document of DG X. . Consultation

Youth sport: a social approach Youth sport: 92 (2), 399-414. 399-414. 92 (2), to physicalMorgan (ed.), activity. In: W. adolescents: an impression management ical activity and physicalical activity activities in and sports and 40 (4), pp.362-372. pp.362-372. 40 (4), Tussen burger en overheid. Een fferences in psychosocial determinants of het maatschappelijk middenveld in Vlaanderen het maatschappelijk The first national health interview survey health interview The first national ng in organised versus non-organised activities. versus non-organised organised ng in Der nicht-sportliche Sport Washington: Taylor & Francis, pp. 63-80. 63-80. & Francis, pp. Taylor Washington: Bestandserhebung/Mitgliederzahl Spitzenverbände Worldwide trends in youth sport Worldwide Quest for excitement. in the civilizing process Sport and leisure The European model of sport model The European of the European Communities. of the European Communities. Treaty of Amsterdam amending the treaty on European Union, Union, on European Amsterdam amending the treaty Treaty of . London: Routledge, pp. 67-77. 67-77. Routledge, pp. . London: Perceptual and Motor Skills, and Perceptual Physical activity motivation of activity motivation of Physical Inside Sports . Washington: Taylor & Francis, pp. 49-62. . Washington: . Indiana: Purdue University.

ournal of and Physical Fitness and Physical Medicine Sports ournal of Deflandre, A. et al. (2001) Determinants of physDeterminants of A. et al. (2001) Deflandre, children. French school Deforche, B. (2000) Di Bourdeaudhuij, I. & De physicalolder adults participati activity in J et al. (eds.) (1996) De Knop, P. Kinetics. Information (2003) Department of Health HIS. (1971-2003) Deutsche Sportbund DSB. Dietrich, K. & Heinemann, K. (1989) perspective (1997) European Commission and certain related acts. European Communities the treaties establishing the Adherence R.K. & Buckworth, J. (1997) Dishman, Physical activity and mental health. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Etzbach, M. (2000) Office for Official Publications (1998a) European Commission Brussels: European Commission. and Coakley & P. In: J. RugbyClimbers Players. (1999) Rock & Young, K. Donnelly, P. Donnelly (eds.), VUBpress. W. (2001) & Smits, Elchardus, M, Hooghe, M. van functioneren onderzoeksproject naar het Brussels: VU Brussel/TOR. E. (1986) Elias, N. & Dunning, (ed.), prescription. In: W. Morgan Dunn, A. & Blair, S. (1997), Exercise & Bollaert, L. (eds.) (1993) Knop, P. De Duquet, W., mental health wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society European Union European Council (2004) establishingaConstitution forTreaty Europe. European Commission (2004c) published in 2000). Luxembourg: OfficeforOfficialPublications European Commission (2004b) Communities. men, data1998-2002 European Commission (2004a) 188 Council establishing theEuropean Year European Commission (2001) archive (P1472). European Commission (1999c) Community. body-weight andhealth European Commission (1999b) Eurobarometer COM(1999)644 final. social function ofsportwithin theCommunity framework the EuropeanCouncilwithaview European Commission (1999a) field ofsport European Commission (1998b) in Europe, of which account should be European Council (2000) http://europa.eu.int/comm/pub Eurobarometer 62.0213. TNS Opinion Europe European Commission (2003c) (P1640). Steinmetzarchive file.Amsterdam: computer European Commission (2003b) Special 60.0 197. European Commission (2003a) Commission, Eurobarometer COM(2001)584 final.

. The Gallup Organization. . Commission Staff Working Paper. Brussels: European Commission. Commission. StaffWorkingPaper.Brussels:European . Commission ,. 47,310. Also as computer file. Amsterdam: Steinmetz archive (P1618). Steinmetzarchive Alsoas file.Amsterdam: computer . Luxembourg: OfficeforOfficialPublications oftheEuropean . Luxembourg: OfficeforOfficialPublicationsoftheEuropean Declaration onthespecificcharact lic_opinion/standard_en.htm Proposal for adecision oftheEuropean parliament and ofthe The citizensoftheEuropean Union and sport. How Europeansspendtheirtime. Eurobarometer 52.1. The Helsinkireportonsport.Report fromtheCommissionto Candidate countriesEurobarometer2003.1. Youth inNew Les citoyensdel’unionEuropeènne etlesport.Eurobaromètre Guidelines onharmonisedEuropeanTimeUseSurveys. A pan-EU surveyonconsumerattitudestophysical activity, The developmentandprospects Physical activity.SpecialEurobarometer58.2183-6 ofsafeguarding currentsportsstructuresandmaintaining the http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/cceb_en.htm taken inimplementingcommonpolicies and Socialc/oEOSGallupEurope. of Education through Sport 2004 oftheEuropean Communities (originally Computer file. Amsterdam: Steinmetz file.Amsterdam: Computer . Brussels: European Commission, . Brussels:

er ofsportanditssocialfunction for communityactioninthe Everyday life of womenand Everydaylife Official Journal of the Official Journal . Brussels:European Special . Nice. . Alsoas

. Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

189

, . Schorndorf: Karl . Morgantown: Fitness rior de deportes. rior de deportes.

19 (2), pp. 79-82. 79-82. pp. (2), 19 . Copenhagen: , 7 (2), pp. 1-32. pp. 7 (2), , l activity by school-aged children in l activity by school-aged fits of physical activity among black and white black physical activity among fits of . : Fabrika/Tambor. . Bratislava: Fabrika/Tambor. Österreichischen Bundes-Sportorganisation. ude-behaviour models in exercise promotion. promotion. in exercise ude-behaviour models ity (ed.) across the lifespan. In: M.R. Weiss Sports participation and health among adults in in adults health among and Sports participation y deporte, Consejo supe re los hábitos deportivos de los españoles 2000 re los hábitos . : Ministerio de educación y. Madrid: Ministerio de educación Consejo cultura, . London: TSO. . London: Young people and physical activity. A literature review Sport und Gezundheit. Die Auswirkungen des Sports auf die die Die Auswirkungen des Sports auf und Gezundheit. Sport University of Malta. University Sport and leisure. Results of module leisure and and from the sport Sport Los españoles y el deporte 1980-1995: un studio sociológico sobre sobre sociológico un studio 1980-1995: y el deporte Los españoles y el deporte: practicas y comportamientos en la Los españoles Sport für alle!? Strukturwandel europäischer Sportsysteme im europäischer Strukturwandel Sport für alle!? Brand Power CZ 2003 Power Brand (2002) Central Co-ordinating Team. Centre for Comparative Social for Comparative Centre Team. Co-ordinating (2002) Central British Journal of Physical Education, British Journal of Kultur- og fritidsaktiviteter 1975-1998 og fritidsaktiviteter Kultur- The participation in sport and physica and sport in participation The 10 (2), pp. 103-121. 103-121. pp. 10 (2), Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal and Physical in Sport Women . Dublin: The Economic and Social Research Institute. Economic The . Dublin:

Hall, A.E. (1998) Perceived barriers to and bene women. In: women. Information Technology Publishers, pp. 475-502. 475-502. pp. Publishers, Technology Information (1990) Use of attit Shephard, R.J. Godin, G. & Sports Medicine, Halbwachs, C. & Weiß, O. (2000) eine sozio-ökonomische Analyse. Gesundheit – Hartmann-Tews, I. (1996) Großbritannien. Frankreich, Vergleich: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Hofmann. (1997) Health Education Authority London. Fahey, Layte, B. (2004) T., R. & Gannon, Ireland perspective psychology. A lifespan Developmental sport and exercise European Social Survey European L. (2004) Fox, K. & Rickards, Household Survey the 2002 General Gatt, R.A. (2004) Malta, unpublished dissertation. divers Gill, D.L. (2004) Gender and cultural Surveys. London: City University. City London: Surveys. Fabrika/Tambor (2003) 2: Children’s perspective The child’s Part in physical education. Fox, K. & Biddle, S. (1988) participation motives. Fridberg, T. (2000) Socialforskningsinstituttet. Garcìa Ferrando, M. (1997) comportamientos, actitudes y valores superior de deportes. Garcìa Ferrando, M. (2001) encuesta sob última década del siglo XX: Madrid: Ministerio de educación, cultura wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society Hübner, H.&Pfitzner,M. (2002) Grundlag Schriften zurKörperkultur Hübner, H.,Pfitzner, M.&Wulf, O.(2003) Schriften zurKörperkultur Hübner, H.,Pfitzner, M.&Wulf,O.(2002) Grundlagen derSportentwicklung in Rheine, pp. 176-191. Petry, K.etal. Petry, Ibsen, B.&Jørgensen,P.(2004) Sports structur Körperkultur 190 Heino, R.(2000) Whatisso punk about snowboarding? Hofmann. Heinemann, K.&Schubert,M.(eds.)(2001) Untersuchung Heinemann, K.&Schubert,M.(1994) Hofmann. Heinemann, K.(ed.)(1999) http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/axi INE (2003) Sport, pp. 137-145. 50 ISI/CONI (1996) ISI/CONI (1994) Kamphorst, T.J.&Roberts,K.(1989) http://www.iuna.net/survey_contents.htm Irish UniversitiesNutrition Alliance (2001)No Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft. Institut fürFreizeit- undTourismusforschung (2001-2004) des SportsetINSEP. INSEP/Ministère desSports(2002) Culemborg: GiordanoBruno. th session, Beijing 1995.Rome:CONI.

Licencias federadasaños (36) . Schorndorf: KarlHofmann. Two players–onegoal? Sport in the European Union Challenges aheadforimproving statistics Improving evaluation of sports through statistics. (39) (37) Sportclubs inVariousEuropean Countries . Les pratiques sportives en France. Enquête2000 Les pratiques sportivesenFrance. . InstitutoNacionaldeEstadística. Trends insports:a Der Sportverein:Ergebnisseeinerrepräsentativen

en derSportentwicklung inKonstanz, Grundlagen derSportentwicklung in Wetzlar, Sport undGesellschaften rth/South IrelandFoodConsumption Survey. es inDenmark. In:Tokarski, W., Steinbach,D., Journal of Sport & SocialIssues multinational perspective Forschungstelegramm . ISISportsStatisticsCommittee, Rome:CONI. . Oxford: Meyer & Meyer . Oxford: &Meyer Meyer . Schorndorf:Karl . Schorndorf:Karl . Wien: Schriften zur . . Ministère 24(2), Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

191 (1), pp. (1),

Medicine Medicine 9 Leisure . [National sports. [National , 2 (1a), 79-86. 2 (1a), , lite sport on sport t participants and non- t participants IOC Sport for All IOC Sport th . Aarhus: Klim. . Weinheim/München: Juventa Juventa . Weinheim/München: . Copenhagen: Lokale- og Lokale- . Copenhagen: rcialisation of e rcialisation of Journal of Sport Psychology, of Journal [The world is changing, but do the but do world is changing, [The Public Health Nutrition Public Health Attitude of 7-80 years old inhabitants of of years old inhabitants 7-80 Attitude of l orientations in spor l orientations t as well as their participation level. Year as well as their participation t Copenhagen: Copenhagen Institute for Future Copenhagen Institute for Future Copenhagen: , 1(1), pp. 7-25. , 1(1), pp. 7-25. conduct the pan-European survey on consumer consumer surveyon pan-European the conduct as influenced by goal orientation, perceived orientation, as influenced by goal ysical activity and interventions in adults. adults. in ysical activity and interventions r forandring – publikum svigter hvorfor?’ publikum – r forandring . Paper presented at the 9 lisation]. Jyväskylänlisation]. yliopisto, liikunnan going participation in a fitness activity. . Eugene: Microform Publications University of Oregon. Publications University of Oregon. Microform . Eugene: 24 (6 Suppl.), pp. 221-236. 221-236. pp. 24 (6 Suppl.), iopisto, Liikunnan kehittämiskeskus. kehittämiskeskus. Liikunnan iopisto, . Vilnius: Lithuanian State Department of Physical Education Education State Department of Physical . Vilnius: Lithuanian Suomalaisten urheiluorganisaatioiden muutos urheiluorganisaatioiden Suomalaisten body and health. weight imuksia no.63. Jyväskylä.imuksia Prävention von Herz-Kreislaufkrankheiten.Prävention von Erbegnisse und Idaetsdeltagelse og idraetsforburg i Denmark Idaetsdeltagelse Den tredje bølge, Lokale- og anlægsfonden Den tredje bølge, Lokale- Youth sport participation Youth sport participation Effects of professionalisation and comme Effects of professionalisation Maailma muuttuu, muuttuvatko seurat. muuttuu, Maailma Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 20 (4), pp. 277-302. 277-302. , 20 (4), pp.

participants. Lithuania towards the physical exercises and spor 2001 survey results abridgement and Sports. & Kerr, J.H. (2000) Metamotivationa Lindner, K.J. Sciences Centre) (2002) LSIC (Lithuanian Sports Information Verlag. unde Larsen, K. (2001) ‘Konkurrenceidraet Har sporten toppet? Fremtidsorientierung nr 3: Kreuter, H. et al. (1995) Konsequenzen der Deutschen Herz-Kreislauf-Präventionsstudie sosiaalitieteiden laitos, tutk Studies. Larsen, K. (2002) organisations in the process of professiona in organisations Denmark consumption in sports for all and sports clubs change]. Jyväskylänsports clubs change]. yl Koski, P. & Heikkala, J. (1998) anlaegsfonden. Larsen, K. (2003b) for on Laverie, D.A. Motivations (1998) motivational climate and enjoyment climate motivational Koski, P. (2000) 55-65. 55-65. Kohl, C.C. (2002) Conference. Arnhem. Conference. Arnhem. Larsen, K. (2003a) Kearney, used to Methods J.M. et al. (1999) attitudes to physicalattitudes activity, of ph Determinants (1992) King, A.C. et al., Exercise,Science in Sports and and youth M.R. (1987) Perceived competenceKlint, K.A. & Weiss, for participating in and motives sports. A test of Harter’s competence theory. motivation wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society Middelkamp, J.(1999) Middelkamp, J.(2001) Association. Growth and Health Study, Mechelen, W.van,etal.(2000) Physical activityof young people: the Amsterdam Longitudinal forExerciseandSport, Research Quarterly R.G. etal.,(1993)Parentalinfl McMurray, Human Kinetics. 192 MPG/Marktest/Consumer (2003) Mussino, A.(2002) COMPASS2002.Progress re McElroy, M. (2002) European Union. al. (2001)Prevalence activity M.et ofphysical duringMartinez-Gonzalez, leisuretime inthe l’Espagne dans lecontexteEuropéen. Marivoet, S.(2002) Asymétries danslapartic Formação. Marivoet, S.(2001) European Union. activit activityandlevel of physical physical Margetts, B.M.etal.(1999)Relationships MKBAdviseurs/FitVak. Delft/Oosterbeek: Luttikhuis, S. (2003) proposed model. Lindner, K.J., Johns,D.P. & Butcher,J.(1991)Factors inwithdrawalfrom sport:a youth Moran, A.P.(2004) MISCO (1992) Mills, C.W.(1959) van Nederlandsefitnesscentra Morgan, W.P.(ed.)(1997) Routledge.

Participation insport– results survey Journal of SportBehavior Medicine and Science inSportsand Exercise Public HealthNutrition The sociological imagination Sport and exercisepsychology:Acriticalintroduction Hábitos desportivosdapopulação Portuguesa Resistance toexercise.Asocialanalysisofinactivity Brancheonderzoek fitnesscentra; technologie en kengetallen Brancheonderzoek fitnesscentra; De fitnessbrancheinbeeld Kengetallen van fitnesscentra: speurtoc Kengetallen vanfitnesscentra: Medicine andScienceinSports andExercise Physical activityandmentalhealth . Weert:EuropeanFitness andAerobicAssociation. Sport in Sud-Ouest Européen , 2(1a),pp. 97-103. between attitudestohealth, bodyweight,and uences on childhood fitness and activity patterns. uences on childhood fitness andactivity 64(3), pp. 249-255. 14 (1), pp. 3-18. y in a nationally representative sample inthe representativesample inanationally y ipation sportive.LecasduPortugal et de . NewYork:Oxford port, Roma: Universita La Sapienza port, Roma:UniversitaLaSapienza . Weert:EuropeanFitnessand Aerobic . Nike MediaPlanning. . Malta: Ministry of Youth. Malta:Ministry andtheArts. 1,pp. 105-112. . Washington: Taylor &Francis. , 33(7),pp. 1142-1146. ht naarbedrijfsmatigegegevens . Lisboa: CentrodeEstudos e University Press. 32(9),pp.1610-1616. . Champaign Ill.: . NewYork: . Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

193 34 (3), 8, Training im im Training 2 (5), pp. 18- pp. 2 (5), . Schorndorf: Sport & & Sport Sportwissenschaft. . Malta: NSO. . Malta: NSO. Champaign Ill.: Human Kinetics. Ill.: Human Kinetics. Champaign New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. oretical model: Applications to exercise. In: oretical model: Journal für Ernähungsmedizin Journal für heoretical model of health behavior changes. heoretical of health behavior model . Malta: NSO. tional sports activity in Slovenia]. University tional sports activity in Slovenia]. Der Schriftenreihe zur Freizeitforschung on and sports studies in Germany in the 1990s, the 1990s, in sports studies in Germany on and 11104 (1), pp. 80-103. 80-103. pp. (1), 11104 , 12 (1), pp. 38-45. , (Membership figures). Arnhem: NOC*NSF. figures). Arnhem: NOC*NSF. (Membership t participation and withdrawal: is it simply a matter of fun? is it simply and withdrawal: a t participation ment alle? für zur Gesundheitsförderung ment tion, gender and the welfare state.tion, gender and the Time-use survey Lifestyle survey 2003 Sports organisations 2000-2002 Sports organisations . Nike Media Planning. Planning. . Nike Media 4 (1), pp. 105-110. 105-110. 4 (1), pp. Ledentallen Physical activity and active lifestyle of children and youth Physical activity and Understanding sport behaviour. Understanding sport Advances in exercise adherence. 24, pp. 154-159. 24, pp. 154-159. Sport in . , K. et al. (1973, 1976, 1978, 1980, 1983, 1986, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001) 2001) 2000, 1999, 1998, 1997, 1986, 1983, 1980, 1978, 1976, , K. et al. (1973, ć

MPG (2004) MPG (2004) Naul, R. (ed.) (1998) physical educati Comparative Naul, R. (1997) Education Journal of Physical International Wissenschaft, Ottesen, L. (2002) Sports participa Verlag Karl Hofmann. Office (2002) National Statistics pp.16-19. Instru – ein Sport Opper, E. (1998) Office (2003) National Statistics National Statistics Office (2004) NOC*NSF (1963-2003) der Freizeit, in Sport Opaschowski, H. (1997) spor (1992) Youth Petlichkoff, L.M. pp. 311-327. pp. 311-327. Aspekte des Alterssports. In: H. Mechling, Pache, D. (1998) Sozialpsychologische Alterssport D. (1998) Pargman, Pediatric Exercise Science Petrovi [Recrea v Sloveniji dejavnost Športnorekreativna of Kinesiology. Facultyof Sport, Institute of Ljubljana: Österreich. in Pratscher, H. (2000) Sportverhalten

23. The transthe Prochaska, J.O. & Marcus, B.H. (1994) R.K. Dishman (ed.) Prochaska, J.O. & Velicer,The transt W.F. (1997) Promotion American Journal of Health wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society and Science inSports and Exercise strenuous lifeofthe1970s and the1980s. andthe reflections onthe Rader, B.(1991)Thequest forself-sufficiency newstrenuosity: Communities. Computer file.Amst 194 Rabier, J.R.(1983) Sallis, J.F.etal.(1992)Determinants ofph Rossi Mori,B.(2004) Berichte undMaterialien Rittner, V.&Breuer,C.(2000) (P1085). Steinmetz archive Amsterdam: European Communities.Computer file. Reif, K.&Melich,A.(1990b) Union. Computer file.Amsterdam: archive(P1029). Steinmetz Reif, K.&Melich,A.(1990a) Heart Foundation/HealthPromotion ResearchGroup. M.& Petersen,S.(2000) Rayner, determinantsof activeliving. Sallis, J.F.(1994)Influencesactivity onphysical Wetenschappen, en Belgischebevolking? Vlaamse Rzewnicki, R.,Vanreusel,B.&DeBourdeaudhu 270-283. A. etal.(2000). Rychtecky, Sportunterricht, Befunde zurBedeutungalltäglicher Bewe Rütten, A.&Ziemainz,(2001) Lebenswe H. Community Health environment:European study. comparative resultsfrom a Rütten, A.etal.(2001)Self reportedphys participation motives ofyoung . Ryckman, R.M.&Hamel,J.(1993)Perceived differences ability physical inthesport workshop paper. COMPASS Prague:CharlesUniversity. A. (2002) Rychtecky, a t Praha: Ministerstvoškolstvímládeže republice.

(Monitoringof participation insports 3(50), pp. 73-78. speciale uitgave , 55, pp. 139-146. Eurobarometer 191983 Participation in sportsandphysicalactivitiesinCzechRepublic I praticanti sportivi inItalia . Köln: Bundesinstitut für Sportwissenschaft. . Köln:Bundesinstitut fürSportwissenschaft. Monitorování ú Psychical activityandfitness researchdigest Eurobarometer 331990 Eurobarometer 34.21990 Bundesinstitut fürSportwissen , European cardiovascular diseasestatistics pp. 17-27. Vlaams TijdschriftvoorSportgeneeskunde en- , 24(6suppl.), pp. 248-257. erdam: Steinmetz-archive (P0728) ě International Journal of Sport Psychology,of SportInternational Journal lovýchovy. gungsräumefür Kinderund Jugendliche. ical activity, public health, andperceived Journal of Sport History ysical activity andinterventions in ysical youth. . Brussels: Commission oftheEuropean . Brussels:Commission č lt, Sportunterrichtund Gesundheit. Empirische asti vesportua pohybové aktivit and physical activities in Czech Republic). activitiesinCzech andphysical ofchildren, adolescents, andadultsor ij, I. (in)actief (2001) isde Hoefysiek . Roma: CONI. CONI. . Roma: . Brussels: Commission oftheEuropean . Brussels:Commission . Brussels: Commission ofthe . Brussels:Commission Journal of Epidemiology and schaft: Wissenschaftliche , 18(2), pp. 255-257. , 1(7), pp. 1-8. , Oxford:British ě v Č eské eské 24 (3), pp. Medicine . Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

195 Tijdschrift voor International International . Schorndorf: Karl gepeild: wie participeert , 32 (5), pp. 963-975. 963-975. , 32 (5), pp. Resultaten van de APS-survey Resultaten van de APS-survey Universiteit Leuven. Universiteit Leuven. id van de vrijetijdssport vanuit een vanuit id van de vrijetijdssport . Champaign Ill: Human Kinetics. Ill: Human . Champaign . Stockholm: SCB. . Stockholm: . Warwickshire: The Sports Industries . Warwickshire: The Sports lub)sportinactiviteit. In: Ministerie van de van In: Ministerie lub)sportinactiviteit. 1 (2). ogical Considerations in Developmental Sport Considerations in Developmental ogical Developmental and exercise sport psychology: A and behavioral medicine. London: Sage. and behavioral medicine. Incomplete and signs of democratisation , Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse tbeoefening in Vlaanderen gedemocratiseerd? Over tbeoefening in Vlaanderen gedemocratiseerd? (2003) Vlaanderen sportief (2003) Vlaanderen . Leuven: Katholieke . Leuven: Katholieke . Leuven: Acco. name gedurende de periode 1969-1999. 1969-1999. gedurende de periode name ts Stratification in Flanders 1969-1999, in Flanders 1969-1999, Stratification ts Actieve sportbeoefening in Vlaanderen. Technisch verslag sportbeoefening Technisch Actieve in Vlaanderen. Vlaanderen sportief gepeild! , 37 (2) pp. 219-245. 219-245. pp. 37 (2) , of trends and differences in sports participation in the Low in of trends and differences in sports participation Erster Deutscher Kinder- und Jugendsportbericht Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise Medicine and Science Vlaanderen gepeild! Aging, physical activity and health activity physical Aging, Gelijke speelvelden? Sociale gelaagdhe Gelijke speelvelden? . Morgantown, Fitness Information Technology Publishers, pp. 73-100. 73-100. pp. Publishers, Technology Information . Morgantown, Fitness The European sports goods market goods sports The European Undersökningarna av Undersökningarna levnadsförhållanden European Journal of Sport & Society & of Sport Journal European , 22 (4), pp. 383-417. 383-417. (4), pp. , 22 . Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap.

social-cultureel veranderingsperspectief de actieve spor Scheerder, J. et al. (2001) Is Scheerder, J. (2003) de sportdeel de sociale gelaagdheid van niet? Ontwikkelingen in en determinanten van (c determinanten in en niet? Ontwikkelingen Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Scheerder, J., Pauwels, G. & Vanreusel, B. 1999 physical of correlates of activity & Taylor, Prochaska, J.J. Sallis, J.F., review (2000) A of W.C. adolescents. children and N (1999) PhysicalSallis, J.F. & Owen, activity SCB (2003) Sociologie Social Spor Scheerder, J. et al. (2002) Review for the Sport Sociology of Scheerder, J. & Pauwels, G. (2002) Gemeenschap, pp. 231-268. Gemeenschap, 231-268. pp. Scheerder, J. & Vanreusel, B. (2002) van de SBV ’99 met enkele cijferreeksen Scheerder, J. & Breedveld,press) K. (2005, in individualisation. An analysis Countries. Hofmann. Methodol Some & Park, I. (2004) Schutz, R.W. lifespan perspective SGI Europe (2004) et al. (2003) W. Schmidt, M.R. Weiss (ed.) In: and Exercise Psychology. Federation of Great Britain. (1997) Shephard, R.J. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society Hofmann,Verlag Karl pp. 63-74. youth. In:R. Naul (ed.) Telama, R.(1996)Psychological among European background ofaphysically activelifestyle Leisure IndustriesResearchCentre. etal.(2003) Taylor American JournalofPreventiveMedicine Tammelin, T.etal.(2003) Adolescent participati at age31 Tammelin, T.(2003) Onderzoekseenheid Sociaalcu Taks, M.(1994) North Svoboda, B. A.(eds.)(1995)& Rychtecký, 19 Smith, D.H.&Theberge,N.(1987) 133. Knop &L.Bollaert(eds.), Sisjord, M.K. (1993) Sport and inyouth Norway: Finland. and Western Germany Germany, betweenEastern analysis participation – acomparative Ståhl, T.etal.(2002) Theimportance ofpolicy orientation andenvironment activity onphysical Sports Information Bulletin Household Survey2002. Sport England (2004b) England. Sport England (2004a) London: Sport England. Sport England (2003) and sport Sport England (2001b) survey 1999/2000 Sport England (2001a) Ill.: LifeEnhancementPublications. 6

. Prague: Meyer & Meyer. Health Promotion International . Oulu:University ofOulu. . London: Sport England. Sociale gelaagdheid in desport: . London: SportEngland. Sports volunteering in England 20 Physical activityfromadolescencetoadulthoodand health-related fitness Young people and sportinEngland Driving up participation: the challenge for sport Sport England's sportparticipation an Sport England'sdisabilitysurvey 2000 Research briefingnote.Participation Physical activityand active lifestyleofchildrenandyouth. London: Sport England. Youth Sport. A Social ApproachSocial Youth Sport.A (1985-2000) nrs. 1-53. Brussels: Clearing House. (1985-2000) nrs. 1-53.Brussels:Clearing lturele Kinantropologie. Why people recreate: anoverviewofresearch Why peoplerecreate: , 17(3), pp. 235-246. , 24(1), pp. 22-28. Physical activity forlife:Eastand West, Southand on in sports and adult physical activity. activity. on insportsandadultphysical een kwestie van geldofhabitus?een kwestie constrains anddrop-out. In: W. Duquet, P.De 02. Areportfor SportEngland . Trendsinparticipation 1994-2002 . Brussels: VUBPRESS, pp. 126- . Brussels:VUBPRESS, in sport – results from the General theGeneral in sport–resultsfrom d ethnicity inEngland –national – Youngpeople with adisability . London: Sport Leuven: . Champaign Schorndorf: . Sheffield: . Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

7 19 . . Jyväskylä: The . Champaign, Ill.: . Champaign, Physical activity and health: Physical activity and health: Promoting physical activity: . Leuven: Katholieke disease prevention in the European disease prevention in Prague: Meyer & Meyer, pp. 324- Meyerpp. & Meyer, Prague: life-long physical activity life-long 32 (9), pp. 1617-1622. 1617-1622. pp. 32 (9), Two players – one goal? Sport in the players – one goal? Two ical activity from youth to young adulthood in in adulthood young to youth ical activity from De maatschappelijke betekenis vanDe maatschappelijke sport (The e. In: Svoboda, B. & Rychtecký, A. (eds.) B. & Rychtecký, e. In: Svoboda, ce. Interdisciplinary perspectives , Urbana/Chicago: University of Illinois Press. , Urbana/Chicago: University of Illinois . Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Physical education and Physical . Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics. Ill.: Human . Champaign, Global games . Arnhem: NOC*NSF. . Arnhem: Game Plan: a strategy for delivering Government’s sport and physical for Game Plan: a strategy Associational life in Sweden. General welfare social capital training in in social capital training welfare in Sweden. General Associational life The significance of sport for society: Health, socialisation, economy sport for society: Health, socialisation, of The significance Physical activity and cardiovascular Physical activity and cardiovascular Tijdstrendanalyse van sportdeelnamestijlen Tijdstrendanalyse London: StrategyLondon: Cabinet Office. Unit, . Oxford: Meyer & Meyer. Oxford: Sport. . Stockholm: SCB. . Stockholm: Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise in Sports Medicine and Science Physical activity in human experien . London: European Heart Network. European . London:

Telama, R. et al. (eds.) (1990) et al. (eds.) (1990) Telama, R. Vuori, I. et al. (1995) democracy a report of the Surgeon General a report of the Centers for Disease and Prevention. Control (1999) Services (USDHHS) US Department of Health and Human action for community a guide M. (2001) Van Bottenburg, social significance of sport) Vanreusel, B. (1985) Universiteit Leuven. Vogel, J. et al. (2003) (1996) Services (USDHHS) US Department of Health and Human European Union UK government (2002) activity objectives. C.J.M. (1996) M. & Schuyt, Van Bottenburg, Foundation for Promotion of Physical Culture and Health. Promotion for Foundation in physical studies and international Comparative L. & Tynjälä,Telama, R., Kannas, J. (1995) activity perspectiv sports: a Scandinavian and North. and life: East and West, South Physical activity for 337. Decline of phys X. (2000) Telama, R. & Yang, Finland, Kinetics.Human al. (2004) D., Petry, Steinbach, K. et Tokarski, W., Press. of Europe Strasbourg: Council Vuori, I. et al. (1999) Union & S.J. In: J.E. Curtis activity. perspectives on physical Theberge, N. (1997) Sociological Russell, wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society Weber, W.etal.(1994) Wann, D.L.(1997) und Meyer.Meyer 198 Wagner, G.(1997)DieSportpartizipation v Westdeutschland, inJ.Baur, Westdeutschland, Weinberg, R.S.&Gould, D. (1995) Paderborn. Weiss, M.R.(2004) Ill.: HumanKinetics. In: W.Duquet, P.DeKnop &L.Bollaert(eds.), Wylleman, P.,etal.(1993) Researchintothe perspective athletes. In:M.R.Weiss(ed.) D. (2004)A Wylleman, P.&Lavallee, devel processes. Wouters, C.(1986) Formalization andinformali Wiener Jugendgesundheitsbericht 2002 Baltic republics WHO/European CentreonHealthofSocietiesinTransition(1999) Universiteit vanWageningen. Wendel-Vos, G.C.W.(2004) Eine Sozio-ökonomische Analyse (2000) Weiss, O.etal. Morgantown: FitnessInformationTechnology,Inc. ZRSKoper. Health), UniverzanaPrimorskem Završnik, J.etal.(2005) Gibalna/športna Zarotis, G.F.(1999) socialization. of early Yang, X.,etal.(1999) Factorsexplaining thephysical activityof young adults: the importance VUBPRESS, pp. 145-160.

Theory, Cultureand Society, . Morgantown,FitnessInformationT . Copenhagen: WHO (document EUR/ICP/LVNG 02 03 04). 02 . Copenhagen:WHO(document EUR/ICP/LVNG Sport psychology Developmental sportandexercisepsychology:alifespan perspective Ziel FitnessClub:MotiveimFitness-Sport Scandinavian Journal ofMedi Sport undGesundheit. DieAuswirkungen desSportsauf die Gesundheit. Die WirtschaftlicheBedeutungdesSports Jugendsport: Sportengagem Public healthaspectsof physical activity. Developmental sport and exercise psychology: Alifespan sportandexercise Developmental . ISW/BSO. Foundations of sport andexercisepsychology . New Jersey: PrenticeHall. . NewJersey: .2002. Wien 3(2),pp.1-18. dejavnost za zdravje (Physical/Sports Activity for Activity dejavnost zazdravje(Physical/Sports on Jugendlichen und Erw opmental perspective on transitions faced by opmental perspectiveontransitionsfacedby (non) participation of youth inorganized sports. zation: changingtension-balances incivilizing zation: echnology Publishers Youth sport.Asocial approach cine and Science inSports, ents undSportkarrieren. . Aachen: Meyer & Meyer. &Meyer. . Aachen:Meyer . Paderborn: Universität -GH- Nutrition andlifestyleinthe achsenen inOst-und , pp.503-524. Wageningen: 9, pp. 120-127. . Brussels: Aachen: . Champaign, . Zunft, H.J.F, Friebe, D., Seppelt, B. et al. (1999), Perceived benefits and barriers to physical activity in a nationally representative sample in the European Union. Public Health Nutrition, 2 (1a), pp. 153-160. wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 200

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

201 elite sport, sports ddition to this research in the Utrecht University. With a specialization in the University of Utrecht and Amsterdam University of Utrecht the 1994 he obtained his doctorate in the social his doctorate 1994 he obtained t, sports participation, l popularization of sports. In 2001, an update an update In 2001, sports. l popularization of ral anthropology at the University of Utrecht at ral anthropology managing director of Diopter – Janssens & Van of Diopter – Janssens director managing volumes of significant Dutch institutions in the of significant Dutch institutions in the volumes ety. Areas of research are sportety. and ethnicity, sity of Professional Education. Van Bottenburg Van Bottenburg sityof Professional Education. company, in matters specialized of sports J.H. Mulier Institute – Centre for Research on J.H. Mulier Institute egen. He also contributed to Direct Dialogue egen. He also contributed to Direct ce 2002, he is researcher Mulier at the W.J.H. her at W.J.H. Mulier Institute – Centre for her at W.J.H. Mulier Institute – Centre professor of sport studies at Utrecht University of sport studies professor performance. After his study, Sterkenburg Van ch are sport development, elite sport, and d of the sociology of sport and sports sport and sports of sociology d of the of Illinois Press, entitled Global Games. From From Global Games. of Illinois Press, entitled ersity of Amsterdam, Tilburg University, and graduate study development issues at the Radboud graduate study development ality control in sports. In a scourses, and skating culture. scourses, and skating culture.

studies. at psychology studied Jacco van Sterkenburg (1977) and professor of sport business at Fontys Univer and professor of sport business at Fontys Van Bottenburg published jubilee field of sport, Research on Sports in Society. Areas of resear cross-cultural psychology, discourses about his MA thesis dealt with dominant media and race/ethnicity sport practice and gender in was research assistant at the Universityof Nijm Maarten van Bottenburg (1962) studied sociology at studied (1962) Maarten van Bottenburg and the was of Amsterdam attached to the University he 1992 to 1988 From in the Netherlands. School Social Science Research. for In Amsterdam associateVan Bottenburg was 1992 to 2002 and 2002, he is research directorpolicy. Since of W. Univ venture of the Sports in Society, a joint Utrecht University. In 2004, he was appointed fiel reports in the books and published several role of spor management;on the social for example of labour relations, health care andrealm security. social degree in cultu Bas Rijnen (1976) earned a master he did a post in the Netherlands. In 2002 researc he is University Since 2003, Nijmegen. canvass for the Aids Funds. Sin to Fundraising, in Soci Institute – Centre for Research on Sports sciences cum differentia laude with a thesis on the was published byof this study the University research bv, a private social science Bottenburg history, service management and qu identity di construction, media About the authors the authors About wjh mulier institute - centre for research on sports in society 202

Sport participation in the European Union - Trends and differences

203 is a joint venture of is a joint venture SF), the Royal of Teachers of Association g bv, which has merged into the Mulier bv, which has g titute for Sport and Physical activitytitute (NISB) organisations, governmental organisations, organisations, organisations, governmental ersity of Amsterdam ersity of Amsterdam and the Universityof ard of the Mulier Institute consists of the Mulier Institute consists ard of , Welfare the Netherlands’ and Sport, Olympic lier who can be seen as the founding father of lier as the founding who can be seen il 12th 2002. However, the history of its history However, the 2002. il 12th The Mulier Institute carries out both academic research and research carries out both academic The Mulier Institute Mulier Institute Institute Mulier W.J.H. in Society – Centre for Research on Sports Mulier Institute

The Tilburg University, Utrecht University,Tilburg University, Univ the Mu institute (called after Pim Groningen. The – Janssens & predecessor (Diopter Van Bottenbur back to 1992. Institute) goes The Supervisoryand business organisations. Bo representatives of the Dutch MinistryHealth of research conducted for private bodies, like sports research conducted Dutch organized sports) was founded on Apr on sports) was founded Dutch organized Committee/Netherlands’ Sports Federation (NOC*N Physical Education (KVLO), Ins the Netherlands and Recreation (LC). for Local Sport and the Netherlands Institute About the W.J.H.About