Vol. 9 No. 2 Summer, 1980 the STAR of BETHLEHEM RECONSIDERED: a THEOLOGICAL APPROACH Carl J

Home , Triple conjunction, William Rutter Dawes

In This Issue

THE STAR OF BETHLEHEM RECONS1DERED: A THEOLOG ICAL APPROACH Carl J. Wenning 2

THE STAR OF BETHLEHEM RECONS IDERED: AN HISTORICAL APPROACH .John Mosley and Ernest L. Ma rlin 6

TH E HEAVENS AND A CONSC IOUS EX PER IENCE OF tMORTA LI TY ...... Georgia Hooks Shurr 11

THE CANALS OF MARS, A RETROSPECTIVE David H. DcVorkin, cesc and Michael Mendillo 12

FEATURES: Letters and Announcements 3

What's New James Brown 9

Focus on Educa tion Jeanne Bis hop 10

Crea tive Corner (How 10 Assemble Space Stillion- Island Onc" by Brian Sullivan) Herb Schwartz' 22

Jane's Comer . • ...... Jane P. Geohcgan 27

Vol. 9 No. 2 Summer, 1980 THE STAR OF BETHLEHEM RECONSIDERED: A THEOLOGICAL APPROACH Carl J. Wenning 1.S. U. Planetarium Illinois State University Normal, IL 61761 Each and every Christmas season the public hears public if we don't take into account other considerations? from the planetarium community how the Star of It is my firm belief that to truly solve the Christmas star Bethlehem mystery has been solved. As a solution the mystery we must call in someone who is both an famous triple conjunction is proffered. The triple astronomer and a theologian. Now I do not purport to be conjunction occurred in what appears to be the an astronomer, much less a theologian. However I am appr~priate ti me frame, fits many factors, and is sufficiently well versed in biblical studies to ~uggest plausible. In fact, a whole plethora of ideas give support several alternatives to the triple conjunction which simply to the triple conjunction as being THE answer. There is does not explain the Star of Bethlehem. some mention of meteors, comets, novae, variable stars, As far as I can tell there are basically three things ball lightning, and even flying saucers, but none of these that the Christmas star might have been: first, an actual really seem to fit the evidence. Some programs pay lip physical object explicable by scientific law; second a service to the possiblity of a miracle, but most of us leave miracle used by God for His own purpose; and third, a that explanation alone. After all, it's not astronomy! midrash, a literary invention of an author relating a story, Taking this approach always leaves me with a in this case the nativity. nagging worry that we as planetarians are leading people Of the Christmas shows I have seen, never has one to believe in the predictive powers of astrology. Some truly considered the second and third points seriously. I writers of Christmas programs have realized this in the can perhaps see why this is so; the other two deal in the past and have done what they could to discredit astrology. realm of theology. Granted, few if any of us are The effort is noble, but the fact remains that the triple theologians and astronomers at the same time, but this is conjunction did indeed occur near the time of that special what the solution of the Star of Bethlehem mystery nativity and can be interpreted astrologically as an omen. requi~es. I have made a study of the Bible, and other So no matter how much name calling we do, as far as the associated works, and have found some interesting points general public can see it, the Magi could have interpreted I would like to relate to you. the triple conjunction "correctly" and then traveled to Through these studies I have become convinced where the young child was. that there are several explanations, and one in particular We as planetarians have the duty to educate the which I feel solves the Christmas star mystery admirably: public about the fallacious nature of much of astrological I do not intend to rewrite all the explanations of the star belief. We do this eleven months out of the year-but of Bethlehem but would like to consider one in every Decemoer,wben many of us reacb our greatest number particular, and propose two alternatives to the regularly of people, we are basically teaching them to believe in the proffered triple conjunction. predictive power of astrology. Argue all you want against astrology, the fact remains that if we don't show how the THE TRIPLE CONJUNCTION: triple conjunction fails to fit the facts, people are going WHY IT FAILS TO SOLVE to keep on believing in astrology. I'm not arguing that the THE STAR OF BETHLEHEM MYSTERY triple conjunction was not that special star, but that Most of the scripts dealing with the star of something better fits all the known facts. This is a point I Bethlehem make convincing argument for the triple had to make to an astrologer who visited the ISU conjunction. It fits the time frame fairly well, and all planetarium last December. The story is short and worth such manner of evidence as gleaned from the biblical relating because it shows what people can be led to narratives of Matthew and Luke to satisfy the public, and believe. perhaps ourselves as well. I contend, however, that After completing my final Christmas show for the researchers in the past have presented selected favorable 1979 season, several persons remained afterwards to ask evidence for the triple conjunction and in so doing questions. One of them stepped forward and admitted dismiss any other possible solutions. It is my belief that that she was an astrologer, and noted how my particular no matter how well the triple conjunction fits selected program vindicated her belief in the predictive powers of evidence, it fails to satisfactorily explain the Christmas astrology. I discussed with her some of the arguments star. Based on the following evidence, I am sure that you against the triple conjunction-against astrology in will agree that the triple conjunction is totally general-but I couldn't offer her any better explanation of unsatisfactory, wholly superficial, and not the explanation the star. After we parted I began questioning what I had of the star of Bethlehem. been doing. What wer.e we as planetarians doing when we Even though the triple conjunction is plausible, leave people with the idea that the triple conjunction is there are basically eight arguments against it. None of THE answer to the Christmas star mystery? Asking myself these is sufficient to stand by itself, but the combined this question I resolved to look for a better answer-if evidence weighs against the triple conjunction. Consider indeed one existed. To my great satisfaction I now have the following points: an alternative. 1 . I fin deed the Wise Men were I have mentioned that many possible explanations astronomers/astrologers they surely would have exist: meteors, comets, novae, variable stars, triple been familiar with the motions of the planets and conjunctions, etc. These solutions are all astronomical in the workings of the heavens. It is doubtful, nature. What if the "star" was not astronomical? What if therefore, that the westward tre k of the planets it was something else that an astronomer wouldn't across the sky would have led them as mentioned consider? Cou Id it be that we are short-changing the in MATTHEW 2 :9. In no reasonable way could the two planets Jupiter and Saturn, or the gathering of Continu'ed on page 4

2 LETTERS

Dear Editor:

Here is an announcement which we believe will be of interest I all science teachers. SCI-MATH CURRICULUM Volume 9, Number 2 A new curriculum in mathematics for science is Publication Date: August 1, 1980 in ten secondary schools in Connecticut under a grant from the Science Foundation. The curriculum, which prepares CC>f'A ... rlClIC" '>I.UY""L.:> for the quantitative aspects of chemistry and The PLANETARIAN ISSN 0093-3213 understanding of proportional calculations using is pu blished quarterly by the Inter real-life activities. Among the topics included are rates, dimensional national Planetarium Society, Inc., analysis, ratios, percentages, direct and inverse under the auspices of the Publications proportions, graphical analysis, scientific notation, Committee: john Cotton, jr. Publica calculation, and estimation. A free newsletter may be tions Committee Chairman. © 1980, writing to me. International Planetarium Society, Inc. all rights reserved. Thank you.

PLANETARIAN STAFF Sincerely yours, David Hoffman, Executive Editor Madeline P. Goodstein Godwin Heights Public Schools Chemistry Department 'Planetarium, 15 36th Street Director, Sci-Math Project S. W., Wyoming, MI 49508 Connecticut State College Ronald N. Hartman, Publishing New CT 06050 Director, Department of Mathematics and Astronomy, Mt. San Antonio College Walnut, CA 91789 AN LETTER TO THE MEMBERSHIP: Associate Editors: Terence Murtagh (British Isles) In the Spring, 1978 issue of the Planetarian we jacques Dumas, Sig Wieser results of a survey in which we asked all of you for your (Canada) suggestions regarding the Planetarian. We wanted your ideas Dennis Simopoulos (Europe) and content. Maximo Lacro, jr. (Far East) jeanne E. Bishop, james Brown I am pleased that in the following two years we have been jack Dunn, jane P. Goehegan implement almost all of those suggestions. Your Planetarian staff Ronald N. Hartman, George eager to evaluate the progress of our in an effort to Reed, Herbert Schwartz ourselves to your needs and interests. (United States) This is probably the tightest issue have been associated OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY both in the magazine's space and our time window james A. Hooks, President publication deadlines. Robeson County Planetarium, Lumberton, NC 28358 This is being written on July 18 and we are about to Donald S. Hall, Past President press. If all goes well, this issue will be in your hands before you ______, President Elect for the IPS Conference in D. David Batch, Executive Secretary, Abrams Planetarium, Let the Planetarian staff hav.e your comments so that we Michigan State University, continue to improve. East Lansing, MI 48824 Walt Tenschert, Treasurer and Thank you, Membership Chairman. Ronald N. Hartman For missed numbers, circulation Planetarian Publishing Director information, membership, and library subscriptions, write to: Walt Tenschert, I.P.S., Member ship Chairman, Thomas jefferson High School,· 6560 Braddock Road, Alexandria, VA 22312

CHANGE OF ADDRESS information should be. reported to the Member ship Chairman. near the time of were no where in Bethlehem or any

the verses of MATTHEW 2 am that the star wh ich the Men the for

ratios of the would be visible in well than in the the

Book after is filled with exhortations to the to avoid belief in ISAIAH 47: should suffice this theme. statements as belief inconsistent with his form of could not have referred

of Matthew. was it to be

other citations can also be those of the anonymous first the of the first the descri be the Other arguments in favor of the the lines of it would life

n'l\ITnn,r",,, is part of the

Bible argument. HAU/A"':>I" the case. One must be because th is word connotes to some, relative truth to others. Since to be the case, it's best to start with new when this aspect of the narratives. such word that can be used is Ilmidrash." A midrash is a tool an author to show seeds of that would no other way be obvious to the The Christmas star may be but in we be certain. pro and lar cover a few in of BETH R H John Mosley Griffith Observatory 2800 East Observatory Road Los Angeles, CA 90027 Ernest L. Martin Foundation for Biblical Research P. O. Box 928 Pasadena, CA 91102

If any tradition has developed among planetariums who had destroyed a golden were it is the custom of presenting an annual Christmas show Herod's orders (they were burned on featuring the Star of Bethlehem. The show usually begins eclipse). Herod's physical condition rlo't-a,.,r.r-:>i'c,rI by establishing that Christ was born prior to 4 B.C. and trying several remedies he went to the baths of then searches the ancient skies for suitable astronomical on the Dead Sea for but returned near phenomena. We are rewarded near the conclusion by a when they failed to help. back in triple conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in 7 B.C. that ordered many prominent Jewish elders to assemble at both satisfies the audience while justifying the planetarium palace with secret instructions to them show. day of his death-in time they arrived and were locked New research, however, shows that dedpite the in the hippodrome. Soon afterward came weight of tradition we may have been wrong all these Rome for Herod to execute his son, which years. If so, planetariu ms will have to adjust their did immediately. Herod himself later. presentations in a significant way (Ciotti, 1978; Martin, elaborate funeral procession from ericho to the 1978). site at Horodium then consumed a week The major reason for focusing on the conjunctions month, and was followed by the traditional 7 of 7 B.C. is that we have confined ourselves to the few mourning and then by a feast in honor of the years prior to 4 B.C., and these conjunctions are the new king, Archelaus, gave audiences to the major astronomical events of that period. It has always changes in the army, decided several been known that Christ was born shortly before the death prisoners. Then the Passover occurred of Herod, and that Herod died between the time of a Thirty days is not an au','-lUu~"" lunar eclipse and the following Passover. Most scholars all that transpired. The eclipse and Passover have identified this eclipse as that of March 13, 4 B.C., have occurred in 4 S.c. because in that year and the Passover as that of Apri I 11, and have placed too close together. There was an Herod's death at around April 1. This determines the 1 B.C. which would satisfy the latest possible date for Christ's birth. The earliest possible but plain historical information date is established by recalling that Joseph and Mary went Gaius, the grandson of to Bethlehem in response to a decree by Augustus Caesar summer after the eclipse this fits that all the Roman world would be registered, while sumner of 1 while there is clear inscriptions discovered in Turkey indicate that this that Gaius was in Syria in the summer of registration took place in 8 B.C. As there are no records only eclipse-Passover combination that will work of comets or novae between the years 9 and 5 B.C., we eclipse of January 0, 1 B.C. and the Passover are left with the triple conjunction, an appealing solution following 8. because conjunctions had great significance only to the magi (astrologers) and because we can demonstrate it so TABLE well with our planetarium machines. ECUPSES AND PASSOVERS, 8- New research shows that this scenario is probably Date of Date of wrong-that Christ was probably born in 2 B.C. and that Lunar Next the Star was Jupiter or a series of conjunctions between Eclipse Type Passover Jupiter, Venus, and Regu Ius in 3 and 2 B.C. This new Nov. 18, 8 B.C. partial Mar. 27, 7 B.C. historical research involves a redetermination of the date Mar. 23, 5 B.C. total 21,5 B.C. 28 Sep. 15/16, 5 B.C. total 11,4 B.C. 209 of Herod's death and the consequent readjustment in the Mar. 13,4 B.C. partial 11,4 B.C. 30 date of Christ's birth (Martin, 1978 and 1979). Jan. 9/10, 1 B.C. total 1 B.C. 90 Herod's death is traditionally placed in 4 B.C. Dec. 29, 1 B.C. partial 1 A.D. 90 because a) the eclipse referred to by Josephus has been identified with the one of March 13, 4 B.C., and b} If the correct eclipse was on Herod's three successprs seem to have begun their reigns and Herod died later that month, in that year. The second argument may be invalid if these been born during 3 or 2 B.C. This is confirmed successors were later awarded regnal years in which they virtually all early Christian historians and did not actually rule or if a joint rulership was who lived from the second century onward established, their terms being reckoned from this earlier 1964, pp. 215-230). They were familiar with the \AIn't, ... "" time rather than Herod's actual death, as was common sti II available to us plus others since lost and practice, but the details are not yet clear. The first nearly unanimous in placing the birth after 4 There argument, however, now seems almost certain to be is independent confirmation from Luke, who wrote incorrect for tbe following reasons. Christ began his ministry "at about 30 of The interval between the eclipse of March 13 and indicates that this was in the autum 29 the Passover of April 11 was 30 days. During this period statement is difficult to reconcile with a the following events took place: two prominent rabbis 5 or 6 B.C.

6 reasons for time for what + ... "' .... c."ya.rI the It of the one for

If this B.C.-then the is irrelevant. events of 3 and 2 1 tax to Roman citizens and Mary 1 census Mary would not have her nor would have had it is much more that this "tax" or census--an oath of "'U);;U~'LU~ Caesar on the occasion of his when he- was awarded the title of "Pater would have been of all adults in the noncitizens. of royal lineage Clof both and Mary would have ..,t",-nll"'C,"'" to (lithe of The census was not for tax evaluation at and should read lIenroliment," The enrollment of 3 B,C,

:)U):,):,I;;:)L:) that Christ was born in 3 or 2 B,C, in accord the Christian historians. The taxation of 8 B,C, is irrelevant.

It is often claimed in ",1", ... "+,,),,,,, made an error of four years in date of Christ's birth +~V'~~'-+'~ to allow for the that under the name of Octavian it is hard to to be a scholar

in +"''>,,+, ... \{ .. "Schebat 2" is is forgotten have felt have been selected for commemoration because it was "The of Herod's Death." In 1 Schebat 2 fell 28 and would fit the scenario between the lunar and Herod's Cln."\rr.,nr,-:.'t", amount of the for some weeks now, but tonight there was a difft:!rence. The two closest together than anyone for many years. As the sky darkened, this brilliant and Venus in "double star" san k 10\\er, the planets drawing travels. On December nearer and nearer. At last, just above the retrograde horizon, they fused into one, gleaming like a as it stood still. great beacon over Judea to the west. The fact that The final event in an eventful year was a very close stars on December conjunction between Jupiter and Mars on August 27, 2 mid bodied to B.C., after Jupiter had reappeared in the morning sky. Matthew meant in The two planets were only 0.14 degrees apart, and were to a halt over the within two degrees of longitude of both Mercury and phenomenon from J Venus. Although only eight degrees from the sun and been "stopped" over difficult to observe, the astronomers in that period could the southern horizon at the have calculated the time of the conjunction and may have predawn observations of the skies. been looking for it. It to note Both conjunctions between Jupiter and Venus took of place approximately seven degrees from and on either side of it. (In 1950.0 coordiantes the Right Ascensions of the planets at the two conjunctions were 9h 41 m and 10h 30m respectively.)

2 1 3 and 2 S.c.

Date Objects Aug. 12, 3 B.C. Jupiter-Venus 0.23 Sep. 1 Mercury-Venus 0.36 Sep. 14 Jupiter-Regulus 0.63 Feb. 1 7, 2 B.C.. J upiter- Regulus 1.19 May 8 Jupiter-Regulus 1.06 June17 Jupiter-Ven~ 0.04 Aug. 27 Jupiter-Mars 0.14 1 Astronomical information for 3/2 B.C. is taken from Tuckerman, 1964, and reprinted in Martin, 1978. 2 At the same time Mercury and Venus were within three degrees of longitude-an exceptional massing of the planets. Longitudes: Venus, 141.51; Mars, 142.56; Jupiter, 142.6; Mercu ry, 144.28.

As the observers of the "Star of Bethlehem" were the Magi it is important to know the possible aSlrol'02lcal interpretation of whatever was seen. The significance of the 7 B.C. upiter-Saturn Pisces. is familiar: upiter to the king, and Saturn is associated the Jews who even celebrate its (Saturday). Pisces has often been associated with the Jews in modern planetarium shows, but this association can be traced back no earlier than to the Jewish commentator Abarbanal in the 15th century and is best left unmentioned. The significance of the conjunctions of 3 and 2 is no less important, and actually much more so. Jupiter is associated with kingship, but so is Regulus whose latin name includes the root word for king. Of all the stars, Regulus was the one universally connected with greatness and and was claearly important to the conception or kings. If there is doubt about Pisces there is none about leo-leo was Judah's natal sign, and is often referred to in the Bible as the sign of the Hebrew people. To the Venus was Ishtar the Mother and the and very relevant to the birth of a who was now and so the Magi The "Star of Bethlehem" different way." (Rodman, 1976), presumably J innocents "seen in the east" as it rose in rabbis on

8 condition worsened, and he died on January 28, B.C. "The Christmas Star," 1966 (33 rpm phonograph Meanwhile, Joseph had fled with his family to The implication of the above is that was Ciotti, born in the summer or early autumn of 2 at the peak 1978. of an astronomically and astrologically interesting year. Finegan, Jack, Handbook Biblical Chronology, It is indeed fortunate for the planetarium University Press, NJ, community that the recalculated date for the birth of Hughes, David, "The Star of Bethlehem," Christ 'contains so many astronomical events. It would be 513-567, December 9, 1976. a minor tragedy if nothing whatsoever of astronomical The Star interest had happened in 3 or 2 B.C.! Co,rltif'ma!tlOn, Walker Co., New The Griffith Observatory will present an entirely "Star of the Magi," revised Christmas show in 1980. After pointing out the , Cupertino, CA problems of establishing the date of the birth of Christ Martin, Ernest, The Birth of Christ Re,':alc'ulated (and without arriving at a hard conclusion) the show will FBR Publications, 1978. examine both the conjunctions of 7 and of 3/2 ______to 'The of giving greater weight to the latter. If and when the Pasadena, FBR Publications, 1979. majority of classical scholars conclude that Christ was Morrison Planetarium, The born in or near 2 reference to the events of 7 B.C. Morrison Planetarium Booklet will be dropped altogether. It is after all, not important Oriti, "The Star of Bethlehem," Griffith Observer to astronomers that it was one conjunction or the Decernb(~r 1975. other-what is important is that astronomers have Palmer, T. 1., "Letter to the Editor, 268, 566, something to contribute, that the "Star" was an 11,1977. identifiable astronomical phenomenon, and that Robert, "A Linguistic Note on planetariums are justified in re-examining it each Observer 40, pp. December 1976. Christmas. "Thoughts on the Star of Bethlehem," 36, pp. 384-7, December 1968. References Asimov, Is~ac, "Star in the East," in The Planet That Wasn't New York: Doubleday, 1976. , ••••••••• ••

AlP Inc. (128 Crooked Hill Road, Huntington, NY kind of work. have 11743) has sent out their March 1 1980 issue of Zoom Alexander Brest Planetarium in News. In it they report, is planning a LM Visuals of 920 demonstration at the Charles Hayden Planetarium of an slide AlP-5/DlCS zoom system (digital electronics). The new Sciences. automatic features of the DlCS will be emphasized. The glaciation, enhanced slow motion capability will be demonstrated, as astronomy well as the single button automatic feature which allows Astronomer, the operator to exactly preset the next zoom sequence ~o and Its Lunar that his hands are free during the performance of It. Other functions such as dimming rates and presettable zoom positions will be discussed." We are also told that "A new series of planetarium and classroom visuals will soon be available. Covering a wide range of -Constellations of the Northern topics, these graphics offer a novel and coherent a~proach and Meteors. Each slide to your educational ,curriculum and show production. All 20 slides and sells for $20. Prices are slides are PIN REG that is they will dissolve And for those of in need of storage from one slide to the next with precision alignment. Elden Enterprises, inc., . Box 3201, Charleston, These slide series range from astronomical graphics, Virginia, 25332, has a beautiful cabinet for computer graphics in color, space art, an? inclu.de visuals. The model called ABODIA has channels complete panoramas. Individually tailored slide senes individual slides can be and sorted available through consultation with you." For more arrange a slide series of information about these new slides write to Bob Farrell, scanning the program in 38 Upland Drive, East Northport, NY 11731. tables, one can assemble . Speaking of custom art work, if you are in need of cabinet from one back special model building, D & E Models of 1 Crown lighting and a Point Atlantic Florida does that unwanted hands and For this issue) I have collected information about totally recent research and projects in astronomy and telephone planetarium education which might be helpful to dislike science are attracted the planetarians. It is hoped that many of the project utilizes a manual of both indoor and coordinators will write separate full-length articles on and has alternative their work for the Planetarian. enrichment, and homebound instruction. audiocassettes and written self-instructional Constellations to Students: being produced and tested staff Gerald Mallon (1980) of Pennsylvania's Methacton "Understanding the Viewed from School District recently completed a doctoral study Telescopes," "The "Stellar involving elementary children in the planetarium. He "Cosmology," found that a participatory program covering stars and appears that constellations was superior to a traditional program. with Significant' positive attitude changes were found in Pennsylvania but not in replications. An important feature of the study was the simultaneous testing at five different planetariums. A total of 556 students was involved. Abilities of School Students: Kelsey and Carolyn Brockway (1980) of Iowa have conducted a revealing study with 35 high school astronomy groups, students who were then taking a one-quarter course in concludt:s) "A astronomy and who had already covered the topic of replicability for urban moon phases. The investigators found that many of the astronomy enrollments are students had trouble locating and describing the position of the terminator on the moon in three-dimensional Multi-media models and in top-view drawings) particularly when the A phase was crescent or gibbous. The highest percentage unable to locate a terminator was 24 of 35 (69%!') when with a top-view drawing with the moon in a waning crescent position. The results show that many high school and probably even college-age students have difficulty with astronomy topics at the most basic level of comprehension-perception. With other aspects of the study) the investigators found that spatial abilities generally were poorly developed in the students. ~ .... ~,~.~" Not a Serious Matter to Some Students: Joseph Stollmayer (1980) of Nova Schools in References Florida investigated attitudes toward astrology by Kelsey, L. 1. and students in elective ninth-tenth grade astronomy classes. relationships. Contrary to what might be expected, he found that Association of astrology was not taken seriously by the stu·dents.

Evidently I reports Stoll mayer) "Astrology is a latent thing. It is of no great interest to the young in any real Oriented Planetarium" Program. sense. It does become important in adult life for some dissertation, Temple University, 1980. people." Moche, Dinah. Astronomy Program at a Education in an Urban the Association of American Dinah Moche (1980) of Queensborough Community College in New York) reported on expansion of the R. D. and G. O. Coldevin. "Effects Overlapping in Multi-image astronomy program at Queensborough, a public, urban, PLET, 14(1),1977,33-42. two-year institution. Astronomy has become the most Stollmayer, J. The spectre of .,..tr"I.c> ... , frequently elected course for satisfying a four-credit class. A paper presented at general education requirement. There is d provision for Association annual convention, Anaheim, March, Languages Literatures

references to astronomical the twentieth may

in Simon and of Hadrian is of Rome. This work contains a studied and VY'Inl...,1-'An of the stars leads some sense of an transforms his sense of real world around which influence one's the Roman the world which lies absolute the

ancient actual events of human life. purport than the act, motions terms of celestial moment one senses, as of the Roman ru ler. the stars and so to celestial bodies.

the fourth century interested in it Christian era. That fascination the

to astronomy and his even sugges~ that hastens to add he is its it is '"''''".h" ..... r man is part same law s as govern search the heavens CCSC presently on leave at the AlP

Note: This paper is an adaptation of a talk by Mendillo and DeVorkin and delivered by Mendillo at the National Meeting of the AAAS held in Colorado, February 20-25, 1 and is reprinted herein with their kind permission as well as with that of The Connecticut Journal of Science Education.

In the fields of there are few as certain as the fact no canals. no structures as grand as or Panama nor a transcontinental or to be sure, not even the muddy ditches on the Martian landscapes the 1950's To Martian Canals is therefore to

like to assu me the r\c,:lVI,.na.11 role lesson can be learned from this fable?" To do this, we must first look at the history of the surface markings on or what people were surface markings, in to set the stage 's observations of 1877. appropriately, cartographers of Mars were fellow countrymen of the famous Milan astronomer. 25 years after Galiieo first turned a telescope to the Francesco Fontana in 1636 sketched circular features he saw a small n 1666, Giovanni and Salvatore surface markings to determine the rotation of as did Giacomo Maraldi in 1704. the astronomer of the late 17th Christiaan famous series of sketches of Mars in 1 Robert Hooke used Martian surface to deduce the rotation of which was later refined by Sir 1777. Herschell also described the Martian is credited with the interpretation that their is due to reflected sun light off frozen masses snow and ice (a view of some for the story to follow). As the middle of the 19th names of Beer and later la Secchi for' as Director of

Figure 2. Prominent observational ,,,,trron,nm.,,r,, William Rutter Dawes Figure la. Three drawings of Mars by Christiaan Huyghens 1 (1629-1695). Figure 3. A "map" of Mars made by R. A. Proctor (1837-1888) from drawings of William Dawes. Note that all features are named after prominent astronomers, except for the Kaiser Sea.

Sch iapare iii's Canali It was Giovani Schiaparelli who brought a new focus to this detail (to bring this detail into focus) with a famous series of maps which he began in 1877. These maps showed many of the vague darkish areas found by others, but also a new class of markings-the long, dark, narrow lines. These canali, a word which Italian dictionaries still translate as channels, were soon popularized into canals-a term which would both fire the enthusiasm and enrage the sou Is of astronomers and laymen ali ke for 50 years to come. Now other astronomers had seen linear markings on Mars prior to 1877, but never in such detail or in such numbers as Schiap'arelli reported. Opinion was soon divided into two camps. On the one hand, many professional astronomers who were excellent observers and had access to telescopes equal to or larger than Schiaparelli's did not see the fine lines and therefore simply denied that they existed. In the other camp, a few professional astronomers were joined by an army of fascinated amateurs. They unhesitantly accepted Schiaparelli's drawings, occasionally could even see the lines themselves and, perhaps more important, they enthusiastically accepted the implications of the mistranslation of canali into canals. Figure 4. A portion of Ciovanni Schiaparelli's Map of Mars. time when Mars was in

them were seen England, and the United a of a favorable opposition, the American astronomer Pickering found small dark spots at the intersections of canals which he termed "Oases." the following year, canals had been observed in the areas of ruling out once and for all the notion that the "mare" were in fact seas. A suggestion made five earlier in the AAAS publication Science) namely the dark areas were vegetation, now had a very important corollary for the canal advocates: the dark lines were not but rather bands of nourished by much narrower invisible to our distant earth-bound eyes. Some chose conduits to be natural channels or grooves in the surface, while others saw that their «geometrical perfection" and "obvious was the final for intelligent beings at work Red Planet. himself avoided that final but did come to to the

Figure 5. Diagram of the orbits of Mars and The most recent favorable opposition occurred on August 10, 1971, when the two planets were separated by 34,900,000 miles.

is in view. Mars comes dose to Earth these events Figure 6. Percival (1855-1916). was "most favorable portrait. Figure 8. An older Lowell observing Venus by daylight with the 24-inch telescope. Note the more comfortable observer's position.

Figure 7. The young Percival Lowen at the 24-inch telescope in Flagstaff. Shown here making daytime observations of Venus. Note the tedious practice of alternate observations Figure 9. Reproduction of Lowell's fun-color map of Mars as it and drawings from atop a wooden "observer's ladder." appeared in 1905. Lowell's overall hypothesis in his book Mars in 1 remained essentially Inr'he>nrTt,i1 to the time of his death in 1916. To quote from him: "We find, in the first place, that the broad physical conditions of the planet are not antagonistic to some form of life' secondly, that there is an apparent dearth of water upon the planet's surface and therefore if beings of sufficient intellige~ce inhabited it: they would have to resort to irrigation to support life; thirdly, that there turns out to be a network of markings covering the disk precisely counter-parting what a system of irrigation would look like; and, lastly, that there is a set of spots placed where we should expect to find the lands thus artificially fertilized, and behaving as such constructed oases should. All this, of course, may be a set of coincidences, signifying nothing; but the probability points the other way.,,2 The very first Mariner photograph of Mars would have been a devasting blow to Lowell. To try to determine where the canal watchers went wrong would be

Figure 10. The Mars F uror Fades Scientists The Mars Furor reached its peak with the favorable The and enthusiasm of 1 oppositions of 1907 and 1909, and then quickly faded when apparent vindication of the canals from prominence. Lowell and his fellow Itcanalists" could implications seemed at hand, was rar,I"l,'ori do no more than state their claims over and over again. and slander in 1910. Two full page articles New canals were occasionally found, showing that the York Times illustrate the point. In early land-parched Martians were still feverishly at work but outlook was hopeful and full of· the nothing essentially new could be added to counte~ the expectations: "The Secrets of Mars May mounting attacks of the critics. Bitterness and personal Revealed." But in 1910, the headlines read: attacks . now replaced the eloquence of the grand Groping For Facts About Mars." "What hypotheSIS. Lowell answered his foremost critic on the the Fiery Planet Paid Us a Long Distance Continent, Antoniadi, by claiming that the French and Why Scientists Were Left in Bitter Warfare. astronomer did not know how to observe planetary turn of events was also accompanied by a near markings correctly and did not know the Iimitations of atmosphere, what baseball writers call the the great refractor he enjoyed the use of. of those hot, late-August afternoons. For In the United States, the 1909 volume of Science most favorable opposition date of erupted with blistering attacks and counter charges precipated by Eliot Blackwelder's review 3 of Mars As the Abode Of Life. The geologist's virulent attack of Lowell's view on planetology concluded that, "Censure can hardly be too severe upon a man who so unscrupulously deceives the educated public, merely in order to gai n a certain notoriety and a brief, but undeserved credence for his pet theories. "

The reaction of the general public to all of this can perhaps best be assessed by examining newspaper coverage. Beginning in 1877, press notices about Mars, both articles and editorials, were stimulated by the celestial periodicity of oppositions, modulated by the fickle forces of public enthusiasm. Consider, for example, what happened in the New York Times. (Figure 10. Graph of the number of articles dealing with Mars which appeared each year in the Times.) At the far left, the most favorable opposition of 1877, the centenary of which we recently celebtated, brought forth the canali and the moons. For the next 15 years, enthusiasm for such topics was hardly spectacular. Then, the very favorable oppositions of 1892 and 1894 brought forth a second wave of attention, due in no small part to the appearance of Percival Lowell. With the turn of the century, every 2 years the opposition was duly noted-building to the watershed of the Mars Furor with t~e .very favorable oppositions of 1907 and 1909. The issue then headed towards quiet oblivion, only to have the pattern sporadically broken by intense, short-lived, surges of public interest. In 1916, Antoniadi's renewed objections and Lowell's death late in the year put the question to the public once again. In 1920, Marconi renewed the Furor by suggesti ng the "queer radio signals" simultaneously received in London and New York had Mars as their origin. This Martian use of "w~reless telegraphy" even drew a comment from Professor Einstein! (See Box) New York Times, February 2, 1920,24:2 london, Jan. 31-Professor Albert Einstein, whose' theory that gravitation deflects the rays of light has recently been the subject of considerable discussion. ~n an interview with The Daily Mail's Berlin correspondent he asserts that he believes the mysterious signals referred to by Signor Marconi as having been heard on various wireless apparatus are due either to atmospheric disturbances or to experiments with other systems of wireless. Professor Einstein, who believes that Mars and other planets are inhabited, added that if intelligent creatures on other planets tried to communicate with New the earth he would expect them to use rays of light, Figure 11. Full-page special article which appeared in which could be more easily controlled. York Times of Sunday, May 9, 1909. Figure 12. Full-page special article which appeared in the New York Times on January 9, 1910.

approached, W. H. Pickering proposed a method of communicating with Mars which would employ a vast array of mirrors, at a mere cost of 10 million dollars. Newspapers in Fort Worth quickly offered to start the $10 million fund if Pickering would promise to locate the project in Texas. In May, the New Aero Club offered its balloon to Amherst Professor David Todd to carry out his plan of receiving Martian wireless with airborne antennae, a view strongly supported electrical expert Tesla. If these comic-opera stunts seem ridiculous to us in 1908, they served the useful of keeping'Mars in the public eye between And Lowell, of c~urse, was not the J east bit to resort to the flamboyant when his was at stake. Marrying late in life, he and his bride spent part of their 1908 London honeymoon flying in a balloon high above

Park taking artificial lines looked from space. commemorating the event, balloon, and recorded walkways in the Park.

18 to the debates: Lick versus Lowell

Figure 15. Percival Lowen at the end of an era. identical

aqueous vapor. Second- Enter ',,",.A 1"1-.. ,.,..orn."',,' It a disservice to and in The not that to leave one with the our century astronomers from balloons @r at 40 Nor did one-fourth detected

In newspaper accounts relied more of water on part: "Marsenia has struck the fellows who are running the Big Lick telescope. They have it bad. According to them, Mars has no atmosphere at all, and consequently no life exists on that planet. This is symptom No.1. Mars has no more atmosphere than the Moon. It is a dead world, of no more value than the state of Nevada which only su pports two Republican senators. Symptom No.2. If Mars has an atmosphere, it is not one-quarter as extensive as that of Earth. Symptom No.3. No 4 is, the atmosphere of Mars is so thin a man from the Earth would be discouraged if he tried to breathe it for a steady occupation. Well then, who dug "them" canals on Mars? To The Very Limit Notwithstanding the obvious humor of this insert in Popular Astronomy, Campbell felt deeply frustrated at the misinterpretation alleging that he had found no water vapor on Mars. Of course, his actual conclusion did appear, taken out of context, in the fifth paragraph. In V REl following years Campbell continually believed that some ::: atmosphere did .exi:st, at first from his observations that the limb of the Martian disk was not absolutely sharp, and then in the late twenties, from the very precise work of astronomers at Mount Wilson Observatory using the great telescopes and spectroscopic equipment available there. Campbell had set an upper limit to the amount of water Figure 16. vapor possible, based upon his inconclusive observations and his determination of the limiting sensitivity of the spectroscopic technique during the period he actively pursued the problem (1894-1910). He was still very Only the dream (tself remains, a story still in satisified in the late twenties when the Mou nt Wilson of a proper ending. astronomers reported their findings, which showed only a References fraction of water vapor to exist, when compared to 1. w. G. Hoyt. Lowell and Mars (U. of Arizona Pr., 976). Campbell's limit of observation. This of course, did not 2. P. Lowell, Mars (Macmillan, 1895). Itdisprove" Campbell. In 1928, Campbell at last believed 3. E. Blackwelder. Review of Mars As The Abode Of the problem to be solved and that water vapor .had at last P. Lowell (Science 23, April 1909, p. 659). been detected. He did not live long enough to learn that 4. W. W. Campbell. Publication of the Astronomical Society in 1963, a new generation of astronomers at Mount the Pacific 6 (1894, p. 236). Wilson found that the 1928 values were 45 times too 5. Popular Astronomy 2 (1894-5, p. 92). 6 6. H. Spinrad, et. aL Astrophysical Journal 137 (1963, . large and now Vi king has shown conclusively that these 1319). latest values are correct. See also: D. H. DeVorkin. "w. W. Campbell's .o;.;:n""t,'n",'on,;" In retrospect, on this 100th anniversay of the of the Martian " Journal of "canali," one cannot help to notice how every important aspect of the Mars debate, from thin lines to spectral lines, centered on observations made at the very limit of x detectability. Here, perhaps, is the lesson, the simple Some After reason for the Furor. From Schiaparellj to Lowell to Light by the Earth from Mars Marconi, these were all men who surely realized how through the Martian atmosphere twice. The great questionable their discoveries would be. Their quick encountered in trying to determine the publication of such data was motivated by their obvious content of Mars was that the Earth's own belief in the great significance of their findings. And, effectively masked the weaker Martian ('r'oY'Tnn. indeed, they would have been correct in that Martian light has to pass also through surmise-only their data failed them. atmosphere before it can be analysed by The ultimate issue raised by Lowell, the present spectroscopic equipment. In 1902, Lowell and V. M. I existence of extraterrestrial intelligence, is of course a Slipher devised a method to separate the two spectra. topic too awesome in scope to ever disappear from the Martian spectra were taken when Mars was public interest. It is, in fact, one of Lowell's great legacies at quadrature to the Sun (at right angles as seen from to us, for Projects like Mariner and Viking, Osrna and Earth) the velocity of the Earth (at position 1 1 Cyclops are surely adventures based, in part at least, upon the direction of Mars would be sufficient the issues he raised and the expectations he awakened. 18 km/sec) to separate the

20 from the Martian spectrum by approximately 7*. Angstrom. This very small Doppler shift of the two From the Microfilm Collection spectra due to the radial velocities of their two planets Archives. was not enough to actually separate the two components Figure 8*. of the Martian spectra, but Lowell believed that it would cause those lines common to the atmospheres of Earth Page 47 of Lowell and Mars and Mars to be broadened, relative to those unique to Hoyt, University of Arizona Earth or Mars. Between 1902 and 1905 Slipher could not LCN #75-9144, 1976. detect any differential broadening. In 1910 Campbell Observatory. "rediscovered" Lowell's method, but with the same Figure 9. inconclusive results-the shift was simply too small. The Opposite page 216 in Mars as the work at Mount Wilson in 1928 and 1963 essentially Percival Lowell. 1908. repeated this radial velocity technique) with the final Company, New results showing Mars to possess an extremely thin Figure 10. atmosphere, orders of magn itude below that supposed to Boston University exist by Lowell and his followers. Figure 11. PHOTO CREDITS New York Times 1 . 3. Page 41 of The Exploration of Mars by Willy Ley Figure 12. and Wernher Von Braun. New York, The Vi king New York January 9, 191 pt. Press, 1956. Library of Congress #56-7596. Plate 1 and figure 3. Figure 13*. Page 235 of Figure 2. Hoyt. Opposite page 304 of Splendour of the Heavens, A Popular Authorative Astronomy, Ed. by Rev. T. E. Figure 14*. R. Phillips and Dr. W. H. Steavenson, Volume 1. Opposite New York) Robert M. McBride & Co., 1925. Percival Figure 3. Figure 15*. From D. Devorkin Courtesy Lowell 4. Figure 16. Page 70 of the Exploration of Mars by Willy Ley CCSC Diagram. and Wernher Von Braun, New York) The Viking Press, 1956. LCN 56-7596. We wish to than k University Undergraduate Figure 5. Jeffrey Baumgardner, Boston Page 3 of A Photographic History of Mars, Department, for their 1905-1961 by E. C. Slipher. Published by the aspects of the Lowell Observatory with the assistance of the illustrations needed for Aeronautical Chart and Information Center) USAF, 1962. LCN #62-21'127. 6*. Page 88 of Lowell and Mars by William Graves Hoyt, University of Arizona Press, Tucson) Al. LCN #75-9144, 1976. Courtesy, Lowell Observatorv.

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All materials submitted will be considered. Contributions should relate to one or more of the following: planetarium activities and/or education, astronomy, or space sciences. Articles, reports, planetarium programs, letters, technical comments, guest editorials, items of humor, and white) or selected planetarium facilities and general news relating to the planetarium/astronomy (This list is not all-inclusive.) The Planetarian will make the final decision as to appropriateness of material ''''''IT1ITH'(1 All material- shou Id be submitted directly to the Executive Editor. Contributors wi" be notified of acceptance, rejection, or need for revision within a reasonable period of time. The manuscript should be typed free from errors, double-spaced, on 8 1/2 x 11" paper. Strikeovers and other markings are to be avoided. Use the first page to show the title, author's name, complete address, and exactly how the byline is appear. Begin the text on the second page. Place all legends for figures on a separate sheet at the end of the manuscript, enumerate in the text where each figure should be located. Place all tables in the manuscript in their appropriate locations. Photographs must be black and white, on 8 x 10" glossy paper. DO NOT mark or label on photographs. referring to a part of a photograph should be indicated on a separate sheet or onion-skin overlay. Line drawings, charts, and similar drawings (excluding halftones) should be drawn with dense black ink with a high carbon content. If only printed copies are available they must be equal to the above "n~·(';tl('''i"""n<: duplicated on electro-static type duplicators are not acceptable. DO NOT SUBM IT COLOR WOR K of REFERENCES should appear in the body of the manuscript by the Author's last name and the of the publication; (Nelson, 1972), with full references listed alphabetically at the conclusion of the manuscript, giving author's name, year, publication, volume, number and page(s). Example: Nelson, Arnold, 1972. Distance Concepts in Astronomy. Planetarian 1, No.2, 56-58. How To Assemble Space Station-Island One Brian Sullivan Production Designer Flandrau ·Planetarium Tuscon, Arizona

For over a year I've been publishing articles in assemble, and can look very convincing to a astronomical magazines on various visual effects I had audience. achieved at the Flandrau Planetarium in Tucson, Airzona. During the Spring of 1979, the staff of Flandrau Thanks to Dennis Mammana, our staff astronomer, it Planetarium produced a show called "Lightquest." The suddenly occurred to me that the articles I have created Star Show needed a "ring"-type Space Station visual that could benefit other planetariums as well. Being a housed working engineers and scientists in low Earth Production Designer, I always try to find improvements orbit. This assignment called for a three-dimensional to be made on visual impact for planetarium audiences. model. Working in planetariums, it is a continuous curse For the September issue of Odyssey Magazine, I published that there is never enough time and/or money to create an article on a new type of visual that is cheap, easy to what a show sometimes needs, so the term "Shoestring

Figure 1 Space Station, Island One

22 Figure 2 Size Comparison

Figure 3 Cutting the Ice Cream lid with Compass R.

Figure 5 Tiny Detail Detail Connected to Exterior of Space Station, Island One Budget" comes into play. The model project was called telescope piece from an AIRFIX Space Shuttle Space Station-Island One. To build it you will need the and by using your Exact-o knife, cut four 1/1 following items: diameter holes in the side of the Hub. Make each hole 90 degrees from the center. -Round plastic lid from a quart-size ice cream container. 5. Take your six-inch rod of coat hanger and -Large compass with razor edge. through two of the opposite holes in the -Wire coat hanger. Position the Hub in the hanger's center. -Wire cutters. 6. Connect the six-inch rod inside the ice cream lid. -Exact-o knife. Place it between two of the four opposite holes. -One can of flat black spray paint. 7. Next, connect the remaining three-inch rods between the Hub and the interior of the ice cream -One can of Battleship Gray spray paint. lid. -One tube of superglue. 8. This step is where your imagination can run free. -A few small model kits of battleships and tan ks to By using what plastic model kits you have to cannibalize for exterior detai I. cannibalize, you can create a very convincing space station model with tiny detail around the hub. 1. By using the compass, cut out the center disc of the plastic from the ice cream lid (or you can use an 9. Because plastic sheets are sometimes hard to get, Exact-O knife). this step isn't really necessary, but if you are able to get a thin sheet of plastic just cut a ring, the 2. Take the Exact-o knife and cut four 1/16" diameter same size of the ice cream lid, with your razor holes in the inside wall of the lid. Space each hole compass. Glue the plastic ring on the backside of 90 degrees apart from each other. the lid with superglue for a strong sturdy structure. 3. Next, take the wire cutters and cut three" pieces '10. When your assembly is complete spray the model from the wire coat hanger. Make the first piece six with flat black spray paint. This is to prevent any inches long; the other two, three inches in length. stray light coming through your model's 4. For the central Hub of Island One, take a 1/2 inch semi-transparent pieces. When the coat is dry, spray piece of plastic tube (in my case, I used a space three coats of Battleship Gray spray paint.

figure 6 Complete Model Assembly Ready for Paint When the final coat

a real dramatic close to the axis of the When the

it which verifies of the ancient astronomer. "",..",norTe that firmament will become the time of Hadrian." he astronomical who may be trusted. order and

mathematician and not we have to to create Jane P. Geohegan, 4100 West Grace Street, Richmond, Virginia 23230 El5lla[5]I(§l5iI9l5iil5i (9[§ (9 l5il5i [§[§[§[§(5i[§I§[§[§[§[§[§[§[§ [§ [§[§(§[§[i1I5i' Jim Hooks, IPS Chief, wants planetariums to receive Duncan Teague and Julia Nichols of Craigmont national recognition. Some evidence is in that the goal is Planetarium in Memphis share the following: closer than we think. Well, sort of. Consider: A man said to the universe: Trudeau's "Doonesbury" comic strip of July 9, in "Sir, I exist!" which Governor Brown's Press Secretary is saying on the ((However," replied the universe, phone: " ...and tell those clowns up in Sacramento that "The fact has not created in me Jerry's serious about his planetarium appropriations bill!" A sense of obligation." Or: a February, 1980 episode of the TV show, "WKRP in -Stephen Crane, from War is Kind Cincinatti" as reported by Planetarian John Wharton of Kirkpatrick Planetarium in Oklahoma City: Les Nessman, And John Mosley, at the Griffith the station's Casper Mi Iquetoast newscaster and hog Observatory in Los Angeles suggested these: expert, had a groupie who was hot on his trail. They For of Meridians, and Parallels, finally had: their first date, and the scene opened with Man hath weav'd out a net, and this net throwne them/back at his apartment ... Upon the Heavens, and Girl: Les, you sure know how to show a girl a good Now they are his owne. time! -John Donne, from Les: Yes, I always like the planetarium. "Of the Progress of the Soule" Girl (scooting closer): Oh, Les! You really knowwhat "Arthur: It's all closing in on me. What can I do? turns a woman on! "Merlyn: Seek knowledge, Wart! Read-wonder-thin k-question-wonder-dream. Study John suggests that Les may have to become our sciences and languages, mathematics and alchemy, national spokesman. Sorry, Jim! battlements and art. Take a season on politics and a lifetime on the forest creatures, chivalry, and grammar. In previous colutms, I have described the Then when it is done, spend a month on the games, a psychological characteristics (celestruphobia-fear of the decade on cryptology, a generation on geography, a score real sky), visible accouterments (styrofoam balls carried in and five on poetry, a century on mythology-and a attache case), and social behavior (seeks out relationships millenium on the stars!" with fellow "domebodies," i.e.; those who prefer - T. H. White, The Once and Future King hemispherical housing environments) of the shy and elusive specie known as planetarian. In all these endeavors, ... 1 seem to have stood a long time and I have been trying to capture the essence of watched the stars pass. planetariu mism from personal observations, and fran kly, They also shall perish I believe. it's been a lonely surveillance. In the Autumn, 1979 issue Here today, gone tomorrow, desperate wee galaxies of the Planetarian I finally hit a nerve. Someone Scattering themselves and shining their substance away responded. Several someones, in fact. And now we know. Like a passionate thought. It is very well ordered. Despite his exotic and peculiar behavior, the planetarian's -Robinson Jeffers, "Margrave" authentic being, underneath itall, is as a poet. A poet, or My quest is over. I have finally found it: the "right as D'israeli said: "a nightingale who sits in darkness and stuff" of a planetarian. sings to cheer its own solitude with sweet sounds." In the April, 1980 Astronomy magazine, the Ewe Lemmer, a German planetarian sent this one ((Sidewalk Astronomer of San Francisco," John Dobson, in: said: Ii ••• 1 made a telescope and when I looked at the One night there was a phone call at the satellite Moon through the thing I thought, 'Oh, my God, tracking station in Bochum A person was reporting seeing everybody has to see this!' " A poet. Seeing something a UFO. There was only a technician on duty at the time and wanting others to see it too. And that's the bottom to receive the call. "What does the UFO look like?" the line. That's what we do. If we can't express it ourselves, technician asked. The person answered that it looked like we find out who can. a moving point of light and that "it sounds like a drilling machine." leAh!" said the technician, "Then what you John Wharton found this: saw is a flying drilling machine!" There was a click on the The stars telephone. Reach out to touch That's the difference between an astronomer and a The heavens, and their beams technican. The astronomer would have talked about life Create the lurrinous beauty in the universe, interstellar space travel and relativity to Of night. explain that there are no U Fa's from ~ outer space. The -Nancy Crowe technician used~amore simple explanation!